The pharaoh played a special role in the life of the Egyptians. This word cannot be translated as king, king or emperor.

The pharaoh was the supreme ruler and at the same time the high priest.

The pharaoh was a god on earth and a god after death. He was treated like a god.

His name was not spoken in vain. The term "pharaoh" itself appeared from the phrase of two Egyptian words per - aa, which meant a great house.

So they spoke about the pharaoh allegorically, so as not to call him by name. According to the beliefs of the Egyptians, the first pharaoh was the god Ra himself. Other gods ruled behind him. Later, the son of Osiris and Isis, the god Horus, appears on the throne. Horus was considered the prototype of all Egyptian pharaohs, and the pharaohs themselves were his earthly incarnation. Every real pharaoh was considered a descendant of both Ra and Horus. The full name of the pharaoh consisted of five parts, the so-called title. The first part of the title was the name of the pharaoh as the incarnation of the god Horus. The second part was the name of the pharaoh as the embodiment of two mistresses - the goddess of Upper Egypt Nekhbet (depicted in the form of a kite) and the goddess of Lower Egypt Wadzhet (in the form of a cobra). Sometimes the "steady manifestation of Ra" was added here. The third part of the name was the name of the pharaoh as "golden Horus. The fourth part included the personal name of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt. For example, the personal name of Pharaoh Thutmose 3 was Men - Kheper - Ra. And finally, the fifth part of the title was what can be roughly translated as patronymic It was preceded by the words "son of Ra", and then followed by the second name of the pharaoh, for example Thutmose - Nefer - Kheper. It was this that usually served as the official name of the pharaoh.

It was also believed that the pharaohs appear from the marriage of the queen, the wife of the pharaoh, with some deity. Kinship in the dynasty of pharaohs was conducted on the maternal side. Not only men ruled - pharaohs.

Queen Hatshepsut is known in history. In all Egyptian temples, the living pharaoh was sung like a god, prayed for his health and well-being. Pharaoh himself addressed the gods with prayers.

In the view of the Egyptians themselves, the pharaoh was presented as a god-man. It was believed that between the gods and the pharaohs there was an unbreakable contract.

According to it, the gods granted the pharaoh longevity, personal well-being and the prosperity of the state, and the pharaoh, for his part, ensured the observance of the cult by the gods, the construction of temples, and the like. He was the only mortal who had access to the gods. Sometimes the pharaoh personally participated in the beginning of agricultural work, which was of a sacred nature. He threw a scroll into the Nile with the order to start flooding, he begins preparing the soil for sowing, he is the first to cut the first sheaf at the harvest festival and offers a thanksgiving sacrifice to the goddess of the harvest, Renenut. In Egypt, there was a constant struggle for the throne of Upper and Lower Egypt. Priests played an important role in it. Sometimes they founded a new dynasty of pharaohs. Often the pharaohs were puppets in the hands of the high priest. The fight went on almost non-stop. With the weakening of the state, separatist sentiments in various regions of Egypt immediately raised their heads.

The pharaoh is the son of a god. His main duty is to bring gifts to the gods and build temples for them.

Ramesses III addressed the gods in this way: “I am your son, created by your hands ... You created perfection for me on earth. I will do my duty in peace. My heart searches tirelessly for what needs to be done for your shrines.” Further, Ramesses III tells which temples he built and which he restored. Each pharaoh built himself a tomb - a pyramid. The pharaoh also appointed governors of the nomes (nomarchs), chief officials, and the chief priest of Amun. During the war, the pharaoh led the army. By tradition, the pharaohs brought trees and shrubs unknown to the Egyptians from distant campaigns. The pharaohs paid great attention to the construction of irrigation systems and personally supervised the construction of canals.

Awards to the best

The pharaohs valued and in every possible way encouraged their commanders and officials, who served as the main support of their power and power and obtained wealth for them. After the campaign, awards were distributed to those who distinguished themselves. Sometimes one person received the reward. In honor of the victory, a great celebration was held. Luxurious gifts were laid out on the tables. Only the highest nobility was allowed to the celebration.

Coronation

The ritual of the coronation of the pharaohs was subject to established rules. But at the same time, there were some differences depending on the day of the ritual. This depended on which god the coronation day was dedicated to. For example, the coronation of Ramesses III took place on the feast of the god Ming, the lord of the desert and fertility. The pharaoh himself led the solemn procession. He appeared in a chair that was carried on a stretcher by the king's sons and senior officials, which was considered a great honor. In front of the stretcher was the eldest son, the heir. The priests carried a censer with incense. The scroll in the hands of one of the priests represented the program of the holiday. Approaching the dwelling of Min, the pharaoh performed the ceremony of incense and libation. Then the queen appeared. Next to her walked a white bull with a solar disk between its horns - a symbolic personification of God. He was also fumigated with incense. The procession sang hymns. The priests carried wooden statues of various pharaohs. Only one of them, the apostate Akhenaten, was forbidden to "appear" at the festival. Pharaoh sent four arrows to each of the cardinal points: in this way he symbolically struck down all his enemies. Under the singing of hymns, the ceremony comes to its final stage: the ruler thanks Ming and brings him gifts. Then the procession withdrew to the pharaoh's palace.

Pharaoh's personal life

The attitude towards wives and families of the pharaohs was different. For example, Akhenaten hardly ever left his palace. He dearly loved his wife, mother and daughters. Reliefs have come down to us that depict his family during walks. They went to the temple together, the whole family even took part in the receptions of foreign ambassadors. If Akhenaten had one wife, then Ramses II had five of them, and they all bore the title of "great royal wife." Considering that this pharaoh ruled for sixty-seven years, that's not much. However, in addition to official wives, he had many more concubines. From those and others he left 162 offspring.

Dwelling of eternity

No matter how important the cares of life, the pharaoh had to think in advance what his dwelling of eternity would be like. The construction of even a small pyramid was not an easy task. Granite or alabaster blocks suitable for this were only in two places - on the Giza and Saqqara plateaus. Later, for the repose of the pharaohs in the Theban mountains, they began to cut down entire halls, connected by passages.

The main thing in the funeral ceremony was the sarcophagus. The pharaoh personally visited the workshop where the sarcophagus was made for him, and meticulously watched the work. He cared not only about the place of burial, but also about the items that would accompany him in the afterlife. The richness and variety of utensils is amazing. Indeed, in the world of Osiris, the pharaoh had to continue his usual life.

On the last journey

The funeral of the pharaoh was a special spectacle. The relatives sobbed and wringed their hands in sorrow. Undoubtedly, they sincerely mourned the departed. But it was considered that this was not enough. Specially invited professional mourners and mourners, who were excellent actors. Having smeared their faces with silt and stripped to the waist, they tore their clothes, sobbed, moaned and beat themselves on the head. The funeral procession symbolized the migration from one house to another.

In the other world, the pharaoh should not have needed anything. In front of the procession were pies, flowers and jugs of wine. Funeral furniture, armchairs, beds followed, as well as personal items, utensils, boxes, canes and much more.

A long line of jewels concluded the procession. And here is the mummy of the pharaoh in the tomb. The wife falls to her knees and wraps her arms around him. And at this time, the priests perform an important mission: they place “trismus” on the tables - bread and mugs of beer. Then they put an adze, a cleaver in the shape of an ostrich feather, a model of a bull's leg, a palette with two curls on the edges: these items are needed to eliminate the effects of embalming and give the deceased the opportunity to move.

After performing all the rites, the mummy plunges into a stone "grave" in order to move to a better world and lead a new life.

According to mythology, gods ruled Egypt in ancient times. But then the gods left Egypt, leaving in their place the pharaohs - their sons.

Title and attributes

In the 5th grade, you learned that Egypt was originally divided into two kingdoms - Upper and Lower. Each of them was ruled by its own autocrat, however, later, during the wars, Egypt was united under the rule of one ruler.

The name of the pharaoh consisted of five names. The first was associated with the god Horus. It spoke of the faith of the people in his holiness. The second was associated with the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet, patronesses of Upper and Lower Egypt. The third name is golden, symbolizing eternity. The fourth name was the throne name, and the fifth was personal and received during life.

Pharaohs were forbidden to be in public without a headdress called pshent, which is a combination of separate crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. Also, unlike the white headscarves of commoners, the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt wore gold scarves with blue stripes.

The symbols of the pharaoh's power were a short rod with a hook at the top, a whip, a Wass scepter with a forked lower end and a jackal's head at the top, as well as a cross with a loop called ankh - a symbol of eternal life.

An important feature of the rulers was a false beard, which was also worn by female pharaohs.

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After the death of the pharaohs, who had an unconditional divine origin, they were embalmed and then mummified. Their body was placed in stone sarcophagi and immersed first in mastabas, and since the time of Pharaoh Djoser - in the pyramids, which are their tombs. There the pharaohs were to reunite with the gods.

List and description of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt

The first pharaoh of the First Dynasty was Narmer Menes (3060-3007 BC).

It was he who united Egypt and began to rule both parts of it.

Rice. 1. Map of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Egypt experienced a golden age under Pharaoh Djoser, the second representative of the 3rd dynasty. It was under him that the construction of the pyramids began. Djoser carried out many military campaigns and was able to subjugate the Sinai Peninsula.

Under Pharaoh Cheops (Khufu), the highest pyramid was erected, which is the only surviving wonder of the world.

Rice. 2. Pyramid of Cheops.

The reign of Queen Hatshepsut was also wonderful for Egypt. She organized an expedition to Punt, developed architecture and conducted military campaigns.

The list of pharaohs who waged aggressive wars and expanded their borders also includes Amenhotep 4, Seti 1, Amenhotep 3, Thutmose 3.

Under Thutmose 3, Egypt reached its maximum expansion to the northwest, owning Syria and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Only the troops of Assyria and Babylon were able to stop Thutmose 3 in his campaigns.

The main directions of the predatory activity of the pharaohs were not only the Middle East. In the south, on the Tigris plateau from the 5th to the 4th century BC. the kingdom of D'mt was located, and not far to the west of it was the most evil enemy of Egypt - Nubia. Nubian slaves were highly valued in Egypt.

Religious reforms were actively carried out under Akhenaten. He abolished the worship of the gods, replacing them with the cult of the pharaoh. The reforms did not find support among the people and after the death of the ruler they were canceled.

The last great pharaoh - Ramses 2. He was able to unite all historical territories under his rule. After the death of Ramses, Egypt significantly weakened, plunging into internecine wars for power.

The life of rulers always seems to be something mysterious and fascinating, but what if we are talking about people whose death has passed thousands of years? We cannot say exactly how the pharaoh lived in Ancient Egypt, but some “indirect evidence” helps us draw conclusions regarding the life of the people for whose burial the majestic pyramids were built.

The role of the pharaoh in ancient Egypt

The pharaoh was treated not just as the ruler of a certain region. For his subjects, he was not a king, but a real messenger of the gods, containing their great power and wisdom. According to the ancient Egyptians, it was the pharaoh:

• Regulated the change of day and night.
• He made the waters of the Nile flow.
• Gave rich harvests.
• Provided divine assistance during military campaigns.
• Protected from epidemics and other car.

In such a situation, you can live in clover and not even think about strengthening your own power, because the entire population literally idolizes the ruler.

But the situation changed dramatically when the turn of troubles came:

1. Failure in military affairs.
2. Slave riot.
3. A terrible epidemic that "decimated" a quarter of the population.
4. A lean year and, as a result, famine.

All this was also "written off" to the pharaohs. Like, our ruler has lost divine protection and now nothing good can happen. In order not to fall into disgrace, one had to really take care of the well-being of one's own state.

How was discipline maintained in the pharaoh's army?

War has always been considered one of the solutions to the problem. Thanks to a successful raid on the neighbors, it was possible to:

• Capture thousands of slaves. In the future, they ended up in slave markets and, until the end of their days, served in the homes of wealthy Egyptians or worked on the construction of monumental buildings.
• Attach some territory to your kingdom. There is never enough power.
• For decades, receive taxes and indemnities from the conquered territories. You need to win only once, but payments from new subjects will come regularly.
• Spread your religion among nearby tribes. It is especially pleasant that the pharaoh himself acts as one of the divine beings, in the case of Ancient Egypt.

To achieve all these goals, the pharaohs maintained numerous armies, the backbone of which was the local population. In addition, mercenaries and blacks served in the army.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, it was difficult to talk about any kind of discipline. But after the unification, apparently, its level has increased somewhat.

It is assumed that efficiency and complete subordination was due to:

1. Constant military training.
2. The introduction of a reward system for success in "military affairs".
3. Severe penalties for wrongdoing.

It is worth noting that we are talking about the "Bronze Age", so that all weapons and armor were made from this material. In any case, the Egyptian army. Opponents were not always equipped with even these "novelties" of weapons.

How did Tutankhamun die?

The death of most of the rulers of ancient Egypt does not cause much public interest. With one exception, his name is Tutankhamen. And before moving on to his death, it is worth saying a few words about the life of the king:

• At the age of 10 he ascended the throne.
• Ruled for 9 years.
• Restored the cult of the old gods.
• Cope with the contradictions of the two religions.
• He did not take a direct part in military campaigns, which did not prevent the army, led by close associates, from winning victories.

But the pharaoh died at the age of 19, under unclear circumstances. On the body of the ruler were found:

1. Rib fractures.
2. Multiple chest injuries.
3. Head injury.
4. Fractures of the upper limbs.

The most common version is death while hunting. The young pharaoh fell out of the chariot and fell under the wheels, which led to multiple injuries.

Neurologists are of the opinion that epilepsy may have contributed to the death, which could have arisen due to frequent incest. For many centuries, the pharaohs preferred to marry only their sisters, so as not to "dilute" the divine blood.

How were pharaohs buried?

Preparations for the funeral began during the life of the ruler:

• A monumental necropolis - a pyramid - was erected.
• Immediately after death, the body of the pharaoh was embalmed.
• The internal organs were removed in order to avoid the processes of decay.
• The body was treated with special balms and solutions.
• The corpse was wrapped in bandages in order to slow down the process of decomposition and cut off the access of air to the flesh.
• On a ceremonial boat, the body of the pharaoh was delivered to the foot of the pyramid.
• Only the priests and their close associates entered the sanctuary.
• After all the ceremonies, the tomb was sealed.

The funeral ceremony itself has come down to us in an incomplete form and by and large consists of a set of rituals and spells, which, according to the priests, were supposed to lead the lord to the afterlife.

Like all pagans, the ancient Egyptians left things next to the ashes of the pharaoh that should have been useful to him "in the next world." It is these relics that have attracted "treasure hunters" for thousands of years.

The Life of an Egyptian Ruler

By and large, the pharaohs lived as messengers of the gods on earth:

1. Only a limited number of people were allowed to communicate with them.
2. The children of the priests served the kings.
3. The rulers were treated as a direct extension of the divine will.
4. The pharaoh had the right to get whatever he wanted within his domain.
5. The power of the king was absolute, it was not limited by any set of rules or laws.
6. Like peasants, pharaohs could suffer from infectious diseases. Although they received the best, at that time, medical care, but it was medical care of the 2-3 millennium BC sample.
7. They were the central figures of the religious cult.

But in fact, the picture was not as rosy as it might seem at first glance. The king had to adhere to the rituals that had been formed throughout the existence of the dynasty. Participation in religious rites was one of the obligatory moments, because the gods themselves decided so.

The fashion for mummies and pyramids has already passed, but still many people are interested in how the pharaoh lived in Ancient Egypt and whether the Egyptians could independently build one of the wonders of the world. Archeology gives us answers to only part of the questions, something remains at the mercy of the imagination.

Video about the reign of Tutankhamun

This video will describe all the interesting facts about the life of the pharaohs in ancient Egypt:

The word "pharaoh" owes its origin to the Greek language. It is noteworthy that it was found even in the Old Testament.

Mysteries of history

According to ancient legend, the first pharaoh of Egypt - Menes - later became the most popular deity. However, in general, information about these rulers is rather vague. We can't even claim that they all actually existed. The pre-dynastic period is most fully covered in this respect. Historians identify specific people who ruled Southern and Northern Egypt.

paraphernalia

The ancient pharaohs of Egypt without fail passed the rite of coronation. Memphis was the venue for the traditional solemn action. The new divine rulers received symbols of power from the priests. Among them were a diadem, a scepter, a whip, crowns and a cross. The last attribute was in the shape of the letter "t" and was crowned with a loop, symbolizing life itself.

The scepter was a short wand. Its upper end was curved. This attribute of power came from Such a thing could belong not only to kings and gods, but also to high officials.

Peculiarities

The ancient pharaohs of Egypt, like sons, could not appear before their people with their heads uncovered. The main royal headdress was the crown. There were many varieties of this symbol of power, among which are the White Crown of Upper Egypt, the Red Crown “deshret”, the crown of Lower Egypt, and also the “Pshent” - a double version consisting of the White and Red crowns (symbolized the unity of the two kingdoms). The power of the pharaoh in ancient Egypt even extended to outer space - so strong was the admiration for each heir to the creator of the world. However, it would be wrong to say that all pharaohs were despotic rulers and sole rulers of destinies.

Some ancient images depict the pharaohs of Egypt, whose heads are covered with scarves. This royal attribute was gold with blue stripes. Often a crown was placed on him.

Appearance

According to tradition, the ancient pharaohs of Egypt were clean-shaven. Another external distinguishing feature of the rulers is the beard, which symbolized masculine strength and divine power. It is noteworthy that Hatshepsut also wore a beard, however, a consignment note.

Narmer

This pharaoh is a representative of the 0 or I dynasty. He ruled around the end of the third millennium BC. A plate from Hierakonpolis depicts him as the ruler of the united lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. It remains a mystery why his name is not included in the royal lists. Some historians believe that Narmer and Menes are the same person. Until now, many argue about whether all the ancient pharaohs of Egypt are really non-fictional characters.

Significant arguments in favor of the reality of Narmer are such found objects as a mace and a palette. The oldest artifacts glorify the conqueror of Lower Egypt named Narmer. It is claimed that he was the predecessor of Menes. However, this theory also has its opponents.

Menes

For the first time, Menes became the ruler of an entire country. This pharaoh laid the foundation for the 1st dynasty. Based on archaeological data, it can be assumed that the time of his reign was about 3050 BC. Translated from ancient Egyptian, his name means "strong", "durable".

Traditions dating back to the Ptolemaic era tell that Menes did a lot to unite the northern and southern parts of the country. In addition, his name was mentioned in the chronicles of Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Elian, Diodorus and Manetho. It is believed that Menes is the founder of Egyptian statehood, writing and cults. In addition, he initiated the construction of Memphis, in which his residence was located.

Menes was famous as a wise politician and an experienced military leader. However, the period of his reign is characterized in different ways. According to some sources, the life of ordinary Egyptians became worse under the reign of Menes, while others note the establishment of worship and temple rites, which testifies to the wise government of the country.

Historians believe that Menes passed away in the sixty-third year of his reign. The culprit of the death of this ruler, as expected, was a hippopotamus. The enraged animal inflicted mortal injuries on Menes.

Chorus Aha

The history of the pharaohs of Egypt would be incomplete without mentioning this glorious ruler. Modern Egyptologists believe that it was Hor Aha who united Upper and Lower Egypt, and also founded Memphis. There is a version that he was the son of Menes. This pharaoh ascended the throne in 3118, 3110 or 3007 BC. e.

During his reign, ancient Egyptian chronicle writing was born. Each year received a special name for the brightest event that took place. So, one of the years of the reign of Hor Aha is called as follows: "the defeat and capture of Nubia." However, wars were not always waged. In general, the period of the reign of this son of the sun god is characterized as peaceful, calm.

The Abydos tomb of the pharaoh Hor Aha is the largest in the northwestern group of similar structures. However, the most pretentious is the Northern Tomb, which is located in Saqqara. It also contained objects carved with the name Hor Akha. For the most part, these are wooden labels and clay seals located on the vessels. On some ivory items, the name Bener-Ib ("sweet in heart") was carved. Perhaps these artifacts brought to us the memory of the pharaoh's wife.

Jer

This son of the sun god belongs to the 1st dynasty. He is supposed to have reigned for forty-seven years (2870-2823 BC). Not all the ancient pharaohs of Egypt could boast of a large number of innovations during their reign. However, Jer was one of the most ardent reformers. It is assumed that he had success in the military field. Researchers found a rock inscription on the west bank of the Nile. It depicts Jer, and in front of him is a captive man kneeling.

The tomb of the pharaoh, located in Abydos, is a large rectangular pit lined with bricks. The crypt was made of wood. Near the main burial site, 338 additional ones were found. It is assumed that servants and women from Djer's harem are buried in them. All of them, as required by tradition, were sacrificed after the burial of the king. Another 269 graves became the place of the last refuge of the nobles and courtiers of the pharaoh.

Den

This pharaoh ruled around 2950 AD. His personal name is Sepati (this became known thanks to the Abydos list). Some historians believe that it was this pharaoh who put on the double crown, symbolizing the unification of Egypt, for the first time. History says that he was the leader of military campaigns on From here it can be concluded that Den was set up for the further expansion of the Egyptian kingdom in this direction.

The pharaoh's mother was in a special position during the reign of her son. This is evidenced by the fact that she rests near the tomb of Den. Such an honor still needed to be awarded. In addition, it is assumed that Hemaka, the keeper of the state treasury, was also a highly respected person. On found ancient Egyptian labels, his name follows the name of the king. This is evidence of the special honor and trust of King Dan, who united Egypt.

The tombs of the pharaohs of that time were not distinguished by special architectural delights. However, the same cannot be said about Dan's tomb. So, an impressive staircase leads to his tomb (it goes to the east, directly towards the rising sun), and the crypt itself is decorated with red granite slabs.

Tutankhamun

The reign of this pharaoh is approximately 1332-1323 BC. e. Nominally, he began to rule the country at the age of ten. Naturally, the real power belonged to more experienced people - the courtier Aye and the commander Horemheb. During this period, the external position of Egypt was strengthened due to the pacification within the country. During the reign of Tutankhamun, the construction was intensified, as well as the restoration of the neglected and destroyed during the reign of the previous pharaoh - Akhenaten - the sanctuaries of the gods.

As was established during the anatomical studies of the mummy, Tutankhamun did not even live to be twenty years old. Two versions of his death are put forward: the fatal consequences of some kind of illness or complications after falling from the chariot. His tomb was found in the notorious Valley of the Kings near Thebes. It was practically not plundered by ancient Egyptian marauders. During the archaeological excavations, a great variety of precious jewelry, clothing items, and works of art were found. Truly unique finds were a bed, seats and a gilded chariot.

It is noteworthy that the aforementioned successors of the king - Eye and Horemheb - tried in every possible way to consign his name to oblivion, classifying Tutankhamun among the heretics.

Ramses I

This pharaoh is believed to have ruled from 1292 to 1290 BC. Historians identify him with Horemheb's temporary worker - a powerful commander and supreme dignitary Paramessu. The honorary position he occupied was as follows: "the head of all the horses of Egypt, the commandant of the fortresses, the caretaker of the Nile entrance, the envoy of the pharaoh, the charioteer of His Majesty, the royal clerk, the commander, the general priest of the Gods of the Two Lands." It is assumed that Pharaoh Ramses I (Ramses) is the successor of Horemheb himself. An image of his magnificent ascension to the throne has been preserved on the pylon.

According to Egyptologists, the reign of Ramesses I is not distinguished by either duration or significant events. He is most often mentioned in connection with the fact that the pharaohs of Egypt, Seti I and Ramesses II, were his direct descendants (son and grandson, respectively).

Cleopatra

This famous queen is a representative of the Macedonian. Her feelings for the Roman commander were truly dramatic. The years of Cleopatra's reign are infamous due to the Roman conquest of Egypt. The obstinate queen was so disgusted with the idea of ​​being a prisoner (of the first Roman emperor) that she chose to commit suicide. Cleopatra is the most popular ancient character in literary works and films. Her reign took place in co-rulership with her brothers, and after that with Mark Anthony, her legal husband.

Cleopatra is considered the last independent pharaoh in ancient Egypt before the Romans conquered the country. She is often mistakenly called the last pharaoh, but this is not so. A love affair with Caesar brought her a son, and with Mark Antony a daughter and two sons.

The pharaohs of Egypt are most fully described in the works of Plutarch, Appian, Suetonius, Flavius ​​and Cassius. Cleopatra, of course, also did not go unnoticed. In many sources, she is described as a depraved woman of extraordinary beauty. For a night with Cleopatra, many were ready to pay with their own lives. However, this ruler was smart and courageous enough to pose a threat to the Romans.

Conclusion

The pharaohs of Egypt (the names and biographies of some of them are presented in the article) contributed to the formation of a powerful state that lasted more than twenty-seven centuries. The fertile waters of the Nile contributed greatly to the rise and improvement of this ancient kingdom. Annual floods perfectly fertilized the soil and contributed to the maturation of a rich crop of grain. Due to the surplus of food, there was a significant increase in the population. The concentration of human resources, in turn, favored the creation and maintenance of irrigation canals, the formation of a large army, and the development of trade relations. In addition, mining, field geodesy and construction technologies were gradually mastered.

The society was controlled by the administrative elite, which was formed by priests and clerks. At the head, of course, was the pharaoh. The deification of the bureaucratic apparatus contributed to prosperity and order.

Today we can say with confidence that Ancient Egypt became the source of the great heritage of world civilization.

The origin of the pharaohs, the periods of the history of ancient Egypt. Lists of pharaohs

Fragments of the ancient Egyptian chronicle, carved on stone around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, have survived to our time. e. The text of the chronicle lists the Egyptian rulers. (By the way, they were not always called pharaohs. The name and title of the pharaoh were considered sacred, so they avoided calling them and specified the name of a particular pharaoh only when it was absolutely necessary. This, of course, does not make the work of historians easier.) From the middle In the 2nd millennium, the Egyptians called their ruler "per-o" - "big house". From this definition came the later word "pharaoh".

Records about the reign of the king were entered into the chronicle every year. The kings listed in the annals in the 4th millennium BC. e. preceded by numerous tribal leaders and kings who owned the regions of northern and southern Egypt. The chronicle also contains the names of the kings of the northern part of Egypt, about whom no information has been preserved already in the 3rd millennium, only names and an approximate sequence of reign.

There are quite a few monuments of material culture and even written sources about the ancient era of Egypt, but they are very short, fragmentary, incomplete, inscribed in a very ancient language, difficult to decipher. For this reason, very little is known about the origin of the first Egyptian pharaohs. It would be much easier if the ancient chroniclers indicated at least the dates of birth and death of their kings, but the ancient Egyptians did not have a chronology similar to the modern one, therefore there are so many mysteries in the history of Ancient Egypt, and in Egyptology there are different chronologies.

The history of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt is so long that for convenience historians have divided it into several periods, each of which is comparable in duration to the history of any European power.

ancient kingdom(2707-2170 BC) - the era of the great pyramids.

middle kingdom(2119-1793 BC) - the development of writing.

new kingdom(1550-1069 BC - the time of great architects.

Late kingdom(715-332 BC) - the period of Persian domination.

After the end of each great era, there came a time of chaos, the division of Egypt into two parts. These times are characterized as Decay Periods:

The first period of decay (or the First transitional period) - 2170-2019 BC. e.

The second period of decay (or the Second transitional period) - 1794 / 93-1550 BC. e.

The third period of decay (or the Third transitional period) - 1070 / 69-714 BC. e.

But in general, the history of the Egyptian pharaohs began in the prehistoric era, which is usually defined as the Predynastic period, followed by the time of the Early Dynasties - ca. 3100-2700 AD BC e. (I and II dynasties - 3100-2700 BC). In those very old times, Egypt gradually developed its high culture. The dynasties of Ancient Egypt came to an end under the Greek pharaohs Ptolemies (332-30 BC). In 30 BC. e. Egypt became a Roman province. The famous queen Cleopatra is considered the last ruler on the throne of the pharaohs.

The first pharaoh Aha (or Menes) ruled from about 3032 to 3000 BC. e. and managed to unite the two parts of the country - Upper and Lower Egypt.

All eras are divided into dynasties that ruled for three thousand years - a total of 31 dynasties. All the chronologies of Ancient Egypt are rather conditional, because, due to the prescription of years and in the absence of accurate data, historians have to use indirect indications and compare different sources. Therefore, the dates of the reign of the pharaohs are given presumably - in different historical sources you can find data that differ by whole decades.

Lists of pharaohs of ancient Egypt found in temples. The oldest such list belongs to the Fifth Dynasty (2498-2345 BC) - the so-called Palermo stone. On a slab of black basalt, split into several pieces of different sizes, a list of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt is carved for six or seven centuries, starting from the prehistoric period, that is, from the end of the 4th millennium BC. One of the pieces mentions some of the last Egyptian kings of the Pre-dynastic period (until about 3150 BC). The list ends with Pharaoh Neferirkare, who ruled in the middle of the Fifth Dynasty. It is noteworthy that not only the names of the pharaohs are mentioned on the Palermo Stone, but also the most important events that happened during their reign are described.

In another list of pharaohs - from the temple of Karnak - all the royal ancestors of Pharaoh Thutmose III (XVIII dynasty) are named. Only a few pharaohs from the Second Period of Decay are missing.

The most famous list of ancient Egyptian pharaohs contains the so-called Abydos list, which is carved on the stone walls of the temple of Seti I in Abydos. It depicts the pharaoh Seti I showing his son Ramses II long rows of cartouches of 76 Egyptian kings, beginning with Menes and ending with Seti I. The rulers from the Second Period of the Decay, otherwise called the Second Intermediate Period, are also omitted there, as in Karnak.

Five kings of the 18th dynasty are also missing from the Abydos list: Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamen and Aye (Queen Hatshepsut was excluded, in all likelihood, by order of Thutmose III, and the other four pharaohs belonged to the Amarna period and were cursed as apostates).

The Saqqara List has 47 cartouches (originally 58) and names the pharaohs from Anedjib of the First Dynasty to Ramses II. The pharaohs of the Second Intermediate Period are not there either.

The famous Turin canon is recognized as the most detailed list. Its age is, according to experts, about 1200 years. Initially, this list contained three hundred names of pharaohs, but the papyrus was badly damaged during transportation, and many of its fragments have not been preserved. This is all the more annoying because parts of a scrupulously compiled document were missing, where the dates of the reign were affixed with an accuracy of up to a month and a day.

A huge contribution to the history of Ancient Egypt was made by Manetho Semennitsky - the only known ancient Egyptian historian. Manetho wrote the "History of Egypt", which has come down to us in fragments, in the form of quotations in the works of other historians of antiquity - Josephus Flavius, Sextus Africanus, Eusebius of Caesarea and others who used his writings to supplement their own knowledge of Egypt. Manetho was in all likelihood a priest or high priest under Ptolemy I (306/304-283/282 BC). He used temple documents and archives and had more opportunities than modern historians to get acquainted with ancient Egyptian historical sources. Manetho divided the entire history of Ancient Egypt into 30 dynasties, and this principle of division has survived to this day (although it is now customary to count 31 dynasties).

Some information about the Egyptian pharaohs was drawn from the works of historians and chroniclers of other countries, for example, Greek historians of the 5th century BC. e. Herodotus and the 1st century BC. e. Diodorus, who also paid attention to historical events in such a large and important country as Egypt.

All lists indicate the sequence of the reign of the pharaohs and their names. However, these lists are incomplete; they usually skip the pharaohs of transitional periods. And in the list of Manetho, as well as in the texts of Herodotus and Diodorus, Greek versions of the names of the pharaohs are given. Egyptian pharaoh names can only be found in ancient Egyptian texts.

Indications of the duration of the reign of the pharaohs are found on seal impressions on earthenware vessels for wine. The age of the pharaoh can sometimes be judged by the results of a study using a radiocarbon method.

The radiocarbon dating method of biological remains, objects and materials of biological origin is based on measuring the ratio of the content of carbon isotopes in the material. Carbon is present in the earth's atmosphere in the form of the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13 and the radioactive isotope C-14. Carbon is constantly exposed to cosmic radiation penetrating the atmosphere, and the radioactive isotope C-14 is formed. When an organism dies and decomposes, the stable isotopes are preserved, while the radioactive isotope decays with a half-life of 5568 + 30 years, so its content in the remains gradually decreases. Knowing the initial content of the isotope in the tissues and finding out how much is left, you can find out how much radioactive carbon has decayed and, in this way, establish the time elapsed since the end of the organism's vital activity.

The principle of radiocarbon dating was proposed by the American physicist and chemist Willard Libby back in 1946. Since then, the technique of its application under various conditions and for various organic materials has been improved in order to reduce the error. Currently, radiocarbon analysis is considered one of the most reliable ways to determine the age of organic remains, although not all scientists recognize this.

With regard to the mummy of the pharaoh, radiocarbon analysis makes it possible to obtain fairly reliable data on the dates of his birth and death. If the pharaoh died very young (as, for example, Tutankhamun), experts also consider the condition of his skeleton and the so-called "wisdom teeth".

The degree of kinship of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs is difficult to establish. Genetic analysis of mummies is rarely carried out, and in those cases when it was nevertheless carried out, the results were positive - the pharaohs and their spouses were related by blood. But genetic studies are complicated by the fact that, for better preservation, the mummies were exposed to gamma rays, and this exposure affected the results. A genetic study of the bone marrow and dental tissue of some mummies has been successfully carried out. But, probably, the complexity of the analysis and questionable results cool the ardor of researchers.

The lists of pharaohs indicate the sequence, but not the dates of the reign and years of life of each individual pharaoh. Since there was no exact chronology in Ancient Egypt, more or less accurate dating always created great difficulties. Not surprisingly, the data that can be found in the works of Egyptologists vary greatly, sometimes by a hundred years. The latest dates are based on modern research, but newness is no guarantee of accuracy.

It is somewhat easier to imagine what the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt looked like, because numerous images have survived, including signed ones. Even if we take into account that there could be no portrait resemblance at all, that the author painted an ideal image of the divine ruler of Egypt, he nevertheless based himself on the real features of his contemporaries, although he embellished them. Whether the artist saw, at least from a distance, his regal model is unknown. The authors of the images of the pharaohs were probably guided, like the icon painters, by the established canons, but it is not at all excluded that these canons may have included the introduction of some individual features. There is a certain similarity in the faces of all pharaohs, but differences are still visible, so that one can assume the presence of a portrait resemblance to specific pharaohs.

The appearance of the pharaohs has not changed much over the millennia. Because of the hot climate, they sometimes wore no other clothing than an apron-like shenti loincloth made of thin linen, tied at the waist with a belt. On special occasions, animal tails were attached to this belt - a custom that probably remained from the time when the rulers of Egypt were tribal leaders and chief hunters of the tribe. It was customary for tribes that obtained their livelihood by hunting to put on animal skins during rituals or to wear fangs, tails or other parts of the bodies of dead animals. Sometimes during the rituals, the pharaohs, also according to a long tradition, wore a cape of fur or a whole panther skin on their shoulders. In later centuries, instead of a loincloth, the pharaohs wore tunics made of the finest linen. The chest was completely covered by wide massive gold necklaces with precious stones and pearls. On solemn occasions, the royal person was decorated with gold buckles, necklaces, tiaras, hairpins, pendants, and all this splendor weighed more than one kilogram.

The pharaoh was supposed to wear a crown or headscarf on his head. Sometimes in everyday life the pharaohs were limited only to a scarf or a wig. The head was usually shaved, and there were many wigs - everyday and ceremonial, curled in different ways or braided. Over a scarf or wig, the pharaohs wore a uraeus - a golden diadem in the form of a cobra preparing to attack.

The crown was not one, but several different ones: a khedzhet - the crown of Upper Egypt in the form of a tall white cap resembling a skittle; deshret - the red crown of Lower Egypt, cylindrical in front with a long ledge behind; Pshent is the double combined crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. For ritual purposes, the pharaohs wore the atef crown - a skillfully made reed cap, sometimes equipped with horns. The pharaohs of the 18th dynasty began to wear a blue rounded crown in the form of a helmet.

The striped kerchief of the pharaohs, nemes, was tied around the head, almost covering the forehead, the two ends were connected at the back, the other two loosely and symmetrically let out on the shoulders and chest. There was also a simpler version of tying a scarf-klaft, in which the ends were tied at the back of the head or fastened with gold hairpins and released onto the back. On the crowns and scarves of the pharaoh, there was always a uraeus above the forehead - the image of a cobra, which was a sign of the power of the rulers of Egypt. The snake was always represented as unfolded, ready to attack, with its head raised, which should have meant readiness to fight against the forces of evil.

The pharaoh, probably, could not dress himself, put on his hats correctly, and he needed servants for ceremonial attire.

A typical detail of the appearance of the pharaoh was the attached beard. Pharaohs, like ordinary Egyptians, shaved their mustaches and beards. An artificial beard, carefully curled or braided, laid in the shape of a trapezoid or completely straight, was attached to the chin with ribbons tied to the wig. The Egyptian gods were depicted with beards, which means that the pharaoh should have the same one to emphasize his divinity.

In ancient Egypt, there was a custom to line the eyes, apply makeup to the face. Decorative cosmetics were applied generously. In the tombs of the pharaohs, archaeologists found a large number of caskets, vials and bowls with a whole stock of various ointments, paints, whitewash, aromatic substances. Some drugs must have been curative. In all images of the pharaohs, their eyes are brightly outlined and painted with black paint. Perhaps this is due to the belief that black paint protects against eye diseases that were widespread, or keeps evil spirits away.

Pharaohs are often depicted with a scepter and a whip crossed on their chests. Perhaps these royal regalia went to the pharaohs from their distant predecessors, tribal leaders. For the leader of a tribe of pastoralists, a staff and a whip were the usual attributes and signs of power. The scepter of the pharaoh must have symbolized the shepherd's staff and the duty of the pharaohs to take care of their people, guard them, as a shepherd guards his flock, protect them from enemies, beating them with a powerful hand armed with a whip, a symbol of weapons. The mysterious whip at the same time strongly resembles a fan from flies - an essential item in everyday life. Scepters could have different shapes - for example, with the head of the god Set, which symbolized the power and might of the pharaoh.

God Seth reigned in the desert and, according to scientists, the head of a desert shrew, which is still found in the savannas and semi-deserts from Morocco to western Libya, served as the prototype of his head.

As for shoes, in ancient Egypt almost everyone went barefoot, not excluding the nobility and even the pharaoh himself. The pharaoh wore sandals made of papyrus or leather only for ceremonial exits outside the palace, and in his chambers, in all likelihood, he walked barefoot on smooth stone slabs. Ordinary people did not have the right to wear such shoes as those of rulers and dignitaries, and they did not need it. In order to protect their feet from hot, sharp stones and sand in the very heat at work, they sometimes tied soles of hard leather or woven straw to their feet with straps, but, as a rule, the Egyptians walked on the ground with bare feet.

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