Aggressive plans of Napoleon in relation to Russia became frank. Alexander I, who repeatedly tried peacefully to obtain from France the observance of rights in international relations, set the task of freeing the conquered countries from the power of Napoleon and establishing public order in accordance with the will of their peoples. These plans were formulated in a secret note - instructions of September 11, 1804 and formed the basis of his international policy.

1807-1812 were the heyday of the French Bonaparte empire. The countries of Western Europe, with the exception of England, were conquered by Napoleon. Russia stood in the way of establishing pan-European hegemony of France. Without a victory over Russia, France seemed insufficiently strong and powerful. “In five years I will be master of the world; only Russia remains, but I will crush it,” Bonaparte said on the eve of the war with Russia, in 1811.

The war of 1812 between France and Russia was not unexpected. Both sides began to prepare for it from 1810. The international situation favored France. In the first months of 1812 Napoleon signed military agreements with Prussia and Austria, which pledged to place their troops at Napoleon's disposal.

In January 1812, Napoleon ordered the beginning of the concentration of the Great Army1 at the western borders of Russia. By spring, four army corps had concentrated beyond the Elbe.

Russia could not be compared in terms of population and size of material resources under French rule. The number of troops of France and Russia brought into the war was in the ratio of 600 thousand French and 320 thousand Russians.

June 12, 1812 The Great Army invaded Russia. The Russian people and the army entered the just, patriotic war. France sought to defeat Russia, dismember it and turn it into a third-rate country, into a source of raw materials for France. Napoleon planned to encircle and destroy the Russian army in a general battle right away, at the very first border point, but the Russians retreated, the French troops quickly advanced deep into Russia. Already in the first days of the war, Napoleon occupied Vilna, Vitebsk, Minsk and other cities. He sought to break the First and Second Russian armies separated from each other in parts. Therefore, it was vital for Russia to unite the armies of P.I. Bagration (1765-1812) and M.G. Barclay de Tolly (1761-1818). It was not possible to unite the armies in Vitebsk. It was decided to carry out the plan to unite the armies at Smolensk. Division D.P. Neverovsky (1771-1813) and N.N. Raevsky (1771-1829) held back the enemy on the outskirts of Smolensk in order to enable the two armies to connect. In a two-day battle, the French lost 20 thousand soldiers and officers, the Russians - 6 thousand. On August 2, both armies joined. Thus, Napoleon's second strategic plan also failed.

However, the Russian troops were forced to retreat again. The withdrawal of Russian troops into the interior of the country was the only correct tactic of warfare, which was followed by the commander of the Russian army, Barclay de Tolly. However, his method of conducting military operations was not understood by either the army or society, or the emperor. M.I. Kutuzov (1745-1813), who assumed the duties of commander-in-chief, understood that it would not be possible to save Moscow, but it was inevitable to accept the battle. He decided to give battle 120 km from Moscow, near the village of Borodino.

Near Borodino, 120,000 Russians with 624 guns and 140,000 French with 587 guns opposed. The Russian troops were tasked with undermining the military power and morale of the enemy, and exhausting him. On the morning of August 26, a frontal battle began. Both sides showed heroism and great efforts to achieve victory. Positions passed several times from one army to another. Years later, reflecting on the battle of Borodino, Napoleon said: “Of the 50 battles I have given, the most valor was shown in the battle near Moscow and the least success was won ... the French showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians acquired to be undefeated.”

In the Battle of Borodino, which became a turning point in the Patriotic War of 1812, the forces of the Napoleonic army were broken. “I won the battle before Moscow”, - this is how M.I. Kutuzov. Here was the beginning of the end of the war on the territory of Russia and the beginning of the liberation of Europe from Napoleonic rule.

On September 1, at a military council in Fili, Kutuzov orders the army to retreat and surrender Moscow to the enemy without a fight. With the loss of Moscow, Russia has not yet been lost, but when the army is destroyed, Moscow and Russia will perish, - this is how Kutuzov determined the further course of the war.

In the partisan war, which began immediately with the enemy’s invasion of Russian territory, which the commander-in-chief gave an organized character, detachments of serfs were led by career officers: D. Davydov (1784-1839), A. Seslavin (1780-1858), A. Figner ( 1787-1813). There were also detachments led by the peasants themselves - G. Kurin, V. Kozhina, E. Chetvertakov and others.

On September 2, 1812, Napoleon with troops occupied an almost empty Moscow. Fires broke out in the city, which destroyed 3/4 of the buildings. The invaders were left without food and shelter. Napoleon's army was disastrously melting, losing morale. In occupied Moscow, Napoleon waited for more than a month for a request to sign peace, but it did not follow, Alexander I declared: "... a lasting peace can only be signed in Paris." On October 7, Napoleon left Moscow.

Having deceived the enemy with an imaginary retreat along the Ryazan road, Kutuzov turned onto the Kaluga road in the Krasnaya Pakhra region and approached the village of Tarutino with the main forces. This was the so-called Tarutino maneuver. Here the army was replenished with fresh forces, weapons, and in early October went on the offensive, striking at the French (at the vanguard of I. Murat on the Chernishna River, north of Tarutin on October 6 and Maloyaroslavets on October 12). The road to Kaluga was closed to Napoleon. His plan to spend the winter in Ukraine and then start a new campaign against the Russians was thwarted. The remnants of the Great Army had to retreat along the old, devastated Smolensk road, suffering huge losses. Through the river The miserable remnants of Napoleon's army (30 thousand people) crossed the Berezina. The Manifesto about the expulsion of the French from the territory of Russia said: "The war ended with the complete extermination of the enemy."

Neither England, nor Austria, nor Prussia, nor other states of Europe were able to defeat Napoleon. This was done by Russia, which, having extinguished the Bonaparte expansion, saved Europe, as in the case of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

15. Decembrist movement (organization of society, programs, tactics

After the victory over Napoleon in Russia, our army continued its military campaign. IN 1814 year we entered Paris. All of Europe admired the power and combat skills of the Russian army. Many Russians saw that ordinary people in Europe live better than in Russia. There were talented people who decided to rebuild Russia.

More than 30 secret societies were created. The most notable among them were: Southern(headed by Pestel) and Northern(headed by Muravyov).

REASONS for movement Decembrists:

The influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment and European revolutions (France, Spain, Greece, Italy, etc.).

The influence of the ideas of the Enlighteners of Russia (Novikov, Radishchev).

Participation in a trip abroad and acquaintance with life in Europe.

Tough domestic policy in Russia.

ESSENCE: In the likeness of events in Europe, to carry out a coup by the forces of the army without the participation of the people. Change the form of government, abolish serfdom and give personal freedom to the peasants.

TRANSFORMATION PROGRAMS:

Northern Society: wanted to create a constitutional monarchy, a parliament - "People's Council", suffrage by property qualification, a federal structure of Russia.

Southern Society: create a parliamentary republic headed by the President, universal suffrage.

They forgot that the revolution in France claimed the lives of more than 900 thousand peasants, not counting other sections of the population. As a result, one handful of rich people came to power, then another, but the people remained in poverty. The Decembrists thought about the people - not true. They wanted to seize power, become richer and destroy all who disagree. All beautiful words have no price when they start bleeding. The Decembrists were naive and knew little of history. The subsequent revolutions in Russia showed how much evil and poverty this brings.

December 25, 1825- lost soldiers and officers (about 3 thousand) revolted in St. Petersburg. Governor-General Miloradovich (hero of the war against Napoleon) spoke to them in order to protect them from betrayal. But the hero of the war was killed by one of the revolutionaries. The people, watching from the streets of the city at what was happening, did not understand anything. The uprising was crushed: 5 people were hanged, more than 280 were exiled to Siberia.

REASONS for defeat: lack of coordination of actions, difference in views on the future of Russia, small number, isolation from the people.

Look at how others did it, and don't think that you will do better, that you will do smarter. To be continued.

The War of 1812, also known as the Patriotic War of 1812, the war with Napoleon, the invasion of Napoleon is the first event in the national history of Russia, when all layers of Russian society rallied to repel the enemy. It was the popular character of the war with Napoleon that allowed historians to give it the name of the Patriotic War.

Cause of the war with Napoleon

Napoleon considered England to be his main enemy, an obstacle to world domination. He could not crush it with military force for geographical reasons: Britain is an island, a landing operation would cost France very dearly, in addition, after the battle of Trafalgar, England remained the only mistress of the seas. Therefore, Napoleon decided to strangle the enemy economically: to undermine the trade of England by closing all European ports for her. However, the blockade did not bring benefits to France either, it ruined its bourgeoisie. “Napoleon understood that it was the war with England and the blockade associated with it that prevented a radical improvement in the economy of the empire. But in order to end the blockade, it was first necessary to get England to lay down her arms. However, the victory over England was hampered by the position of Russia, which in words agreed to comply with the conditions of the blockade, in fact, Napoleon was convinced, did not comply with it. “English goods from Russia, along the entire vast western border, seep into Europe and this nullifies the continental blockade, that is, destroys the only hope of “bringing England to its knees.” The Great Army in Moscow means the obedience of the Russian Emperor Alexander, this is the complete implementation of the continental blockade, therefore, victory over England is possible only after victory over Russia.

Subsequently, in Vitebsk, already during the campaign against Moscow, Count Daru frankly told Napoleon that neither the army, nor even many in the emperor’s entourage, understood why this difficult war was being waged with Russia, because because of the trade in English goods in the possessions of Alexander, fight not worth it. (However) Napoleon saw in the successive economic strangulation of England the only way to finally ensure the stability of the existence of the great monarchy he had created.

Background to the War of 1812

• 1798 - Russia, together with Great Britain, Turkey, the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Naples, created a second anti-French coalition
• 1801, September 26 - Treaty of Paris between Russia and France
• 1805 - England, Russia, Austria, Sweden formed the third anti-French coalition
• 1805, November 20 - Napoleon's defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz
• 1806, November - the beginning of the war between Russia and Turkey
• 1807, June 2 - the defeat of the Russian-Prussian troops at Friedland
• 1807, June 25 - Tilsit peace treaty between Russia and France. Russia pledged to join the continental blockade
• 1808, February - the beginning of the Russian-Swedish war, which lasted a year
• 1808, October 30 - Erfur Allied Conference of Russia and France, confirming the Franco-Russian alliance
• Late 1809-early 1810 - unsuccessful courtship of Napoleon to the sister of Alexander the First Anna
• 1810, December 19 - the introduction in Russia of new customs tariffs, beneficial for English goods and disadvantageous for French
• 1812, February - peace agreement between Russia and Sweden
• 1812, May 16 - Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey

“Napoleon later said that he should have abandoned the war with Russia already at the moment when he learned that neither Turkey nor Sweden would fight Russia”

Patriotic War of 1812. Briefly

• 1812, June 12 (old style) - the French army invaded Russia by crossing the Neman

The French did not see a single soul in the entire boundless space beyond the Neman until the very horizon, after the guard Cossacks disappeared from view. “Before us lay a desert, a brown, yellowish land with stunted vegetation and distant forests on the horizon,” recalled one of the participants in the campaign, and the picture seemed even then “ominous”

• 1812, June 12-15 - in four continuous streams, the Napoleonic army along three new bridges and the fourth old one - at Kovno, Olitt, Merech, Yurburg - regiment after regiment, battery after battery, crossed the Neman in a continuous stream and lined up on the Russian coast.

Napoleon knew that although he had 420 thousand people at hand, ... but the army was far from equal in all its parts, that he could rely only on the French part of his army (in total, the great army consisted of 355 thousand subjects of the French Empire, but among them there were far from all were natural Frenchmen), and even then not entirely, because young recruits cannot be placed next to the seasoned warriors who have been on his campaigns. As for the Westphalians, Saxons, Bavarians, Rhine, Hanseatic Germans, Italians, Belgians, Dutch, not to mention the forced "allies" - the Austrians and Prussians, whom he dragged for purposes unknown to them to death in Russia and of whom many hate not at all Russians, but himself, then they are unlikely to fight with special fervor

• 1812, June 12 - the French in Kovno (now - Kaunas)
• 1812, June 15 - The corps of Jerome Bonaparte and Y. Poniatovsky advanced to Grodno
• 1812, June 16 - Napoleon in Vilna (Vilnius), where he stayed for 18 days
• 1812, June 16 - a short battle in Grodno, the Russians blew up bridges across the Lososnya River

Russian generals

- Barclay de Tolly (1761-1818) - From the spring of 1812 - commander of the 1st Western Army. At the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 - Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army
- Bagration (1765-1812) - Chief of the Life Guards of the Jaeger Regiment. At the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, the commander of the 2nd Western Army
- Bennigsen (1745-1826) - cavalry general, by order of Kutuzaov - chief of the General Staff of the Russian army
- Kutuzov (1747-1813) - Field Marshal General, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army during the Patriotic War of 1812
- Chichagov (1767-1849) - admiral, naval minister of the Russian Empire from 1802 to 1809
- Wittgenstein (1768-1843) - Field Marshal, during the war of 1812 - commander of a separate corps in the St. Petersburg direction

• 1812, June 18 - the French in Grodno
• 1812, July 6 - Alexander the First announced the recruitment into the militia
• 1812, July 16 - Napoleon in Vitebsk, the armies of Bagration and Barclay retreat to Smolensk
• 1812, August 3 - the connection of the armies of Barclay to Tolli and Bagration near Smolensk
• 1812, August 4-6 - Battle of Smolensk

At 6 am on August 4, Napoleon ordered a general bombardment and assault on Smolensk. Violent fighting broke out, lasting until 6 pm. Dokhturov's corps, which defended the city together with the division of Konovnitsyn and the Prince of Württemberg, fought with bravery and perseverance that amazed the French. In the evening, Napoleon called on Marshal Davout and categorically ordered the next day, no matter what the cost, to take Smolensk. He had already had earlier, and now the hope has grown stronger that this Smolensk battle, in which allegedly the entire Russian army participates (he knew about the final connection between Barclay and Bagration), will be that decisive battle, from which the Russians have so far evaded, giving up him without a fight huge parts of his empire. On August 5, the battle resumed. The Russians offered heroic resistance. Night came after the bloody day. The bombardment of the city, by order of Napoleon, continued. And suddenly there were terrible explosions one after another on Wednesday night, shaking the earth; The fire that started spread throughout the city. It was the Russians who blew up the powder magazines and set fire to the city: Barclay gave the order to retreat. At dawn, French scouts reported that the city had been abandoned by the troops, and Davout entered Smolensk without a fight.

• August 8, 1812 - Instead of Barclay de Tolly, Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief
• 1812, August 23 - Scouts reported to Napoleon that the Russian army had stopped and taken up positions two days before, and that fortifications had also been built near the village, visible in the distance. When asked what the name of the village was, the scouts answered: "Borodino"
• 1812, August 26 - Battle of Borodino

Kutuzov knew that Napoleon would be ruined by the impossibility of a long war several thousand kilometers from France, in a deserted, scarce, hostile vast country, a lack of food, an unusual climate. But he knew even more precisely that they would not allow him to give up Moscow without a general battle, despite his Russian surname, just as Barclay was not allowed to do this. And he decided to give this battle, unnecessary, according to his deepest conviction. Strategically redundant, it was morally and politically inevitable. In the 15 o'clock Battle of Borodino, more than 100,000 people dropped out from both sides. Napoleon later said: “Of all my battles, the most terrible is the one I fought near Moscow. The French in it showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible ... "
— — — — —
The most frank school linden concerns the French losses in the Battle of Borodino. European historiography admits that Napoleon missed 30 thousand soldiers and officers, of which 10-12 thousand were killed. Nevertheless, on the main monument, installed on the Borodino field, 58,478 people were engraved in gold. As the connoisseur of the era Alexei Vasiliev admits, we owe the “mistake” to Alexander Schmidt, a Swiss who, at the end of 1812, really needed 500 rubles. He turned to Count Fyodor Rostopchin, posing as a former adjutant of Napoleon's Marshal Berthier. Having received the money, the "adjutant" from the lantern compiled a list of losses in the corps of the Great Army, attributing, for example, 5 thousand killed to the Holsteiners, who did not participate in the Battle of Borodino at all. The Russian world was glad to be deceived, and when documentary refutations appeared, no one dared to initiate the dismantling of the legend. And it has not been decided so far: in textbooks for decades, the figure has been wandering, as if Napoleon lost about 60 thousand fighters. Why deceive children who can open a computer? (“Arguments of the Week”, No. 34 (576) dated 08/31/2017)

• 1812, September 1 - Council in Fili. Kutuzov ordered to leave Moscow
• 1812, September 2 - The Russian army passed through Moscow and entered the Ryazan road
• 1812, September 2 - Napoleon in Moscow
• 1812, September 3 - the beginning of a fire in Moscow
• 1812, September 4-5 - Fire in Moscow.

On September 5, in the morning, Napoleon walked around the Kremlin and from the windows of the palace, wherever he looked, the emperor turned pale and silently looked at the fire for a long time, and then said: “What a terrible sight! They set fire to it themselves... What determination! What people! These are the Scythians!”

• 1812, September 6 - September 22 - Napolen sent truce envoys to the tsar and Kutuzov three times with an offer of peace. Didn't wait for an answer
• 1812, October 6 - the beginning of the retreat of Napoleon from Moscow
• 1812, October 7 - The victorious battle of the Russian army of Kutuzov with the French troops of Marshal Murat near the village of Tarutino, Kaluga region
• 1812, October 12 - the battle of Maloyaroslavets, which forced Napoleon's army to retreat along the old Smolensk road, already completely devastated

Generals Dokhturov, Raevsky attacked Maloyaroslavets, occupied the day before by Delzon. Eight times Maloyaroslavets changed hands. Losses on both sides were heavy. The French lost about 5,000 men alone. The city burned to the ground, catching fire during the battle, so that many hundreds of people, Russians and French, died from fire in the streets, many wounded were burned alive

• 1812, October 13 - In the morning, Napoleon with a small retinue left the village of Gorodny to inspect Russian positions, when suddenly Cossacks with peaks at the ready flew at this group of horsemen. Two marshals who were with Napoleon (Murat and Bessieres), General Rapp and several officers huddled around Napoleon and began to fight back. The Polish light cavalry and the guards chasseurs who came to the rescue saved the emperor
• October 15, 1812 - Napoleon ordered a retreat to Smolensk
• 1812, October 18 - frosts began. Winter came early and cold
• 1812, October 19 - Wittgenstein's corps, reinforced by the St. Petersburg and Novgorod militias and other reinforcements, drove out the troops of Saint-Cyr and Oudinot from Polotsk
• October 26, 1812 - Wittgenstein occupied Vitebsk
• 1812, November 6 - Napoleon's army arrived in Dorogobuzh (a city in the Smolensk region), only 50 thousand people remained ready for battle
• 1812, early November - The southern Russian army of Chichagov, who arrived from Turkey, rushed to the Berezina (a river in Belarus, the right tributary of the Dnieper)
• 1812, November 14 - Napoleon left Smolensk, having only 36 thousand people under arms
• 1812, November 16-17 - a bloody battle near the village of Krasny (45 km south-west of Smolensk), in which the French suffered huge losses
• 1812, November 16 - Chichagov's army occupied Minsk
• November 22, 1812 - Chichagov's army occupied Borisov on the Berezina. There was a bridge across the river in Borisov
• 1812, November 23 - the defeat of the vanguard of Chichagov's army from Marshal Oudinot near Borisov. Borisov went over to the French again
• 1812, November 26-27 - Napoleon ferried the remnants of the army across the Berezina and took them to Vilna
• 1812, December 6 - Napoleon left the army, going to Paris
• 1812, December 11 - the Russian army entered Vilna
• 1812, December 12 - the remnants of Napoleon's army arrived in Kovno
• 1812, December 15 - the remnants of the French army crossed the Neman, leaving the territory of Russia
• December 25, 1812 - Alexander I issued a manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War

“... Now, with heartfelt joy and bitterness to God, We declare gratitude to Our dear loyal subjects that the event has surpassed even Our very hope, and that what We announced, at the opening of this war, has been fulfilled beyond measure: there is no longer a single enemy on the face of Our land; or better to say, they all stayed here, but how? Dead, wounded and captured. The proud ruler and their leader himself could hardly ride away with his most important officials from here, losing all his army and all the cannons brought with him, which are more than a thousand, not counting those buried and sunk by him, recaptured from him, and are in Our hands ... "

Thus ended the Patriotic War of 1812. Then foreign campaigns of the Russian army began, the purpose of which, according to Alexander the First, was to finish off Napoleon. But that is another story

Reasons for Russia's victory in the war against Napoleon

• The nationwide character of the resistance
• Mass heroism of soldiers and officers
• High skill of military leaders
• Napoleon's indecisiveness in declaring anti-serfdom laws
• Geographical and natural factors

The result of the Patriotic War of 1812

• The growth of national consciousness in Russian society
• The beginning of the decline of Napoleon's career
• The growth of Russia's prestige in Europe
• The emergence in Russia of anti-serfdom, liberal views

Russian-French war 1812-1814 ended with the almost complete destruction of Napoleon's army. During the hostilities, the entire territory of the Russian Empire was liberated, and the battles turned to and Let us further briefly consider how the Russian-French war took place.

start date

The fighting was primarily due to Russia's refusal to actively support the continental blockade, which Napoleon saw as the main weapon in the fight against Great Britain. In addition, Bonaparte pursued a policy towards European countries that did not take into account the interests of Russia. At the first stage of hostilities, the domestic army retreated. Before Moscow passed From June to September 1812, the advantage was on the side of Napoleon. From October to December, Bonaparte's army tried to maneuver. She sought to retreat to winter quarters, located in an undestroyed area. After that, the Russo-French War of 1812 continued with the retreat of the Napoleonic army in conditions of famine and frost.

Prerequisites for battle

Why did the Russo-French War take place? The year 1807 determined for Napoleon his main and, in fact, his only enemy. They were the UK. She captured the French colonies in America and India, created obstacles to trade. Due to the fact that England occupied a good position at sea, Napoleon's only effective weapon was her effectiveness, in turn, depended on the behavior of other powers and their desire to follow the sanctions. Napoleon demanded from Alexander the First a more consistent implementation of the blockade, but constantly met with Russia's unwillingness to break off relations with its key trading partner.

In 1810, our country participated in free trade with neutral states. This allowed Russia to trade with England through intermediaries. The government adopts a protective tariff that raises customs rates, primarily for imported French goods. This, of course, caused the extreme displeasure of Napoleon.

Offensive

The Russian-French war of 1812 at the first stage was favorable for Napoleon. On May 9, he meets in Dresden with allied rulers from Europe. From there he goes to his army on the river. Neman, which separated Prussia and Russia. June 22 Bonaparte addresses the soldiers with an appeal. In it, he accuses Russia of failing to fulfill the Tizil Treaty. Napoleon called his attack the second Polish invasion. In June, his army occupied Kovno. Alexander I at that moment was in Vilna, at the ball.

On June 25, the first clash occurred near the village. Barbarishki. Battles also took place at Rumshishki and Popartsi. It is worth saying that the Russian-French war took place with the support of Bonaparte's allies. The main goal at the first stage was the crossing of the Neman. So, from the south side of Kovno, the Beauharnais (Viceroy of Italy) group appeared, from the north - the corps of Marshal MacDonald, from Warsaw through the Bug the corps of General Schwarzenberg invaded. On June 16 (28) the soldiers of the great army occupied Vilna. On June 18 (30), Alexander I sent Adjutant General Balashov to Napoleon with a proposal to make peace and withdraw troops from Russia. However, Bonaparte refused.

Borodino

On August 26 (September 7), 125 km from Moscow, the largest battle took place, after which the Russian-French war went according to Kutuzov's scenario. The forces of the parties were approximately equal. Napoleon had about 130-135 thousand people, Kutuzov - 110-130 thousand. The Russian army did not have enough guns for 31 thousand militias of Smolensk and Moscow. Pikes were handed out to the warriors, but Kutuzov did not use people as they performed various auxiliary functions - they carried out the wounded and so on. Borodino was actually an assault by the soldiers of the great army of Russian fortifications. Both sides made extensive use of artillery in both attack and defense.

The Battle of Borodino lasted 12 hours. It was a bloody battle. Napoleon's soldiers at the cost of 30-34 thousand wounded and killed broke through the left flank and pushed back the center of the Russian positions. However, they failed to develop their offensive. In the Russian army, losses were estimated at 40-45 thousand wounded and killed. There were practically no prisoners on either side.

September 1 (13) Kutuzov's army was located in front of Moscow. Its right flank was near the village of Fili, the center - between the village. Troitsky and s. Volynsky, left - in front of the village. Vorobyov. The rearguard is located on the river. Setun. At 5 o'clock on the same day, a military council was convened in Frolov's house. Barclay de Tolly insisted that the Russo-French War would not be lost if Moscow was given to Napoleon. He talked about the need to save the army. Bennigsen, in turn, insisted on holding the battle. Most of the rest of the participants supported his position. However, Kutuzov put an end to the council. The Russian-French war, he believed, would be ended with the defeat of Napoleon only if the national army could be preserved. Kutuzov interrupted the meeting and ordered to retreat. By the evening of September 14, Napoleon entered the deserted Moscow.

Exile of Napoleon

The French did not stay long in Moscow. Some time after their invasion, the city was engulfed in fire. Bonaparte's soldiers began to experience a shortage of provisions. The locals refused to help them. Moreover, partisan attacks began, the militia began to be organized. Napoleon was forced to leave Moscow.

Kutuzov, meanwhile, positioned his army in the path of the French retreat. Bonaparte intended to go to cities not destroyed by hostilities. However, his plans were thwarted by Russian soldiers. He was forced to go almost along the same road that he came to Moscow. Since the settlements on the way were destroyed by him, there were no food in them, as well as people. Exhausted by hunger and disease, Napoleon's soldiers were subjected to constant attacks.

Russian-French war: results

According to Clausewitz's calculations, the great army with reinforcements numbered about 610 thousand people, including 50 thousand Austrian and Prussian soldiers. Many of those who were able to return to Koenigsberg died almost immediately from illness. In December 1812, about 225 generals, a little more than 5 thousand officers, and 26 thousand of lower ranks passed through Prussia. As contemporaries testified, they were all in a very miserable condition. In general, Napoleon lost about 580 thousand soldiers. The remaining soldiers formed the backbone of Bonaparte's new army. However, in January 1813, the battles moved to the lands of Germany. Then the fighting continued in France. In October, Napoleon's army was defeated near Leipzig. In April 1814 Bonaparte abdicated.

Long Term Consequences

What did the won Russian-French war give the country? The date of this battle has firmly gone down in history as a turning point in the issue of Russia's influence on the affairs of Europe. Meanwhile, the strengthening of the country's foreign policy was not accompanied by internal changes. Despite the fact that the victory rallied and inspired the masses, the successes did not lead to reforming the socio-economic sphere. Many peasants who fought in the Russian army passed through Europe and saw that serfdom was abolished everywhere. They expected the same action from their government. However, serfdom continued to exist after 1812. According to a number of historians, at that time there were still no fundamental prerequisites that would lead to its immediate abolition.

But the sharp surge of peasant uprisings, the creation of political opposition in the progressive nobility, which followed almost immediately after the end of the battles, refute this opinion. The victory in the Patriotic War not only rallied people and contributed to the rise of the national spirit. At the same time, the boundaries of freedom expanded in the minds of the masses, which led to the uprising of the Decembrists.

However, not only this event is associated with 1812. The opinion has long been expressed that the entire national culture, self-consciousness received an impetus during the period of the Napoleonic invasion. As Herzen wrote, the true history of Russia is revealed only from 1812. Everything that was before can be considered only a preface.

Conclusion

The Russo-French war showed the strength of the entire people of Russia. Not only the regular army participated in the opposition to Napoleon. The militias formed detachments and attacked the soldiers of the great army. In general, historians note that before this battle, patriotism was not particularly manifested in Russia. At the same time, it is worth considering that in the country the ordinary population was oppressed by serfdom. The war with the French turned people's minds upside down. The masses of the people, having rallied, felt their ability to resist the enemy. It was a victory not only for the army, its command, but for the entire population. Of course, the peasants expected a change in their lives. But, unfortunately, they were disappointed with further events. Nevertheless, the impetus for freethinking and resistance has already been given.

The first Patriotic War in the history of Russia took place in 1812, when Napoleon I Bonaparte, following his bourgeois ideas, attacked the Russian Empire. All sections of the population rose up against a single enemy, both old and young fought. For such a rise in the national spirit and the entire population with hostility, the war was officially dubbed the Patriotic War.

This event is firmly imprinted in the history of our country and the whole world. The bloody battle between the two great empires was reflected in literature and culture. Napoleon Bonaparte planned to quickly bleed the Russian Empire through quick and well-thought-out attacks on Kyiv, St. Petersburg and Moscow. The Russian army, led by the greatest leaders, fought in the very heart of the country and won, driving the French back beyond the Russian border.

Patriotic War of 1812. Minimum for the Unified State Examination.

At the end of the 18th century, an event occurred in France that claimed thousands and thousands of lives and brought Napoleon I Bonaparte, the overthrown Bourbon dynasty, to the throne. He glorified his name during the Italian and Egyptian military campaigns, establishing the glory of a valiant military leader. Enlisting the support of the army and influential people, he disperses Directory, the main ruling body of France at that time, and appoints himself consul, and soon emperor. Having taken power into his own hands, the French emperor in a short time unfolds a campaign aimed at the expansion of European states.

By 1809, virtually all of Europe had been conquered by Napoleon. Only Great Britain remained invincible. The dominance of the British fleet in the English Channel made the peninsula almost invulnerable. Adding fuel to the fire, the British take away the colonies in America and India from France, thereby depriving the empire of key points of trade. The only correct solution for France would be to deploy a continental blockade to cut Britain off from Europe. But in order to organize such sanctions, Napoleon needed the support of Alexander I, Emperor of the Russian Empire, otherwise these actions would have been meaningless.

Map: Napoleonic Wars in Russia 1799-1812 "The Path of the Napoleonic Wars Before the War with Russia".

Causes

In the interests of Russia was concluded Peace of Tilsit, which was, in fact, a respite for the accumulation of military power.

The main points of the agreement were:

• support for the continental blockade of Britain;
• recognition of all French conquests;
• recognition of the governors appointed by Bonaparte in the conquered countries, etc.

The deterioration of relations was the non-compliance with the points of the agreement of the concluded peace, as well as the refusal to marry Napoleon to Russian princesses. His offer was rejected twice. It was necessary for the French emperor to marry in order to confirm the legitimacy of his title.

Occasion

The main reason for the Russian-French war was the violation of the border of the Russian Empire by French troops. It must be understood that Napoleon was not going to conquer the whole country. His worst enemy was impregnable Great Britain. The purpose of the campaign against Russia was to inflict a military defeat on her and make peace on her own terms against the British.

Members

"Twenty Language", so called the troops of the captured states who joined the French army. The name itself makes it clear that there were many countries participating in the conflict. There were not many allies on the Russian side.

Objectives of the parties

The main reason for this war, as well as all conflicts, was the problem of the division of influence in Europe between France, Britain And Russia. It was in the interests of all three to prevent the absolute leadership of one of the countries.

The following goals were pursued:

		Great Britain
Make peace with Russia on your own terms.	Throw the enemy army behind your borders.
Seize the colonies of Britain in India and win back their own, passing through Russian Asia.	Exhaust the enemy through the tactics of constant retreat inland.	Keep Russia on your side, even after the Peace of Tilsit.
Weaken Russia's influence in Europe.	Do not leave any resources in the path of Napoleon's army, thereby exhausting the enemy.	Provide allied states with support in the war.
Use the Russian Empire as a source of resources.	Do not allow France to arrange a continental blockade of Great Britain.
Return the old borders with Russia in the form they were before the reign of Peter I.	Deprive France of absolute leadership in Europe.
Block Great Britain on the island in order to further weaken it and seize territories.

balance of power

At the time Napoleon crossed the Russian border, the military power of both sides could be expressed in the following figures:

At the disposal of the Russian army there was also a Cossack regiment, which fought on the side of the Russians on special rights.

Commanders and warlords

The commanders-in-chief of the Great Army and the Russian Army, Napoleon I Bonaparte and Alexander I, respectively, had the most talented tacticians and strategists at their disposal.

From the side France The following commanders should be especially noted:

Louis Nicolas Davout- "iron marshal", marshal of the Empire, who did not lose a single battle. He commanded the Guards Grenadiers during the war with Russia.

Joachim Murat- King of the Kingdom of Naples, commanded the reserve cavalry of the French army. He took a direct part in the Battle of Borodino. Known for his ardor, courage and hot temper.

Jacques MacDonald- Marshal of the Empire, commanded the French-Prussian infantry corps. Served as a reserve power of the Great Army. Covered the retreat of the French military forces.

Michelle Ney one of the most active participants in the conflict. Marshal of the Empire in battle earned the nickname "the bravest of the brave." He fought desperately in the Battle of Borodino, and then covered the retreat of the main parts of his army.

Russian Army she also had many outstanding military leaders in her camp:

Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly- at the beginning of the Patriotic War, Alexander I gave him the opportunity to be the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, with the words, - "I have no other army". He held this post until the appointment of Kutuzov.

Bagration Petr Ivanovich- General of Infantry, commanded the 2nd Western Army at the time the enemy crossed the border. One of the most famous students of Suvorov. He insisted on a general fight with Napoleon. In the Battle of Borodino, he was seriously wounded by a fragment of a scattered cannonball, died in agony in the infirmary.

Tormasov Alexander Petrovich- Russian general who commanded the cavalry of the Russian Army. In the south of the Empire, the 3rd Western Army was under his command. His task was to contain the allies of France - Austria and Prussia.

Wittgenstein Peter Khristianovich- Lieutenant General, commanded the first infantry corps. He stood in the way of the Great Army, which was moving towards St. Petersburg. With skillful tactical actions, he seized the initiative in the battle with the French and pinned down three corps on the way to the capital. In this battle for the north of the state, Wittgenstein was wounded, but did not leave the battlefield.

Golenishchev-Kutuzov Mikhail Illarionovich- Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army in the war of 1812. An outstanding strategist, tactician and diplomat. He became the first full knight of the Order of St. George. During World War II, the French called him "Old fox from the North." The most famous and recognizable man of the war of 1812.

The main stages and course of the war

The division of the Great Army into three directions: Southern, Central, Northern.

March from the Neman River to Smolensk.

March from Smolensk to Moscow.

• Command reorganization: approval of Kutuzov for the post of commander-in-chief of the Russian army (August 29, 1812)

Retreat of the Great Army.

• Escape from Moscow to Maloyaroslavets

  Retreat from Maloyaroslavets to the Berezina

  Retreat from the Berezina to the Neman

Map: Patriotic War of 1812

Peace treaty

While in burning Moscow, Napoleon I Bonaparte tried three times to conclude a peace agreement with the Russian Empire.

The first attempt was made with the help of the captured Major General Tutolmin. Feeling his dominant position, Napoleon continued to demand from the Russian emperor a blockade of Great Britain, an alliance with France and the abandonment of the lands conquered by Russia.

The second time the Commander-in-Chief of the Great Army sent with the same negotiator a letter to Alexander I with a peace proposal.

For the third time, Bonaparte sent his general Lauriston to the Russian emperor with the words, - " I need peace, I absolutely need it, by all means, save only honor».

All three attempts were ignored by the command of the Russian Army.

Results and consequences of the war

The Great Army lost about 580 thousand soldiers during the six months of the war on the territory of the Russian Empire. They include deserters, allied troops who fled to their homeland. About 60 thousand people sheltered some fugitives from Napoleon's army in Russia, local residents and the nobility.

The Russian Empire, for its part, also suffered considerable losses: from 150 to 200 thousand people. About 300 thousand people were injured in varying degrees of severity, and about half of them remained disabled.

At the beginning of 1813 The foreign campaign of the Russian army began, which passed through the lands of Germany and France, pursuing the remnants of the Great Army. Pressing Napoleon on his territory, Alexander I achieved his capitulation and captivity. The Russian Empire in this campaign annexed the Duchy of Warsaw to its territory, and the lands of Finland were again recognized as Russian.

The historical significance of the war

Patriotic War of 1812 immortalized in the history and culture of many nations. A large number of literary works are devoted to this event, for example, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, "Borodino" M.Yu. Lermontov, O.N. Mikhailov "Kutuzov". In honor of the victory, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was built, and memorial obelisks stand in the hero cities. Every year, a reconstruction of the battle is held on the Borodino field, where an impressive number of people who want to plunge into the era take part.

References:

1. Alexey Shcherbakov - "Napoleon. Winners are not judged.
2. Sergei Nechaev - "1812. Hour of pride and glory.

PATRIOTIC WAR OF 1812

Causes and nature of the war. The Patriotic War of 1812 is the largest event in Russian history. Its emergence was caused by the desire of Napoleon to achieve world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England retained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially annoyed by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops, created military depots there. The threat of invasion loomed over the borders of Russia. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.

In a military conflict between the two sides, Napoleon became the aggressor. He began hostilities and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people, the war became liberation, Patriotic. It was attended not only by the regular army, but also by the broad masses of the people.

The ratio of forces. Preparing for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. These were well-armed and trained troops, hardened in previous wars. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of the time, "Napoleon Bonaparte. The vulnerability of his army was its motley national composition. German and Spanish , Polish and; Portuguese, Austrian and Italian soldiers were deeply alien to the aggressive plans of the French bourgeoisie.

Active preparations for the war, which Russia has been conducting since 1810, have brought results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders M.I. Kutuzov, M.B. Barclay de Tolly, P.I. Bagration, A.P. Ermolov, N.N. Raevsky, M.A. Miloradovich and others. They were distinguished by great military experience and personal courage. The advantage of the Russian army was determined by the patriotic enthusiasm of all segments of the population, large human resources, food and fodder supplies.

However, at the initial stage of the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia consisted of 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 320 thousand people, divided into three armies. 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, 3rd - General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction.

Side plans. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander in order to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan rested on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from connecting and decide the outcome of the war in one or more frontier battles.

On the eve of the war, the Russian emperor and his entourage decided not to make any compromises with Napoleon. With the successful outcome of the collision, they were going to transfer hostilities to the territory of Western Europe. In the event of a defeat, Alexander was ready to retreat to Siberia (up to Kamchatka, according to him), in order to continue the fight from there. Russia had several strategic military plans. One of them was developed by the Prussian General Fuhl. It provided for the concentration of most of the Russian army in a fortified camp near the city of Drissa on the Western Dvina. According to Fuhl, this gave an advantage in the first frontier battle. The project remained unrealized, as the position on Drissa was unfavorable and the fortifications were weak. In addition, the balance of power forced the Russian command to choose an active defense strategy, i.e. retreat with rearguard battles deep into the territory of Russia. As the course of the war showed, this was the most correct decision.

The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and forced a march into Russia.

The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, evading the general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with separate units of the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him. The two main tasks faced by the Russian troops were to eliminate disunity (not to allow themselves to be defeated one by one) and to establish unity of command in the army. The first problem was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies joined near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's original plan was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant the solution of the second problem. M.I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on 17 August. He did not change his retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a pitched battle. It was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.

Battle of Borodino. M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered with artificial earth fortifications - flushes. An earth mound was poured in the center, where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky. Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.

Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, surround it and finally defeat it.

Early on the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The battle for flushes continued until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. was seriously wounded. Bagration. (He died of his wounds a few days later.) Taking the fleches did not bring much advantage to the French, since they could not break through the left flank. The Russians retreated in an organized manner and took up a position at the Semenovsky ravine.

At the same time, the situation in the center became more complicated, where Napoleon directed the main blow. To help the troops of General N.N. Raevsky M.I. Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks M.I. Platov and the cavalry corps of F.P. Uvarov to make a raid behind French lines. Napoleon was forced to interrupt the assault on the battery for almost 2 hours. This allowed M.I. Kutuzov to bring fresh forces to the center. Battery N.N. Raevsky several times passed from hand to hand and was captured by the French only at 16 o'clock.

The capture of Russian fortifications did not mean the victory of Napoleon. On the contrary, the offensive impulse of the French army dried up. She needed fresh forces, but Napoleon did not dare to use his last reserve - the imperial guard. The battle, which lasted more than 12 hours, gradually subsided. Losses on both sides were huge. Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while that of Napoleon's was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, the Russians began their retreat towards Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not seek a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command was held in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.

M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out an original plan - the Tarutinsky march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and, in the area of ​​Krasnaya Pakhra, reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the capture by the French of the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon's army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested, replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.

The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented event in history), it blazed in the flames of fires. It had no food or other supplies. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. Its decomposition was so strong that Napoleon had only two options - either immediately make peace, or start a retreat. But all the peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M.I. Kutuzov and Alexander.

On October 7, the French left Moscow. Napoleon still hoped to defeat the Russians, or at least break through into the unravaged southern regions, since the issue of providing the army with food and fodder was very acute. He moved his troops to Kaluga. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the city of Maloyaroslavets. Again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the Smolensk road they had devastated.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army was like a rout. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russian troops.

The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon's entry into Russia. Looting and looting by French soldiers provoked resistance from local residents. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders in their native land. The history includes the names of ordinary people (A.N. Seslavin, G.M. Kurin, E.V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina), who organized partisan detachments. "Flying detachments" of regular army soldiers led by career officers were also sent to the rear of the French.

At the final stage of the war, M.I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He took care of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy's forces were dwindling every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near the city of Borisov. For this purpose, troops were brought up from the south and northwest. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near Krasny in early November, when more than half of the 50,000 men of the retreating army were taken prisoner or fell in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to transport his troops on November 14-17 across the Berezina River. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and secretly left for Paris. Order M.I. Kutuzov in the army on December 21 and the Tsar's Manifesto on December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War.

The meaning of war. The Patriotic War of 1812 is the greatest event in Russian History. In its course, heroism, courage, patriotism and selfless love of all sectors of society and especially ordinary people for their own were clearly manifested. Motherland. However, the war caused significant damage to the Russian economy, which was estimated at 1 billion rubles. About 2 million people died. Many western regions of the country were devastated. All this had a huge impact on the further internal development of Russia.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Development of agriculture.

The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology.

Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.

Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of Alexander's are a wonderful beginning."

Peasant question. Decree "on free cultivators". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state reforms. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of the war. The results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. military settlements.

The foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. Significance of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. censorship statute. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "on obligated peasants".

Polish uprising 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.

Eastern question. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Reasons for the war. The course of hostilities. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.

Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.

The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war. Significance of joining the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.

Circle of N.V. Stankevich and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century.

peasant reform. Preparing for reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. duties of the peasants. Temporary state.

Zemstvo, judicial, city reforms. financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. censorship rules. military reforms. Significance of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.

The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. The agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the XIX century.

The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Repartition". The assassination of Alexander II March 1, 1881 The collapse of the "Narodnaya Volya".

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Striking fight. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. factory law.

Liberal populism in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.

Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the "immutability" of the autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the foreign policy program of the country. The main directions and stages of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of three emperors.

Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. Goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Enlightenment, 1996.