The doctrine of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge and its specificity

scientific knowledge - this is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition, connected with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of the phenomenon.

Epistemology - it is a science of knowledge.

Features of scientific knowledge:

Firstly, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the orientation of the study to the general, essential properties of the object and their expression in the system of abstraction.

Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is an objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods.

Thirdly, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is focused on being put into practice.

Fourth, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, schemes.

Fifth, scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.

At sixth, scientific knowledge is characterized by both rigorous evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.

Seventh, scientific knowledge needs and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, instruments.

Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by process. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related.

Ninth, the field of scientific knowledge is verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of life.

Levels of scientific knowledge:

Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data on the individual aspects and relationships of the object, understanding and describing the obtained data in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of the phenomenon, but the prerequisites for the penetration of the essence of the object have already been created.

Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object under study, not only by identifying, but also by explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, by constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.

Forms of scientific knowledge:

scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.

scientific fact - this is the initial form of scientific knowledge, in which the primary knowledge about the object is fixed; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of the fact of reality. At the same time, a scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.

scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of this or that knowledge about the object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes a problematic issue, a project for solving the problem and its content.

scientific hypothesis - this is a scientifically substantiated assumption that explains certain parameters of the object under study and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object under study, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.

In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not be in conflict with the laws established in the given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that they can be used to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of a hypothesis should not be logically inconsistent.

The advancement of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problem situations.

Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.

Types of evidence:

Practice that directly confirms

Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments pointing to facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.

A proven hypothesis is the basis for constructing a scientific theory.

scientific theory - this is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interrelated statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting the phenomena of a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge is expressed about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.

All theories develop within certain paradigms.

Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and vision of the world, influencing the direction of further research. paradigm

can be compared with an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.

Many theories are constantly being synthesized in unified scientific picture of the world, that is, an integral system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.

Methods of scientific knowledge:

Method(from the Greek. Metodos - the path to something) - it is a way of activity in any of its forms.

The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of the goal, regulating human activity and the general principles from which these techniques follow. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of knowledge at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In terms of their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object, the laws of its functioning.

scientific method - this is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the natural knowledge of the object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.

Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:

First foundation. According to the nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - tricks, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of actions (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods-approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (system analysis, functional analysis, diachronic method, etc.).

Second base. According to the functional purpose, there are:

a) universal methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);

b) empirical level methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);

c) theoretical level methods (modeling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).

Third ground is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:

a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal-logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);

b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own, characteristic task only for it ;

c) special methods.

Some methods of scientific knowledge:

Observation - this is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena for collecting facts.

Experiment - this is an artificial recreation of a cognizable object in controlled and controlled conditions.

Formalization - this is a display of the knowledge obtained in an unambiguous formalized language.

Axiomatic Method - this is a way of building a scientific theory, when it is based on certain axioms, from which all other provisions are logically derived.

Hypothetical-deductive method - creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which, ultimately, explanations of scientific facts are derived.

Inductive methods for establishing the causal relationship of phenomena:

similarity method: if two or more cases of the phenomenon under study have only one preceding common circumstance, then this circumstance in which they are similar to each other is probably the cause of the phenomenon sought;

difference method: if the case in which the phenomenon of interest to us occurs, and the case in which it does not occur, are similar in everything, with the exception of one circumstance, then this is the only circumstance in which they differ from each other, and is probably the cause of the desired phenomenon;

concomitant change method: if the rise or change of an antecedent phenomenon every time causes the rise or change of another accompanying phenomenon, then the first of these is probably the cause of the second;

residual method: if it is established that the cause of a part of a complex phenomenon is not the known previous circumstances, except for one of them, then we can assume that this single circumstance is the cause of the part of the phenomenon under study that interests us.

General human methods of thinking:

- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences of objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);

- Analysis- mental dismemberment of an object as a whole

(we divide each engine into constituent elements of the characteristic);

- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements selected as a result of the analysis (we mentally combine the best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);

- abstraction- selection of some features of the object and distraction from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);

- Induction- the movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and as a result - to the essence (we take into account all cases of engine failures of this type and, based on this, we come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);

- Deduction- the movement of thought from the general to the particular (based on the general laws of engine operation, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);

- Modeling- construction of a mental object (model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow obtaining the information necessary for knowing the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);

- Analogy- a conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, on the basis of similarity in other signs (a conclusion about an engine breakdown by a characteristic knock);

- Generalization- the union of individual objects in a certain concept (for example, the creation of the concept of "engine").

The science:

- it is a form of spiritual and practical activity of people, aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and their systematization.

Scientific complexes:

a)natural science- this is a system of disciplines, the object of which is nature, that is, a part of being that exists according to laws not created by the activity of people.

b)Social science- this is a system of sciences about society, that is, a part of being, constantly recreated in the activities of people. Social science includes social sciences (sociology, economic theory, demography, history, etc.) and the humanities that study the values of society (ethics, aesthetics, religious studies, philosophy, legal sciences, etc.)

in)Technical science- these are sciences that study the laws and specifics of the creation and functioning of complex technical systems.

G)Anthropological sciences- this is a combination of sciences about man in its entirety: physical anthropology, philosophical anthropology, medicine, pedagogy, psychology, etc.

In addition, the sciences are divided into fundamental, theoretical and applied, which are directly related to industrial practice.

Scientific criteria: universality, systematization, relative consistency, relative simplicity (the theory that explains the widest possible range of phenomena based on the minimum number of scientific principles is considered good), explanatory potential, predictive power, completeness for a given level of knowledge.

Scientific truth is characterized by objectivity, evidence, consistency (orderliness based on certain principles), verifiability.

Science Development Models:

the theory of reproduction (proliferation) of P. Feyerabend, which affirms the randomness of the emergence of concepts, the paradigm of T. Kuhn, the conventionalism of A. Poincaré, the psychophysics of E. Mach, the personal knowledge of M. Polanyi, the evolutionary epistemology of S. Toulmin, the research program of I. Lakatos, thematic analysis of science by J. Holton.

K. Popper, considering knowledge in two aspects: statics and dynamics, developed the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. In his opinion, growth of scientific knowledge is the repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement by better and more perfect ones. T. Kuhn's position is radically different from this approach. His model includes two main stages: the stage of "normal science" (the dominance of one or another paradigm) and the stage of "scientific revolution" (the collapse of the old paradigm and the establishment of a new one).

global scientific revolution - this is a change in the general scientific picture of the world, accompanied by changes in the ideals, norms and philosophical foundations of science.

Within the framework of classical natural science, two revolutions stand out. First associated with the formation of classical natural science in the 17th century. Second The revolution dates back to the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. and marks the transition to a disciplinary organized science. Third The global scientific revolution covers the period from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. and is associated with the formation of non-classical natural science. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. new radical changes are taking place in the foundations of science, which can be characterized as fourth global revolution. In the course of it, a new post-nonclassical science is born.

Three revolutions (out of four) led to the establishment of new types of scientific rationality:

1. Classical type of scientific rationality(XVIII-XIX centuries). At that time, the following ideas about science were established: the value of objective universal true knowledge appeared, science was seen as a reliable and absolutely rational enterprise with which to solve all the problems of mankind, natural scientific knowledge was considered the highest achievement, the object and subject of scientific research were presented in a rigid epistemological confrontation, explanation was interpreted as a search for mechanical causes and substances. In classical science, it was believed that only laws of a dynamic type could be true laws.

2. Non-classical type of scientific rationality(XX century). Its features are: the coexistence of alternative concepts, the complication of scientific ideas about the world, the assumption of probabilistic, discrete, paradoxical phenomena, reliance on the unavoidable presence of the subject in the processes under study, the assumption of the absence of an unambiguous connection between theory and reality; science begins to determine the development of technology.

3. Post-nonclassical type of scientific rationality(late XX - early XXI century). It is characterized by an understanding of the extreme complexity of the processes under study, the emergence of a value perspective in the study of problems, and a high degree of use of interdisciplinary approaches.

Science and Society:

Science is closely interconnected with the development of society. This is manifested primarily in the fact that it is ultimately determined, conditioned by social practice and its needs. However, with each decade, the reverse influence of science on society is also increasing. The connection and interaction of science, technology and production is becoming stronger and stronger - science is turning into a direct productive force of society. How is it shown?

Firstly, science is now overtaking the development of technology, becoming the leading force in the progress of material production.

Secondly, science permeates all spheres of social life.

Thirdly, science is increasingly focused not only on technology, but also on the person himself, the development of his creative abilities, the culture of thinking, the creation of material and spiritual prerequisites for his integral development.

Fourth, the development of science leads to the emergence of parascientific knowledge. This is a collective name for ideological and hypothetical concepts and teachings characterized by an anti-scientist orientation. The term "parascience" refers to statements or theories that deviate to a greater or lesser extent from the standards of science and contain both fundamentally erroneous and possibly true statements. Concepts most often referred to as parascience: obsolete scientific concepts such as alchemy, astrology, etc., which have played a certain historical role in the development of modern science; folk medicine and other "traditional", but to a certain extent opposition to modern science teachings; sports, family, culinary, labor, etc. "sciences", which are examples of the systematization of practical experience and applied knowledge, but do not correspond to the definition of science as such.

Approaches to assessing the role of science in the modern world. First approach - scientism claims that with the help of natural-technical scientific knowledge it is possible to solve all social problems

Second approach - antiscientism, proceeding from the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution, it rejects science and technology, considering them forces hostile to the true essence of man. Socio-historical practice shows that it is equally wrong to both exorbitantly absolutize science and underestimate it.

Functions of modern science:

1. Cognitive;

2. Cultural and worldview (providing society with a scientific worldview);

3. Function of direct productive force;

4. The function of social power (scientific knowledge and methods are widely used in solving all the problems of society).

Patterns of the development of science: continuity, a complex combination of processes of differentiation and integration of scientific disciplines, the deepening and expansion of the processes of mathematization and computerization, theorization and dialectization of modern scientific knowledge, the alternation of relatively calm periods of development and periods of "abrupt breaking" (scientific revolutions) of laws and principles.

The formation of modern NCM is largely associated with discoveries in quantum physics.

Science and technology

Technique in the broad sense of the word - it is an artifact, that is, everything artificially created. Artifacts are: material and ideal.

Technique in the narrow sense of the word - this is a set of material-energy and information devices and means created by society for the implementation of its activities.

The basis of the philosophical analysis of technology was the ancient Greek concept of "techne", which meant skill, art, the ability to create something from natural material.

M. Heidegger believed that technology is a way of being a person, a way of his self-regulation. Yu. Habermas believed that technology unites everything "material", opposing the world of ideas. O. Toffler substantiated the wave-like nature of the development of technology and its impact on society.

Technology is the manifestation of technology. If what a person affects is a technique, then how it affects is technology.

Technosphere- this is a special part of the Earth's shell, which is a synthesis of artificial and natural, created by society to meet its needs.

Equipment classification:

By type of activity distinguish: material and production, transport and communications, scientific research, learning process, medical, sports, household, military.

By type of natural process used there is mechanical, electronic, nuclear, laser and other equipment.

According to the level of structural complexity the following historical forms of technology arose: guns(manual labor, mental labor and human activity), cars and automata. The sequence of these forms of technology, on the whole, corresponds to the historical stages in the development of technology itself.

Trends in the development of technology at the present stage:

The size of many technical means is constantly growing. So, the excavator bucket in 1930 had a volume of 4 cubic meters, and now it is 170 cubic meters. Transport planes are already lifting 500 or more passengers, and so on.

There was a trend of the opposite property, to a decrease in the size of equipment. For example, the creation of microminiature personal computers, tape recorders without cassettes, etc., has already become a reality.

Increasingly, technical innovation is driven by the application of scientific knowledge. A striking example of this is space technology, which has become the embodiment of scientific developments of more than two dozen natural and technical sciences. Discoveries in scientific creativity give impetus to technical creativity with inventions characteristic of it. The fusion of science and technology into a single system that has radically changed the life of a person, society, and the biosphere is called scientific and technological revolution(NTR).

There is a more intensive merging of technical means into complex systems and complexes: factories, power plants, communication systems, ships, etc. The prevalence and scale of these complexes allows us to speak about the existence of a technosphere on our planet.

An important and constantly growing field of application of modern technology and technology is the information field.

Informatization - it is the process of production, storage and dissemination of information in society.

Historical forms of informatization: colloquial speech; writing; typography; electrical - electronic reproductive devices (radio, telephone, television, etc.); EVM (computers).

The mass use of the computer marked a special stage of informatization. Unlike physical resources, information as a resource has a unique property - when used, it does not decrease, but, on the contrary, expands. The inexhaustibility of information resources dramatically accelerates the technological cycle "knowledge - production - knowledge", causes an avalanche-like increase in the number of people involved in the process of obtaining, formalizing and processing knowledge (in the USA, 77% of employees are involved in the field of information activities and services), has an impact on the prevalence of systems mass media and manipulation of public opinion. Based on these circumstances, many scientists and philosophers (D. Bell, T. Stoner, J. Masuda) proclaimed the offensive of the information society.

Signs of the information society:

Free access for any person in any place, at any time to any information;

The production of information in this society should be carried out in the volumes necessary to ensure the life of the individual and society in all its parts and directions;

Science should occupy a special place in the production of information;

Accelerated automation and operation;

Priority development of information activities and services.

Undoubtedly, the information society has certain advantages and benefits. However, one cannot fail to note its problems: computer theft, the possibility of an informational computer war, the possibility of establishing an information dictatorship and terror of provider organizations, etc.

Relationship between man and technology

On the one hand, the facts and ideas of distrust and hostility to technology. In ancient China, some Taoist sages denied technology, motivating their actions by the fact that, using technology, you become addicted to it, lose your freedom of action and become a mechanism yourself. In the 30s of the twentieth century, O. Spengler in the book "Man and Technology" argued that man has become a slave to machines and will be driven to death by them.

At the same time, the seeming indispensability of technology in all spheres of human existence sometimes gives rise to an unrestrained apology for technology, a kind of the ideology of technology. How is it shown? Firstly. In the exaggeration of the role and importance of technology in human life and, secondly, in the transfer to humanity and personality of the characteristics inherent in machines. Supporters of technocracy see the prospects for progress in the concentration of political power in the hands of the technical intelligentsia.

The consequences of the influence of technology on humans:

beneficial component includes the following:

the wide dissemination of technology contributed to the lengthening of the average life expectancy of a person by almost two times;

technology freed a person from embarrassing circumstances and increased his free time;

new information technology has qualitatively expanded the scope and forms of human intellectual activity;

technology has brought progress in the process of education; technology has raised the efficiency of human activity in various spheres of society.

Negative the impact of technology on man and society is as follows: some of its types of technology pose a danger to human life and health, the threat of environmental catastrophe has increased, and the number of occupational diseases has increased;

a person, becoming a particle of some technical system, loses his creative essence; an increasing amount of information tends to decrease the share of knowledge that one person is able to possess;

technology can be used as an effective means of suppression, total control and manipulation of a person;

the impact of technology on the human psyche is enormous both through virtual reality and through the replacement of the "symbol-image" chain with another "image-image", which leads to a halt in the development of figurative and abstract thinking, as well as the emergence of neurosis and mental illness.

Engineer(from French and Latin means “creator”, “creator”, “inventor” in a broad sense) is a person who mentally creates a technical object and controls the process of its manufacture and operation. Engineering activities - it is the activity of mentally creating a technical object and managing the process of its manufacture and operation. Engineering activities emerged from technical activities in the 18th century during the industrial revolution.

Epistemology - it is a science of knowledge.

Features of scientific knowledge:

Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is an objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods.

Thirdly, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is focused on being put into practice.

Fourth, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, schemes.

Fifth, scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.

Seventh, scientific knowledge needs and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, instruments.

Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by process. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related.

Ninth, the field of scientific knowledge is verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of life.

Levels of scientific knowledge:

Forms of scientific knowledge:

scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.

The advancement of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problem situations.

Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.

Types of evidence:

Practice that directly confirms

A proven hypothesis is the basis for constructing a scientific theory.

All theories develop within certain paradigms.

Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and vision of the world, influencing the direction of further research. paradigm

can be compared with an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.

Many theories are constantly being synthesized in unified scientific picture of the world, that is, an integral system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.

Methods of scientific knowledge:

Method(from the Greek. Metodos - the path to something) - it is a way of activity in any of its forms.

scientific method - this is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the natural knowledge of the object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.

Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:

First foundation. According to the nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - tricks, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of actions (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods-approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (system ANALYSIS, functional ANALYSIS, diachronic method, etc.).

Second base. According to the functional purpose, there are:

a) universal methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);

b) empirical level methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);

c) theoretical level methods (modeling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).

Third ground is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:

a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal-logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);

c) special methods.

General human methods of thinking:

- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences of objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);

- ANALYSIS- mental dismemberment of an object as a whole

(we divide each engine into constituent elements of the characteristic);

- Deduction- the movement of thought from the general to the particular (based on the general laws of the WORK of the engine, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);

- Analogy- a conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, on the basis of similarity in other signs (a conclusion about an engine breakdown by a characteristic knock);

- Generalization- the union of individual objects in a certain concept (for example, the creation of the concept of "engine").

Global problems

The global problems of modernity should be understood as a set of problems on the solution of which the further existence of civilization depends.

Global problems are generated by the uneven development of different areas of the life of modern mankind and the contradictions generated in the socio-economic, political, ideological, socio-natural and other relations of people. These problems affect the life of mankind as a whole.

Global problems of mankind- these are problems that affect the vital interests of the entire population of the planet and require the joint efforts of all states of the world for their solution.

North-South problem- This is the problem of economic relations between developed countries and developing ones. Its essence lies in the fact that in order to overcome the gap in the levels of socio-economic development between developed and developing countries, the latter require various concessions from developed countries, in particular, expanding access for their goods to the markets of developed countries, increasing the flow of knowledge and capital (especially in the form of assistance), write-offs of debts and other measures in relation to them.

One of the main global problems is the problem of poverty. Poverty is understood as the inability to provide the simplest and most affordable living conditions for the majority of people in a given country. Large scale poverty, especially in developing countries, poses a serious threat not only to national but also to global sustainable development.

World food problem lies in the inability of mankind to date to fully provide itself with vital food. This problem appears in practice as a problem absolute food shortage(malnutrition and hunger) in the least developed countries, and nutritional imbalances in the developed. Its solution will largely depend on the efficient use of natural resources, scientific and technological progress in the field of agriculture and the level of state support.

Global energy problem is the problem of providing mankind with fuel and energy at the present time and in the foreseeable future. The main reason for the emergence of the global energy problem should be considered the rapid growth in the consumption of mineral fuels in the 20th century. If the developed countries are now solving this problem primarily by slowing down the growth of their demand by reducing energy intensity, then in other countries there is a relatively rapid increase in energy consumption. To this may be added growing competition in the world energy market between developed countries and new large industrial countries (China, India, Brazil). All these circumstances, combined with military and political instability in some regions, can cause significant fluctuations in the level of world prices for energy resources and seriously affect the dynamics of supply and demand, as well as the production and consumption of energy products, sometimes creating crisis situations.

The ecological potential of the world economy is increasingly undermined by the economic activity of mankind. The answer to this was concept of environmentally sustainable development. It involves the development of all countries of the world, taking into account the present needs, but not undermining the interests of future generations.

Environmental protection is an important part of development. In the 70s. 20 century economists realized the importance of environmental problems for economic development. The processes of environmental degradation can be self-reproducing, which threatens society with irreversible destruction and depletion of resources.

Global demographic problem falls into two aspects: the population explosion in a number of countries and regions of the developing world and the demographic aging of the population of developed and transition countries. For the former, the solution is to increase the rate of economic growth and reduce the rate of population growth. For the second - emigration and reforming the pension system.

The relationship between population growth and economic growth has long been the subject of study by economists. As a result of research, two approaches have been developed to assess the impact of population growth on economic development. The first approach is to some extent connected with the theory of Malthus, who believed that population growth outstrips food growth and therefore the world population inevitably becomes poorer. The modern approach to assessing the role of population on the economy is complex and reveals both positive and negative factors influencing population growth on economic growth.

Many experts believe that the real problem is not population growth per se, but the following problems:

§ underdevelopment - backwardness in development;

§ depletion of world resources and destruction of the environment.

The problem of human development is the problem of matching the qualitative characteristics of the labor force with the nature of the modern economy. In the conditions of post-industrialization, the requirements for physical qualities and especially for the education of an employee, including his ability to constantly improve his skills, increase. However, the development of the qualitative characteristics of the labor force in the world economy is extremely uneven. The worst performance in this regard is shown by developing countries, which, however, are the main source of replenishment of the world labor resources. This is what determines the global nature of the problem of human development.

Increasing globalization, interdependence and the reduction of temporal and spatial barriers are creating a situation of collective insecurity from various threats from which a person cannot always be saved by his state. This requires the creation of conditions that enhance the ability of a person to independently withstand risks and threats.

The ocean problem is a problem of conservation and rational use of its spaces and resources. At present, the World Ocean, as a closed ecological system, can hardly withstand the increased anthropogenic load many times over, and a real threat of its death is being created. Therefore, the global problem of the World Ocean is, first of all, the problem of its survival and, consequently, the survival of modern man.

Scientific knowledge is an objective study of the world, independent of the views and beliefs of a person. Scientific knowledge arose on the basis of everyday knowledge. However, there are significant differences between them. First, science deals with a special set of objects of reality that cannot be reduced to objects of ordinary experience. To study the objects of science, special means and tools are needed that are not used in everyday knowledge. Science uses special equipment, measuring instruments, which make it possible to experimentally study new types of objects. Secondly, science uses a special language. Science also has a place in the language of everyday speech, but it cannot describe the objects of study on its basis alone. Ordinary language is adapted to describe the objects of everyday human practice, while science goes beyond such practice. The concepts of everyday language are often fuzzy, ambiguous. Their exact meaning can be understood only in the process of communication. Science, on the other hand, seeks to formulate its concepts as clearly as possible. In the process of accumulating scientific knowledge, the language of science is constantly evolving, new concepts appear, some of which can gradually enter into everyday speech. For example, such previously special scientific terms as "electricity", "computer" and others have become familiar to all words. Scientific apparatus and the language of science are the results of knowledge already acquired, but at the same time they are used for further research. The specifics of scientific knowledge also belong to the features of scientific knowledge. They can not always be tested empirically and applied in practice. Science is forced to provide evidence of new knowledge on the basis of those whose truth has already been proven. In this regard, the interconnection and systemic nature of scientific knowledge are important differences between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge. During the period of the birth of science, scientific knowledge was associated with the reflection of only those phenomena that constantly took place in the process of human life. The analysis of these phenomena led to certain theoretical conclusions. In the course of the development of scientific knowledge, the research methodology has changed. Scientists began to first create ideal objects in a given scientific field, and then transfer them to practice. Thus, hypotheses appeared - scientific assumptions, the truth of which requires proof. Thanks to hypotheses, scientific knowledge gets the opportunity to predict the development of certain phenomena in the future. This is how "theories" are put forward - special types of knowledge that combine a set of concepts and conclusions on any issue into a single system. Theories are already proven scientific propositions. They can be called proven hypotheses. However, when applying the theory in any particular case, new data must be included in the context of the evidence. Scientific knowledge differs from the ordinary one in the methods of cognitive activity. Ordinary knowledge is based on sensory perception and rational understanding of an already existing object. In scientific knowledge, it is often necessary first to discover the object of knowledge itself, for example, a celestial body in astronomy, an atom in physics, and so on. The object under study is distinguished from the totality of other elements of nature and is studied using special techniques and methods. A method is a way of solving cognitive tasks; the application of specific techniques and methods of scientific knowledge to the subject of research is called methodology. This term also defines the science that studies the methods of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge, in contrast to the ordinary, makes certain demands on the subjects of cognitive activity. To engage in science requires special training, the availability of basic knowledge and skills, possession of special research tools. In order to engage in any science, it is necessary to obtain an appropriate education in a higher educational institution. The subject of scientific knowledge must clearly understand what he is researching, how to do it and why it is needed, i.e. he must be aware of the goals of his activities and know the means to achieve them. The goal of any scientist, in whatever field of science he conducts research, is the search for objective truth and the acquisition of new knowledge. The process of cognition can be fruitful only when it is carried out on the basis of the objective laws of development of the subject of study. In this regard, the main task of science is to identify such laws. , Scientific knowledge should be distinguished from various forms of extrascientific knowledge. These include: 1) mythology - pre-scientific knowledge, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of science; 2) pseudoscientific knowledge, using conjectures and prejudices in cognitive activity; 3) anti-scientific knowledge, deliberately distorting reality; 4) ordinary knowledge, including everyday practical experience of a person. The results of scientific knowledge - scientific knowledge - in most cases are used in practice. The same can be said about other types of knowledge. However, mythological thinking is based on fiction, orienting a person to submission to the forces of nature. Pseudo-scientific and anti-scientific knowledge is unable to contribute to the achievement of positive results of practical activity due to untruth. Finally, the knowledge obtained as a result of ordinary knowledge is embodied in the practical activities of specific people or their groups, in contrast to the results of scientific knowledge, which are of great practical importance for all mankind. In addition, scientific knowledge is not personified. According to its results, it is impossible to characterize the personality of the researcher, in contrast to the results of ordinary knowledge or artistic creativity. At the same time, the process and results of scientific knowledge are influenced by the worldview, political, religious views of the scientist, his value orientations, as well as factors of the external socio-cultural environment. Thus, the interpretation of phenomena in historical, political science, philosophy and other humanities depends on the position of the researcher. In addition, the assessment of phenomena depends on the social system, the policy of the state, the level of development of knowledge in a given era. Thus, hypotheses that considered the structure of the universe in a new way met with a negative reaction from the church, as they diverged from its doctrine. An analysis of the historical development of science shows that it is often ahead of its time, and the results of scientific knowledge find application only in the future. This once again proves the importance of science and its role in the development of scientific, technological and social progress. There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical. The empirical level is associated with sensory cognition, the task of which is to obtain knowledge based on sensory experience. Unlike spontaneous sensory cognition, empirical is a purposeful perception of the surrounding world (for example, a purposeful choice of an object of study). At the theoretical level, principles, laws are formulated, theories are created that contain the essence of cognizable objects. Each of these levels contains a set of cognition methods. Any kind of human knowledge is characterized by such methods as analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, abstraction and generalization, etc. The name of general logical methods of cognition was attached to them. t / Analysis is a method of studying a holistic subject by considering its constituent parts (sides, features, properties or relationships) in order to study them comprehensively. Synthesis is a generalization, bringing together data obtained by analyzing previously identified parts (sides, features, properties or relationships) of an object. Analysis and synthesis are the simplest and at the same time the most universal methods of cognition. In the process of research, a scientist often has to draw conclusions about the object under study based on information about already known objects. At the same time, conclusions about individual phenomena can be based on general principles and vice versa. Such reasoning is called induction and deduction. Induction is a research method in which a general conclusion is made on the basis of particular premises (from the particular to the general). Deduction is a method of research by means of which a conclusion of a particular nature follows from general premises (from the general to the particular). One of the general logical methods of cognition is abstraction. It consists in abstracting from a number of properties of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection of properties of interest to the researcher. As a result, outwardly disparate phenomena can be compared, in connection with which a basis is created for combining them into a single species (for example, a class of animals, mineral rocks, etc.). Such a combination takes place taking into account common features. In this case, the generalization method is used, i.e. highlighting common features and properties. In the course of the process of cognition, it may turn out that the properties of the object under study coincide with the properties of the object already studied. As a result, we can draw a conclusion about the similarity of the objects themselves. This research method is called analogy. Close in meaning to analogy is the method of modeling, i.e. creation of a copy of the object under study to study the original from one side. The model may differ from the original in size, shape, etc., but must repeat those properties of the object that are to be studied. An important property of the model is its convenience for research, especially when it is difficult to study the original for some reason. Sometimes the study of an object according to its model is dictated by economic considerations (it is cheaper than the original). Models can be material and ideal. The former are real objects, while the latter are built in the mind of the researcher and are depicted in a symbolic form, for example, in the form of mathematical formulas. Currently, computer modeling based on the use of special programs is becoming more widespread. The methods of empirical scientific knowledge include observation - purposeful perception of the objects under study. This is not passive contemplation, but active activity, including rational factors. The elements of empirical knowledge are the observer himself, the object of observation and the means of observation (instruments, technical means, etc.). Observation is never spontaneous. It is always based on a scientific idea, hypothesis, assumption. Observation is associated with a description that consolidates and conveys the results of observation with the help of certain symbolic means (diagrams, drawings, graphs and numbers). The description can be quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative description fixes measurement data, i.e. digital data by which objects are compared. In this case, it is necessary that the units of measurement coincide or can be converted one into another. A qualitative description captures the essence of objects, their qualitative characteristics (elasticity of materials, thermal conductivity, etc.). The method of experiment is connected with observation and comparison. In this case, the researcher actively influences the object under study, creating specific conditions in order to obtain certain results. The peculiarity of the experiment is that the researcher can repeatedly repeat the impact on the object. However, he cannot create the properties of an item, he can only reveal them. In addition, new problems often arise during the experiment, which become an incentive for further research. The theoretical scientific methods of cognition include the method of formalization, which consists in the construction of abstract models that reveal the essence of phenomena. At the same time, information about the object of study is fixed by signs, formulas, etc. The next method is axiomatic. It consists in putting forward initial positions that do not require proof, on the basis of which a certain system of conclusions is built. A statement whose truth is not required to be proved is called an axiom. This method is most often used in mathematical sciences. \ The task of scientific knowledge is to give a holistic image of the phenomenon under study. Any phenomenon of reality can be represented as a concrete interweaving of the most diverse connections. Theoretical research highlights these connections and reflects them with the help of certain scientific abstractions. But a simple set of such abstractions still does not give an idea about the nature of the phenomenon, about the processes of its functioning and development. In order to create such a representation, it is necessary to mentally reproduce the object in all its completeness and complexity of its connections and relationships. This method of research is called the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Applying it, the researcher first finds the main connection of the object under study, and then, step by step, tracing how it changes under various conditions, discovers new connections, establishes their interactions and in this way displays the essence of the object under study in its entirety. Special methods of research are used in the construction of theoretical knowledge about complex, historically developing objects. Such objects most often cannot be reproduced in experience. For example, it is impossible to reproduce in experience the history of the emergence of man, the history of any people, etc. Scientific knowledge about such objects is obtained through historical and logical research methods. The historical method is based on the study of real history in its concrete diversity, the identification of historical facts, and on this basis - such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic, the pattern of its development is revealed. The logical method reveals the objective logic of history by studying the historical process at the highest stages of its development. Such an approach is possible because, at the highest stages of development, history concisely reproduces the main features of its previous evolution. Both the historical and the logical method involve the study of an empirical base - real historical facts. On this basis, hypotheses are put forward, which are transformed into theoretical knowledge about the laws of the historical process. All methods of scientific knowledge are always used in combination. Their specific combination is determined by the characteristics of the object under study, the specifics of the study. With the development of science, the system of its methods also develops, new techniques and methods of research activity are formed. With the development of computerization, they started talking about the methods of computer analysis, the construction of virtual models. In this regard, the task of methodology is not only to state the already known methods of research activity, but also to clarify the prospects for their development. Questions and tasks 1. What is scientific knowledge? How does it differ from ordinary knowledge? 2. Explain the concepts of hypothesis, theory, axiom. 3. What is meant by the terms "method" and "methodology"? 4. Give a description of the subject of scientific knowledge. 5. How does scientific knowledge differ from non-scientific knowledge? 6. Describe the levels of scientific knowledge. 7. What general logical methods of cognition exist? Give them a description. 8. Describe the methods of empirical scientific knowledge. 9. What are the methods of theoretical scientific knowledge? 10. F. Engels wrote: “Induction and deduction are interconnected in the same necessary way as synthesis and analysis. Instead of unilaterally exalting one of them to the skies at the expense of the other, one should try to apply each in its place, and this can only be achieved if one does not lose sight of their connection with each other, their mutual complementation of each other. What is the relationship between inductive and deductive methods of cognition?

Man from the very moment of his birth seeks to know the world. He does this in a variety of ways. One of the surest ways to make what is happening in the world understandable and open is scientific knowledge. Let's talk about how it differs, for example, from non-scientific knowledge.

The very first feature that scientific knowledge possesses is its objectivity. A person who adheres to scientific views understands that everything in the world is developing, whether we like it or not. Private opinions and authorities can't do anything about it. And this is wonderful, because it is impossible to imagine a different situation. The world would simply be in chaos and would hardly be able to exist.

Another difference of scientific knowledge is the orientation of its results into the future. Scientific discoveries do not always yield momentary results. Many of them are subject to doubt and persecution by individuals who do not want to recognize the objectivity of phenomena. It takes a huge amount of time until a true scientific discovery is recognized as valid. You don't have to go far for examples. Suffice it to recall the fate of the discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo Galilei regarding the bodies of the solar Galaxy.

Scientific and non-scientific knowledge has always been in confrontation and this has determined another one. It necessarily goes through stages such as observation, classification, description, experiment and explanation of the studied natural phenomena. In other species, these stages are not inherent at all, or they are present in them separately.

Scientific knowledge and have two levels: scientific knowledge consists in the study of facts and laws, established by generalizing and systematizing the results that are obtained through observations and experiments. Empirically, for example, Charles's law on the dependence of gas pressure and its temperature, Gay-Lussac's law on the dependence of gas volume and its temperature, Ohm's law on the dependence of current strength on its voltage and resistance have been revealed empirically.

And theoretical scientific knowledge considers natural phenomena more abstractly, because it deals with objects that cannot be observed and studied under normal conditions. In this way were discovered: the law of universal gravitation, the transformation of one into another and its preservation. This is how the electronic develops and this is based on the construction, in close connection with each other, of principles, concepts, theoretical schemes and logical consequences arising from the initial statements.

Scientific knowledge and scientific knowledge are obtained in the course of observation and experimentation. The experiment differs from observation in that the scientist has the opportunity to isolate the object being studied from external influences, surrounding it with special, artificially created conditions. The experiment can also exist in a mental form. This happens when it is impossible to study the object due to the high cost and complexity of the required equipment. Here scientific modeling is used, the creative imagination of the scientist who puts forward hypotheses is used.

Scientific and non-scientific knowledge always walk side by side. And although they, most often, are in confrontation, it must be said that the first is impossible without the second. It is impossible to imagine modern science without an inquisitive folk mind that invented myths, studied phenomena in the course of life practice, left our generation an invaluable treasury of folk wisdom, which contains common sense that helps us to be guided in life. A large role in the knowledge of the world is given to art objects. How diverse life is, so diverse are its laws.

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Mordovia State Pedagogical Institute. M. V. Evsevyeva»

Faculty of Psychology and Defectology

Department of Psychology

Control work on discipline

"General and experimental psychology"

Option - 12

Completed by: student

groups DZP-114

Novichenkova N. A.

Checked by: teacher

departments of psychology

Lezhneva E. A.

Saransk 2015

Introduction

Science was the main reason for such a rapidly flowing scientific and technological revolution, the transition to a post-industrial society, the widespread introduction of information technology, the beginning of the transfer of human knowledge into an electronic form, so convenient for storage, systematization, search, processing and much more.

All this convincingly proves that the main form of human knowledge is science. In our day to become more and more significant and essential part of reality.

However, science would not be so productive if it did not have such a developed system of methods, principles and forms of cognition so inherent in it.

Purpose: To study the forms and levels of scientific knowledge.

Learn what scientific knowledge is.

Consider the levels of scientific knowledge.

Consider the main forms of scientific knowledge: empirical facts, scientific problem, hypothesis, theory, concept.

1. Scientific knowledge

Scientific knowledge is objectively true knowledge about nature, society and man, obtained as a result of research activities and, as a rule, tested (proven) by practice.

Epistemology is the study of scientific knowledge.

Features of scientific knowledge:

To a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is focused on being put into practice.

Science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, schemes.

Scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.

Scientific knowledge is characterized by both strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.

Scientific knowledge needs and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, devices.

The area of scientific knowledge is verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of life.

2. Levels of scientific knowledge

Natural science knowledge structurally consists of empirical and theoretical areas of scientific research. Each of them is characterized by special forms of organization of scientific knowledge and its methods.

The empirical level includes techniques, methods and forms of cognition associated with the direct reflection of an object, the material-sensory interaction of a person with it. At this level, there is an accumulation, fixation, grouping and generalization of the source material for the construction of indirect theoretical knowledge.

At the empirical level of knowledge, the main forms of knowledge are formed - a scientific fact and a law. Law - the highest goal of the empirical level of knowledge - is the result of mental activity to generalize, group, systematize facts, in which various methods of thinking are used (analytical and synthetic, inductive and deductive, etc.).

If at the empirical level of knowledge the laws of the object are singled out and stated, then at the theoretical level they are explained.

The theoretical level includes all those forms, methods and ways of organizing knowledge that are characterized by varying degrees of mediation and ensure the creation, construction and development of a scientific theory. This includes theory and its elements, constituent parts, as scientific abstractions, idealizations and mental models; scientific idea and hypothesis; various methods of operating with scientific abstractions and building theories, logical means of organizing knowledge, etc.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical one. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts, statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.) with which the empirical level of research deals.

In turn, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without the achievements of the theoretical level. Empirical research is usually based on a certain theoretical structure that determines the direction of this research, determines and justifies the methods used in this.

The empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, revealing new data with the help of observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), sets new, more complex tasks for it. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empiricism, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical cognition, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

3. Main forms of development of scientific knowledge

1 Empirical scientific fact

The foundation of all scientific knowledge is scientific facts, with the establishment of which scientific knowledge begins.

A scientific fact is the initial form in which empirical knowledge about the object under study is fixed. A scientific fact differs from the fact of reality, which is a real process, event, subject or object of knowledge. A scientific fact is a reflection in the consciousness of the cognizing subject of the fact of reality. At the same time, only that fact is considered scientific, which is correctly reflected by the subject, is verifiable and reverifiable, and is described using the language of science.

One of the most important properties of a scientific fact is its reliability, which is determined by the possibility of its reproduction using various experiments. In order for a fact to be considered reliable, it must be confirmed in the course of numerous observations or experiments.

Facts constitute the empirical, i.e. experienced, the foundation of science. As facts accumulate, they increasingly begin to depend on the choice of the theory within which they are considered.

Facts play a big role in science. Without them, it would be impossible to develop scientific knowledge about the world around us. "Facts," wrote the outstanding Russian scientist I.P. Pavlov, "is air for a scientist." At the same time, scientific knowledge is characterized by a strict attitude to facts. "Snatching" facts from the system of their interaction with reality, their superficial analysis, the use of unverified, random or biased facts can mislead the researcher. Therefore, a strict description, systematization and classification of facts is one of the main tasks of the empirical stage of scientific research. The study of facts leads to the formulation of a scientific problem.

2 Scientific problem

A scientific problem is a reflection in the mind of the subject of knowledge of the contradictions of the object under study and, above all, the contradictions between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. The theoretical stage of scientific research begins with the formulation of a scientific problem. A scientific problem can be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness and incompleteness of this or that knowledge about the object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap.

Any scientific research begins with the presentation of a problem, which indicates the emergence of difficulties in the development of science, when newly discovered facts cannot be explained by existing knowledge. Searching, formulating and solving problems is the main feature of scientific activity. Problems separate one science from another, set the nature of scientific activity as truly scientific or pseudoscientific.

There is a widespread opinion among scientists: "To formulate a scientific problem correctly means to half solve it." Correctly formulating a problem means separating, "divorcing" the known and the unknown, identifying facts that contradict the existing theory, formulating questions that require scientific explanation, substantiating their importance and relevance for theory and practice, determining the sequence of actions and the necessary means.

The concepts of question and task are close to this category. A question is usually more elementary than a problem, which usually consists of a series of interrelated questions. A task is a problem already prepared for a solution. The problem, correctly posed, formulates the problem situation in which this or that direction of research turned out to be.

The correct formulation of a scientific problem allows us to formulate a scientific hypothesis, and possibly several hypotheses.

3 Hypothesis

scientific knowledge problem empirical

The presence of a problem in comprehending inexplicable facts entails a preliminary conclusion that requires its experimental, theoretical and logical confirmation. This kind of conjectural knowledge, the truth or falsity of which has not yet been proven, is called a scientific hypothesis. Thus, a hypothesis is knowledge in the form of an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of reliable facts.

A hypothesis is a universal and necessary form of knowledge development for any cognitive process. Where there is a search for new ideas or facts, regular relationships or causal dependencies, there is always a hypothesis. It acts as a link between previously achieved knowledge and new truths and at the same time a cognitive tool that regulates the logical transition from the previous incomplete and inaccurate knowledge to a new, more complete and more accurate one. To turn into reliable knowledge, the hypothesis is subject to scientific and practical verification. The process of testing the hypothesis, proceeding with the use of various logical techniques, operations and forms of inference, ultimately leads to a refutation or confirmation and its further proof.

There are several types of hypotheses. According to their functions in the cognitive process, hypotheses are divided into descriptive and explanatory. A descriptive hypothesis is an assumption about the properties inherent in the object under study. She usually answers the question: What is this item? or What properties does this item have? . Descriptive hypotheses can be put forward in order to identify the composition or structure of an object, reveal the mechanism or procedural features of its activity, and determine the functional characteristics of an object. A special place among descriptive hypotheses is occupied by hypotheses about the existence of an object, which are called existential hypotheses. An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption about the causes of the object of research. Such hypotheses usually ask: “Why did this event happen? or What are the reasons for this item?

The history of science shows that in the process of knowledge development, existential hypotheses first arise, clarifying the fact of the existence of specific objects. Then there are descriptive hypotheses that clarify the properties of these objects. The last step is the construction of explanatory hypotheses that reveal the mechanism and causes of the emergence of the objects under study.

According to the object of study, general and particular hypotheses are distinguished. A general hypothesis is a reasonable assumption about regular relationships and empirical regularities. General hypotheses play the role of scaffolding in the development of scientific knowledge. Once proven, they become scientific theories and are a valuable contribution to the development of scientific knowledge. A private hypothesis is a reasonable assumption about the origin and properties of single facts, specific events and phenomena. If a single circumstance caused the emergence of other facts and if it is inaccessible to direct perception, then its knowledge takes the form of a hypothesis about the existence or properties of this circumstance.

Along with terms general and private hypothesis term used in science working hypothesis . A working hypothesis is an assumption put forward in the early stages of the study, which serves as a conditional assumption that allows you to group the results of observations and give them an initial explanation. The specificity of the working hypothesis lies in its conditional and thus temporary acceptance. It is extremely important for the researcher to systematize the available factual data at the very beginning of the investigation, rationally process them and outline the paths for further searches. The working hypothesis just performs the function of the first systematizer of facts in the process of research. The further fate of the working hypothesis is twofold. It is not excluded that it can turn from a working one into a stable fruitful hypothesis. At the same time, it can be replaced by other hypotheses if its incompatibility with new facts is established.

Generating hypotheses is one of the hardest things in science. After all, they are not directly related to previous experience, which only gives impetus to reflection. A huge role is played by intuition and talent, which distinguish real scientists. Intuition is as important as logic. After all, arguments in science are not proofs, they are only conclusions that testify to the truth of reasoning if the premises are correct, but they do not say anything about the truth of the premises themselves. The choice of premises is connected with the practical experience and intuition of the scientist, who, from a huge variety of empirical facts and generalizations, must choose the really important ones. Then the scientist must put forward a hypothesis that explains these facts, as well as a number of phenomena not yet recorded in observations, but belonging to the same class of events. When putting forward a hypothesis, not only its compliance with empirical data is taken into account, but also the requirements of simplicity, beauty and economy of thinking.

If confirmed, the hypothesis becomes a theory.

4 Theory and concept

Theory is a logically substantiated and practice-tested system of knowledge that provides a holistic display of regular and essential connections in a certain area of objective reality.

The main elements of scientific theory are principles and laws. Principles are the most general and important fundamental provisions of the theory. In theory, principles play the role of initial, basic and primary assumptions that form the foundation of the theory. In turn, the content of each principle is revealed with the help of laws that concretize the principles, explain the mechanism of their action, the logic of the interconnection of the consequences arising from them. In practice, laws appear in the form of theoretical statements that reflect the general connections of the studied phenomena, objects, and processes.

Revealing the essence of objects, the laws of their existence, interaction, change and development, the theory makes it possible to explain the phenomena under study, to predict new, yet unknown facts and patterns that characterize them, to predict the behavior of the objects under study in the future. Thus, the theory performs two important functions: explanation and prediction, i.e. scientific foresight.

In the formation of a theory, a major role is played by the advancement of a scientific idea, which expresses a preliminary and abstract idea of the possible content of the essence of the subject area of the theory. Then hypotheses are formulated in which this abstract representation is concretized in a number of clear principles. The next stage in the formation of a theory is the empirical testing of hypotheses and the substantiation of one of them that most closely matches the empirical data. Only after that can we talk about the development of a successful hypothesis into a scientific theory. The creation of a theory is the highest and ultimate goal of fundamental science, the realization of which requires maximum effort and the highest rise of the scientist's creative powers.

Theory is the highest form of knowledge. Natural science theories are aimed at describing a certain integral subject area, explaining and systematizing its empirically revealed regularities and predicting new regularities. The theory has a special advantage - the ability to obtain knowledge about the object without entering into direct sensory contact with it.

A concept is a system of interconnected views on a particular understanding of phenomena and processes. Concepts are given different meanings in scientific discussions. In natural science, concepts generalize universal properties and relationships.

Most scientific concepts are born out of experiment or are related to experiment to some extent. Other areas of scientific thinking are purely speculative. However, in natural science they are useful and necessary in obtaining new knowledge.

The concepts of modern natural science are the basic patterns of rational connections of the surrounding world, obtained by the natural sciences over the past century. Modern natural science includes concepts that arose in the 20th century. But not only the latest scientific data can be considered modern, but all those that are part of the thickness of modern science, since science is a single whole, consisting of parts of different origins.

Conclusion

So, scientific knowledge is a process, that is, a developing system of knowledge. It includes two main levels - empirical and theoretical. Although they are related, they differ from each other, each of them has its own specifics.

At the empirical level, living contemplation (sensory cognition) prevails, the rational moment and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate meaning.

The specificity of theoretical scientific knowledge is determined by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and "mental operations". Living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process.

Empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical becomes theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones are: empirical facts, problem, hypothesis and theory (“key points” of the construction and development of knowledge at its theoretical level), concept.

The traditional model of the structure of scientific knowledge involves the movement along the chain: the establishment of empirical facts - the primary empirical generalization - the discovery of facts that deviate from the rule - the invention of a theoretical hypothesis with a new explanation scheme - a logical conclusion (deduction) from the hypothesis of all observed facts, which is its test for truth .

Confirmation of a hypothesis constitutes it into a theoretical law. Such a model of scientific knowledge is called hypothetical-deductive. It is believed that much of modern scientific knowledge is built in this way.

Thus, the theoretical level of knowledge is a kind of pinnacle Everest science. Having reached such a peak, the scientist's thought sees better the new goals of its movement.

Terminological dictionary

Abstract - consider an object or phenomenon, highlighting their essential, regular features and distracting from their non-essential aspects, properties, connections.

2. Hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - foundation, assumption) - a scientific assumption put forward in the form of scientific concepts in order to fill in the gaps in empirical knowledge or link various empirical knowledge into a single whole, or put forward to explain a phenomenon, facts and requiring verification on experience and theoretical justification in order to become a valid scientific theory.

3. Task - the goal that they are striving for, that they want to achieve.

Law is an objectively existing necessary connection between phenomena, an internal essential connection between cause and effect.

Interpretation (from Latin interpretatio - mediation, interpretation, explanation) - interpretation, clarification of the meaning of any sign system (symbol, expression, text).

Concept (from lat. conceptio) - 1) a system of interconnected views on a particular understanding of phenomena, processes; 2) a single, defining idea, the leading thought of any work, scientific work, etc.; sudden birth of an idea, main thought, scientific or creative motive.

Science (Greek episteme, Latin scientia) - in the broad sense of the word, science, firstly, a form of social consciousness, secondly, the sphere of human activity, thirdly, a system of institutions. Its main function is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality; its result is the sum of knowledge underlying the scientific picture of the world.

8. Cognition - the process of assimilation of the sensory content of the experienced, or experienced, state of affairs, states, processes in order to find the truth.

9. Principle - the basic starting position of any scientific system, theory, political system, etc.

Problem (from the Greek. problema - task, task) - an unresolved task or (question) questions prepared for resolution. The situation that arises is connected with that view, with such knowledge of an object that is not known, but is knowledge about ignorance.

Theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research) - a system of basic ideas of a particular branch of knowledge. A form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and existing relationships of reality. .

Fact (from lat. factum - done) - 1) event, phenomenon; firmly established knowledge, given in experience, the reliability of which has been proven; 2) reality, reality, that which objectively exists; 3) done, accomplished.

Bibliographic list

Gorelov A.A. Concepts of modern natural science. - M.: Center, 2012.

Kuznetsov V.I., Idlis G.M., Gutina V.N. Natural science. - M.: Agar, 2012.

Lakatos I. Methodology of scientific research programs. - M.: Vlados, 20013.

Concepts of modern natural science. / Ed. Prof. V. N. Lavrinenko, V. P. Ratnikova. - M.: UNITA-DANA, 2012.

Concepts of modern natural science. Ed. Lavrienko V.N. and Ratnikova V.P. M., 2013.

Petrov Yu. A. Theory of knowledge. M., 2012.

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

Portal for the student. Self-training