Topic 1. Anthropogenesis

Question 1. Evolutionary ecology

The evolutionary history of man ended with the formation of a species qualitatively different from the rest of the animals inhabiting the Earth, but the mechanisms and factors that acted during the evolution of the ancestors of Homo sapiens did not differ in any way from the mechanisms and factors of the evolution of any other species of living beings. Only from a certain stage of development in the evolution of mankind did social factors begin to play a greater role than biological ones. Therefore, the basic principles of the general theory of evolution are quite applicable to the problem of anthropogenesis. The origin and evolution of man are considered, as well as the evolution of any biological species, from the point of view of the interaction of hereditary factors with the environment, that is, from an ecological standpoint.

Ecologists study the relationship between an organism and its environment in order to discover the principles that control it. However, these relationships themselves can be extremely diverse.

Biological evolution is a complex phenomenon consisting of many processes, but they are based on the mechanism of natural selection.

The core of evolutionary theory is the principle of natural selection, i.e. differential reproductive success of biological beings. It follows from this that the evolutionary approach is focused on understanding the action of natural selection - its consequences for living matter and the conditions against which its action unfolds.

Principal among them is that when considering adaptive advantages, one should proceed from the level of individuals, and not their groups or species. Individuals are the basic material for evolution and therefore must be considered as an analytical unit of adaptive behavior.

The result of natural selection - the differentiated survival of biological beings - contributes to the development of adaptation. Adaptation is a term that, although often used in ecology, has several meanings or connotations.

In an evolutionary sense, the concept of "adaptation" should refer not so much to an individual as to a population and species. Changes within an individual in response to certain changes in the environment occur within the limits of the reaction norm inherited by each individual.

By origin, pre-adaptive, combinative and post-adaptive adaptations are distinguished.

According to the scale of adaptation, they are divided into specialized, suitable for narrowly local conditions of life of the species (for example, the structure of the language of anteaters in connection with feeding on ants, adaptations of a chameleon to an arboreal lifestyle, etc.), and general, suitable for a wide range of environmental conditions and characteristic for large taxa.

Adaptation is the tendency to optimize the fit between an organism's behavior and its environment. Selection favors the "optimal solution" to the problems faced by the organism.

Those features of the individual, which give him evolutionary advantages over others, are clearly manifested during his growth and development. It can be said, therefore, that evolutionary changes occur through a transformation of individual development.

The biological species to which modern man belongs was born as a result of an evolutionary process. In the modern theory of evolution, there is a significant number of various theories and hypotheses, controversial and contradictory.

Question 2. The place of man in the system of the animal world

From a biological point of view, man is one of the species of mammals belonging to the order of primates.

Modern great apes - chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons - represent forms that, about 10 - 15 million years ago, deviated from the line of development common with man.

Hominoids include modern humans and their closest relatives, the great apes, which, according to tradition, are divided into large and small apes.

The term "hominids" (derived from the family name Hominidae) should be used to refer to all populations and species with which we share a common evolutionary history distinct from that of other primates. The term "human" ("humans") should be retained solely to refer to members of the only living subspecies of hominids, Homo sapiens sapiens, as well as the term "human" to refer to characteristics that are common to members of living human populations.

Question 3. Trends in the evolution of primates

Let us trace the main tendencies that have manifested themselves to some extent in all primates and which are associated with the inheritance of traits characteristic of the arboreal way of life.

Animals that spend most of their time in trees must have limbs adapted to move along the branches. Animals like the squirrel use sharp claws for this purpose; in primates, however, limb development took a different path.

Life in the trees is complex and full of surprises. Primates are forced to lead a very mobile lifestyle, and by virtue of this alone their limbs must be more developed and adapted to a variety of movements than in most other mammals.

Among the factors guiding the course of animal evolution, nutrition plays an important role. The origin of primates can ultimately be linked to the consumption of food found on trees. Almost all primates are either omnivores or herbivores.

The environment in which primates live, unlike terrestrial habitats, cannot be called the "world of smells." Unlike other terrestrial mammals, primates have a progressive reduction of the olfactory organs.

In animals living in trees, natural selection favored the development of vision. In all primates, the organ of vision has become the dominant exteroreceptor, which is reflected both in the size of the eyes and their location, and in the differentiation of the retina.

As stated above, comprehensive information about the environment is an essential condition for survival for tree-dwelling animals. In line with the development of sensory organs, both exteroceptive and proprioceptive, primates are undergoing an improvement in the areas of the brain associated with sensory perception. Primates must also have developed a very perfect control of movements and a sense of balance.

All those changes in the brain and sensory organs that are characteristic of primates, as well as the habit of primates to take a sitting position and explore objects with the help of limbs - all this is reflected in the structure of the skull.

Caring for newborns presents particular challenges for animals that live permanently in trees. Therefore, one can think that the smaller the number of offspring, the greater the chances of successfully growing it. All primates have a clear tendency to produce no more than two or three offspring at a time, and many produce only one.

Question 4. Modern great apes

Large modern great apes belong to the pongid family. These animals are of particular interest because a number of morphophysiological, cytological and behavioral features bring them closer to humans.

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, while higher apes have 24. It turns out (geneticists are increasingly inclined to this) that the second pair of human chromosomes was formed from the fusion of pairs of other chromosomes of ancestral anthropoids.

In 1980, a strict scientific publication appeared in the journal Science (Science) with the following title: “A striking similarity (striking resemblance) of high-resolution stained for human and chimpanzee chromosome bands. The authors of the article are cytogenetics from the University of Minneapolis (USA) J. Younis, J. Sawyer and K. Dunham. Using the latest methods of staining chromosomes at different stages of cell division of two higher primates, the authors observed up to 1200 bands per karyotype (previously it was possible to see a maximum of 300-500 bands) and made sure that the striation of chromosomes - carriers of hereditary information - in humans and chimpanzees is almost identical .

After such a great similarity in chromosomes (DNA), no one can be surprised by the “striking similarity of blood proteins and tissues of humans and monkeys - after all, they, proteins, receive a “program” from the parental substances encoding them, which are so close, as we have seen, those. from genes, from DNA.

Great apes and gibbons diverged 10 million years ago, while the common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees and gorillas lived only 6 or at most 8 million years ago.

Opponents of this theory argued that it was unverifiable, while supporters argued that the data obtained using the molecular clock corresponded to those prehistoric dates that could be verified using other means. Fossils found later confirmed our recent ancestors among fossil great apes.

Question 5. Large great apes

The extinct driopithecins and pongins undoubtedly included the ancestors of humans and modern great apes - those large, hairy, intelligent inhabitants of the rainforests of Africa and Southeast Asia. Fossil data on the ancestors of great great apes are scarce, except for finds that allow us to connect the orangutan with the group of fossil monkeys that included Ramapithecus. But biological research has shown that great apes and humans shared a recent common ancestor.

Modern great apes include the genera:

1. Pongo, an orangutan, has a shaggy reddish coat, long arms, relatively short legs, short thumbs and toes, large molars with low crowns.

2. Pan, a chimpanzee, has long, shaggy black hair, arms longer than legs, a bare face, large supraorbital ridges, large protruding ears, a flat nose, and mobile lips.

3. Gorilla, the gorilla is the largest of the modern great apes. Males are twice as large as females, reaching a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) and a mass of 397 pounds (180 kg).

Question 6. Social behavior of anthropoids

Communities of all animals leading a group lifestyle are by no means a random association of individuals. They have a well-defined social structure, which is supported by special behavioral mechanisms. In a group, as a rule, there is a more or less pronounced hierarchy of individuals (linear or more complex), members of the group communicate with each other using various communicative signals, a special “language”, which determines the maintenance of the internal structure and coordinated and purposeful group behavior. This or that type of social organization is associated, first of all, with the conditions of existence and the prehistory of the species. Many believe that primate intragroup behavior and the structure of their communities are determined to a much greater extent by phylogenetic factors than by environmental ones.

The question of the relative role of ecological and phylogenetic determinants of community structure plays an important role in choosing a particular species of primates as a model, the study of which can lead to a deeper understanding of the structure of the society of ancient people. Both factors must be taken into account, of course.

Experimental studies of the behavior of great apes have shown a high ability to learn, form complex associative relationships, extrapolate and generalize previous experience, which indicates a high level of analytical and synthetic activity of the brain. Speech and tool activity have always been considered fundamental differences between humans and animals. Recent experiments on teaching sign language (used by deaf and dumb people) to great apes have shown that they not only learn it quite successfully, but also try to pass on their “language experience” to cubs and relatives.

Topic 2. Primates and humans

Question 1. Stages of evolution of primates and humans

Speaking about the evolution of primates, it must be remembered that until now, scientists have not come to a consensus regarding the details of the structure of the genealogical tree of primates, i.e., in order to unambiguously resolve the question of: “who descended from whom and when” we don't have enough facts. The main material for anthropologists is supplied by archaeological excavations.

In recent decades, methods of geochemistry, biochemistry, and genetics have been widely used in anthropology, however, it has not yet been possible to solve all the problems of human origin. We cannot imagine in detail the process of the formation of mankind, although its main stages are currently traced quite clearly.

Currently, the following main stages in human evolution are distinguished.

Dryopithecus - (Ramapithecus) - Australopithecus - skillful man - Homo erectus - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropist) - neoanthrope (this is already a modern type of man, Homo sapiens sapiens).

To understand evolutionary processes, it is necessary to know the length of the time intervals in which they occurred. This means taking into account several different aspects of geologic time.

Archaeologists call the first period in the history of mankind the Stone Age, in which three epochs are distinguished: the Paleolithic, the Mesolithic and the Neolithic. This division into epochs, as well as the more subdivided division of the Paleolithic into early, middle, and late, is based on man-made tools.

The early stages of the evolution of the great apes, which led eventually to man, as well as to modern great apes, are reconstructed with great difficulty. The main reason is the small number and fragmentation of finds in ancient layers (over 8-10 million years old). Based on the analysis of several finds, many anthropologists place the ancient anthropoid apes, the Drioptekians, at the basis of the human phylogenetic trunk.

Question 2. Driopithecus

Dryopithecinae ("tree monkeys") are early great apes that probably appeared in Africa during the Miocene and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed oaks and subtropical trees and swayed from their branches. They seem to have fed on fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not adapted for chewing rough food. The Dryopithecus belonging to this subfamily, which lived 11.5-9 million years ago, can be considered along with the African Kenyopithecus<...>one of the earliest members of the Hominidae family.

Dryopithecus had broad, low incisors, long lower canines, and short, primitive molars. There were two types of dryopithecus, representatives of one of them were larger than the other. Time - middle and late Miocene. Location - Europe.

Question 3. Ramapithecus, Australopithecus

Until recently, most paleontologists believed that Ramapithecus was the ancestor of hominids. It was usually considered as an independent genus of highly developed hominoids that lived in Afreurasia approximately from 14 to 10 (8) million years ago.

Estimated geological age - 10-12 million years. The discovered jaws differed from the jaws of classical driopteks by the shortening of the dental arch, which was believed to have a parabolic shape, rounded in front, with reduced fangs and incisors. The fangs did not protrude from the dentition, and the first lower premolars were not elongated, like in pongids, but bicuspid, like in humans. There were no diastemas - gaps in the dentition for the entry of large fangs.

A striking distinguishing feature of Australopithecus is upright walking. It is evidenced, first of all, by the structure of the pelvic girdle - the best indicator of distinguishing between bipedal and quadrupedal forms of primates. The high and narrow pelvic bone of a monkey with straight anterior and posterior edges differs sharply from the human pelvic bone with a shortened lower part and an expanded wing (similar to a fan with a short handle).

“Australopitecus afarensis (“southern ape from Afar”), the first “ape-man” known to us, probably descended from some late driopithecin about 4 million years ago. It got its name from finds in the so-called Northern Afar Triangle in Ethiopia.

Australopithcus africanus ("African southern monkey") settled on Earth about 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. It probably originated from Australopithecus afarensis.

“The mighty Australopithecus (Australopithecus robustus), which at one time was called Paranthropus (Paranthropus - “near-man”), was larger and better developed physically than the African Australopithecus.

Question 4. A skilled person (Homo habilis)

Homo habilis was a bipedal creature 120-140 cm tall. The upper and lower jaws were smaller than those of Australopithecus Boisei (zinja), but almost did not differ from the jaws of Pithecanthropus and modern man. The hand of a "skillful" person was capable of forcibly capturing great power; this was evidenced by the wide nail phalanges and massive tubular bones of the hand (Khrisanfova, 1967). Morphologically, Homo habilis is closely related to Austropithecus. Some researchers (Yakimov, 1976; Kochetkova, 1969) do not separate it from Australopithecus. Others combine the "skillful" man with Pithecanthropes, Sinanthropes and Atlanthropes into one species - Homo erectus (upright man).

Homo habilis lived in East Africa and possibly South Africa ("Telanthropus") and Southeast Asia ("Meganthropus").

Question 5. Early traces of material culture

Early man was slower and weaker than large predators and did not have such natural weapons as fangs and claws. Still, early hominids learned to compensate for these shortcomings. They began to shape pieces of stone, bone, and wood to cut, scrape, and dig. Unlike fangs and claws, such tools could be collected, stored or exchanged at will. Over time, these tools gave man unprecedented power over his environment.

The first tools were probably bone fragments, sharp sticks, and bark trays for collecting food. Such, mostly fragile tools have not been preserved. But the stone proved to be more durable. We know that early hominins in Ethiopia deliberately split small stones, perhaps in order to obtain hard, sharp edges for cutting meat.

More effective adaptation to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle was a consequence of the development of technical skills, which, in turn, became possible as a result of an increase in the parts of the brain associated with the ability to move and communicate. Thus, cultural evolution and the increase in brain size are directly related to each other.

Question 6. Homo erectus (Homo erectus) (Archanthrope)

The first remains of Homo erectus were found in 1891 in Java by Dubois, who introduced the generic name Pithecantropus for their designation. Later finds were made in Java by Koenigswald, Jacob a. Sartone, mainly in the Sangiran area. Fossil remains were found in two geological horizons: 1) Trinilian, belonging to the middle Pleistocene, the absolute age of which is estimated at 700 thousand years at the base and 500 thousand years at the top. The forms found in Trinil are very homogeneous, and the average volume of the braincase (for 5 skulls) is 860 cm 3 . They include, however, a recently found, well-preserved skull (sample VIII) with a braincase volume of 1029 cm 3 .

In Homo erectus, we clearly find both "primitive" and more "progressive" characters, and we can consider its morphological status as intermediate between Australopithecus and Homo sapiens.

Fire was apparently familiar to people even before the advent of Homo erectus. But it can be argued that it was Homo erectus who first began to systematically use fire for heating, cooking, protection from predators, and for hunting wild animals.

For mankind, all these achievements meant important changes - cultural development now acquired more importance than biological evolution.

Question 7. Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens)

In addition to the fossil remains of hominids, which we attribute to the genus Australopithecus and Homo erectus, many others have been found, and almost every newly discovered form has been given its own specific species or even generic name. However, all these forms have many common features, and therefore there is no particular reason to distinguish several species. This single species was named Homo sapiens. We present in a somewhat abbreviated form the definition of this genus given by Le Gros Clark.

Homo sapiens - a species of Homo; its characteristic features: a large volume of the brain box - on average more than 1000 cm 3; supraorbital ridges developed to varying degrees; the facial skeleton is characterized by orthognathism or weak prognathism. The fangs are relatively small and do not overlap after the initial stage of erasure; the skeleton of the limbs is adapted for upright posture.

Topic 3. Hypotheses of human evolution

Question 1. The main hypotheses of human evolution in the period of formationenia Homo sapiens

The most important arguments in favor of the "Neanderthal phase" theory were the following facts.

First, all the remains of ancient people dated with any certainty are arranged in a certain sequence: Neanderthals always occur in layers earlier than the bones of neoanthropes.

Secondly, the remains of Neanderthals, as a rule, were found together with Mousterian tools, and modern people are associated with tools of the late Paleolithic.

When considering the last phases of hominin evolution, it is important to keep in mind that between the populations, apparently, there was an intense gene flow, which, in contrast to the tendencies towards divergent development, led to a network-like evolution. It is most likely, however, that in Africa, under conditions of comparative isolation, Homo erectus evolved into Rhodesian man, and the man whose remains were found in the Solo River region was a direct descendant of the eastern Pithecanthropoids. The situation in Eurasia is somewhat more complicated.

Question 2. Neanderthal man (Paleoanthropist)

Homo sapiens neanderthalensis got its name from fossils found in the Neandertal Valley near Düsseldorf, Germany. The so-called classic Neanderthal from Europe had a large, elongated head; its brain was larger than ours, and the walls of the skull are thicker than ours, but thinner than those of Homo erectus. The Neanderthal was still somewhat similar to a human erectus with its powerful supraorbital ridges and sloping forehead. The Neanderthal had a distinct, bump-like occiput with a large base to which the neck muscles were attached. The wide facial part is strongly advanced forward and beveled back on the sides, which gave the zygomatic bones a "streamlined" shape.

Classical Neanderthals were short, extremely muscular and stocky, with large leg and arm joints. In body proportions, they are similar to the Eskimo, whose dense build helps them keep warm in cold climates. But, as will be seen from the following presentation, individual individuals and populations had their own characteristics.

Question 3. A modern type of person Homo sapiens (Neoanthrope)

“Quitely modern man - a subspecies of Homo sapiens sapiens - is widely represented by fossil remains found in sites that are 40 thousand years old, in places as remote from each other as the island of Borneo (Kalimantan) and Europe.

In some of the oldest skeletons, there is even a specific resemblance to one or another modern race: Caucasians, Negroids, Mongoloids or Australoids.

Some paleoanthropologists believe that a completely modern person appeared on one continent (most likely in Africa), and then spread to all the others, replacing the archaic local forms of Homo sapiens. Other experts argue that archaic local forms evolved into our subspecies independently of each other.

Question 4. Distribution of modern man

More ancient fossils have been found in Africa than on any of the other continents. So, in southern Ethiopia, they found Omo-I - an incomplete skull with many modern signs, whose age is probably more than 60 thousand years. At the mouth of the South African river Clasis, "modern" remains were found, which are 100 thousand years old, and a "modern" lower jaw 90 thousand years old was found in the Border Cave.

Fossil skulls of 40,000 years ago, which are of a completely modern type, are found in various parts of Asia - from Israel to Java. They all have a chin protrusion or other distinctly "modern" features.

Humans first appeared in North America, probably between 70,000 and 12,000 years ago. During periods of the greatest cooling at this time, the sea receded and a wide land barrier of Beringia was formed, which is now flooded by the Bering Strait.

Fossil traces and fossils, whose age has been established, indicate that modern man lived in Australia at least 40 thousand years ago.

Most likely, people first appeared here in the period from 55 to 45 thousand years ago, when the ocean level was 160 feet (50 m) lower than now, and many islands formed a single whole.

Question 5. Schemes, hypotheses, causes and factors of human evolutionaboutcentury

This subsection covers a number of theoretical issues of anthropogenesis. As already mentioned, anthropologists still do not have a unified view of which of the fossil forms was the immediate ancestor of the line of primates leading to Homo sapiens (maybe this form has not even been found yet), as well as at the time of separation from evolutionary human line tree. This is understandable, because there are quite a lot of gaps in the paleontological record that can only be filled with theoretical constructions. Different scientists have different ideas about the phylogeny of a person and, in accordance with their ideas, build his family tree.

An even larger range of questions arises related to the factors and causes of the evolution of hominids, and the most interesting of them is the cause of the emergence of prehuman. There are at least three main hypotheses in this regard. Until recently, the so-called “savannah theory” was generally accepted, linking the transition to upright posture with global climate changes on the planet. There are also variants of the “water hypothesis”, and finally, of great interest are the views set forth in G.N. Matyushin’s book “At the Origins of Humankind”, which contains objections to the “gradual” evolution of human ancestors and a new hypothesis that seems very convincing.

Question 6. Factors and criteria for hominization

Hominization is the process of humanization of the monkey, which began with the formation of the first specific human features, and ended with the appearance of a modern type of man. For the human line of evolution, the emergence of a fundamentally new way of behavior is specific - adaptation to labor activity.

The main factor and criterion of hominization, of course, is culture, primarily labor activity. From this point of view, the paramount role of the archaeological criterion is understandable.

The main systems of hominization are: upright posture, a large highly developed brain, a hand adapted to the labor function, as well as dentition - the structure of the dental system. All these morphological features to some extent reflect changes in behavior. That is, labor activity is included in the morphological criterion of hominids indirectly, through its “imprint” in anatomical structures.

It seems to us that the family of hominids should include all bipedal higher primates who, to one degree or another, adapted to the new environment and were forced to resort to the use, and then to the manufacture of artificial means of cultural adaptation.

Other components of the criterion can be: a sufficiently high level of cerebralization and the initial adaptation of the hand to the labor activity of the "power" direction.

Experts discuss a whole range of factors that could have one or another effect on the process of hominization and its pace: this is an increase in the level of radiation, geomagnetic inversions, volcanism, earthquakes, changes in the nature of nutrition, isolation, etc.

Question 7. Ecological theories of hominization

In the foothills of the Himalayas in India, Pakistan, Southeast Africa, the Middle East and Central Europe, the remains of a fossil large ape, the Ramapithecus, were found, which, in terms of the structure of teeth, turned out to be intermediate between modern apes and humans. Subsequently, it was determined that the Ramapithecus lived about 8-14 million years ago. At this time, as paleoclimatic data show, the Earth became a little colder and savannahs began to appear in place of the previously vast tropical forests. It was at this time that the Ramapithecus “came out of the forest” and began to adapt to life in the open. One can only guess what caused this ecological restructuring, perhaps the search for food, which became scarce in the jungle, or the desire to avoid some strong predators.

In the open space, a physical restructuring of the monkey's body was required: those individuals who could hold out longer on two legs - in a straightened position - received an advantage. In tall grass for looking out for prey and enemies, this position of the body is undoubtedly more advantageous. And some Ramapithecus rose to their feet.

Question 8. Savannah hypothesis

The emergence of a species with features that we regard as purely “human” was not an inevitable and predetermined result of a teleological evolutionary process, but was a theoretically explicable consequence of the existence of human ancestors in “suitable” ecological and evolutionary conditions. Hominids and humans established themselves on Earth because, subjected to the action of basic biological and evolutionary factors and processes, due to their inherent adaptive characteristics, they were able to "solve" the problems that arose before them in certain phylogenetic and ecological circumstances. The past of man, like that of any other species, must be analyzed in the context of those events and processes that developed at the same time, in the past, and not in the light of subsequent evolutionary phenomena.

As for the number of existing species of hominids, it is possible that not all of them have been discovered yet. Since species diversity only enlivens the paleoanthropological picture, the more they are discovered, the better!

The transition to bipedal locomotion was a completely inevitable event in the savannization of Africa, and, therefore, it is also ecologically determined. One can argue endlessly about why, in this case, the chimpanzee and gorilla did not and do not switch to a meat diet and upright posture, while arguing that some other non-ecological reasons must be looked for.

Question 9. Man - "monkey freak"?

Anthropologists pay attention to the fact that the teeth of prehuman and human differ sharply from the teeth of modern monkeys. Hominids, unlike anthropoids, have small teeth, there are no huge fangs that replace knives and daggers for monkeys, but on the other hand, human molars are larger than those of monkeys.

Living conditions were quite harsh, but human ancestors nevertheless lived, as already noted, in a very wide range of natural and climatic conditions. Practically - in all climatic zones of Africa. And most of all, it is surprising that the sites of the earliest man and his ancestors are concentrated in East and South Africa, while modern anthropoids (chimpanzees and gorillas) occupy completely different areas, mainly Equatorial and West Africa.

An analysis of the distribution of the oldest remains of anthropoids shows that at the end of the Tertiary and the beginning of the Quaternary period, the entire territory of Africa was inhabited more or less evenly by anthropoid apes.

Question 10. "Water" hypotheses

Hardy's hypothesis, if you look at it in detail, is very attractive. He refers to the fact that many species, after a long stage of "land" evolution, returned to the sea, where they again underwent extensive metamorphoses. Indeed, the animal world abounds in cases of such a return.

Among the order of mammals there are also many examples of adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle.

Hardy also dwells on the magnificent mane, which nature has endowed us with and which no great ape can boast of. According to Hardy, thick hair is very appropriate on the sun-sensitive head of a waterfowl.

Mentions Hardy and sweat glands, believing that they have evolved to quickly cool the body when the swimmer is out of the water for a while.

J. Lindblat believes that this was caused by the constant overcoming of freshwater bodies - by swimming or straightening up. The straightened position of the body also allows you to go deeper into the water to collect food.

At the same time, “upright walking puts us in one of the last places among mammals in terms of speed! Where can such a low speed be effective? I answer: in an environment in which neither what the getter feeds on, nor predators surpass him in speed. That is, in the water.

Question 11

A more common opinion is about the Middle or Early Upper Pleistocene time of the appearance of the sapiens line. In this case, various forms appear as a probable ancestor in this case: either one of the late progressive erectus (Vertessellesch), or early archaic sapiens (Swanscombe), or early progressive Neanderthal (Ehringsdorf).

Finally, there is an opinion about the late origin of sapiens. In this case, progressive Palestinian paleoanthropes or even "classic" Wurm Neanderthals are usually considered to be the ancestor.

Apparently, some signs of the "sapient" complex could have arisen in the evolution of individual groups of hominids for a long time and repeatedly. And in this sense, we have the right to say that sapientation has deep roots, although the oldest “real” sapiens are still not known until 0.1-0.07 million years ago.”

Question 12

The processes of sapientation, as evidenced by paleoanthropological data, took place in various regions of the Old World, although at different rates. Various circumstances, environmental features, the specifics of the social structure of the population, etc., could play a role here. Thus, both hypotheses - the multiplicity of centers of sapientation (polycentrism) or its limitation to one fairly large territory (wide monocentrism) - have points of contact. It can be assumed that, so to speak, "outpacing" it took place in East Africa, South-Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

Now a lot of controversy is caused by the problem of the priority of Africa or Europe. Judging by some data, sapiens could have appeared in the ancient ancestral home of mankind several tens of thousands of years earlier than in other territories.

Polycentrism is also supported by the almost simultaneous appearance of sapiens at the turn of the Upper Paleolithic - about 40-35 thousand years ago, moreover, in such remote from each other, and sometimes even marginal areas, such as Indonesia (Nia on Kalimantan), Western Europe (Cro-Magnon, Hanofersand) or South Africa (Florisbad).

The final stage of hominization - the process of sapientation - took mainly the last 100 thousand years. In this segment of anthropogenesis, significant changes occurred in the morphological organization, cognitive abilities, the rate of aging processes decreased, and life expectancy increased.

Topic 4. Social aspects of human formation and its future

Question 1. Social aspects of human origin

The formation of the species Homo sapiens - anthropogenesis - is closely connected with the development of society - sociogenesis. One of the most difficult questions is the role of biological and social factors in the evolutionary development of man. At first glance, it seems that they negate each other: after all, natural selection as a biological factor of anthropogenesis shaped the human body for better adaptation to the environment, while labor is a social phenomenon that ultimately leads to the transformation of the environment in order to satisfy human needs.

However, in the process of evolution, these two powerful factors of anthropogenesis acted in a dialectical unity: the mechanism of natural selection, which manifested itself most effectively in the early stages of anthropogenesis, formed and strengthened precisely those features of the biological organization of a person that most favored the further progress of labor activity and the development of society. In the course of the process of human socialization, a gradual “removal”, “self-elimination” of the shaping role of natural selection takes place at the same time. Anthropogenesis ended with the appearance of Homo sapiens, whose brain is able to assimilate any most complex social program.

Question 2. Factors of evolution and the ancestral home of Homo sapiens

There are two main points of view concerning the origin of modern man. According to one, H. sapiens arose in several places on the planet from various ancestral forms belonging to paleoanthropes (or even archanthropes). According to another, there was a single place of origin of mankind from some one common ancestral trunk. The first point of view is the hypothesis of polycentrism, the second is the hypothesis of monocentrism. Recently, however, a complex hypothesis, uniting all the main arguments of one and the other concept, has become more and more clear, which has received the name of the hypothesis of broad monocentrism.

Question 3. The hypothesis of broad monocentrism

Man of the modern type arose somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. It is here that the most pronounced intermediate between Neanderthals and early fossil forms of H. sapiens (Cro-Magnon) bone remains are found. Numerous intermediate forms between paleoanthropes and neoanthropes (as all forms of fossil humans of the modern type are collectively called) are also found in southeastern Europe. In those days, all these territories were covered with dense forests inhabited by a variety of animals. Here, apparently, the last step on the way to Homo sapiens was made.

In the early stages of the development of society, there must have been a selection aimed at the emergence of the ability to put the interests of the tribe above all else, to sacrifice one's own life for the sake of these interests. This was the prerequisite for the emergence of sociality, as Ch. Darwin spoke about.

Without considering in detail the many remarkable technical and cultural achievements characteristic of our ancestors in the early stages of the existence of the H. sapiens species (reduced mainly to the improvement of tools for labor and hunting), we will dwell on three points.

The first is the unprecedented spiritual, mental development of Homo sapiens.

The second greatest achievement in the evolution of Homo sapiens was the discoveries that led to the Neolithic revolution - the domestication of animals and the cultivation of plants (about 10 thousand years ago).

The third major stage in the history of modern Man was the scientific and technological revolution, as a result of which man acquired power over nature (in the last 2 thousand years, and especially in the last 3-4 centuries).

Cultural evolution arose on the basis of biological. For some considerable time, both types of evolution coexisted, influencing the entire development of the genus Homo. At the same time, the influence of biological evolution decreased, while that of cultural evolution increased.

Question 4. Possible ways of human evolution in the future

With the emergence of Man as a social being, the biological factors of evolution gradually weaken their effect, and social factors acquire a leading role in the development of mankind. However, Man still remains a living being, subject to the laws that operate in living nature. All development of the human body follows biological laws. The duration of the existence of an individual person is again limited by biological laws: we need to eat, sleep and fulfill other natural needs that are inherent in us as representatives of the mammalian class. Finally, the process of reproduction in humans proceeds similarly to this process in wildlife, completely obeying all genetic laws. So, it is clear that man as an individual remains at the mercy of biological laws. It is quite a different matter with respect to the action of evolutionary factors in human society.

Natural selection, as the main and guiding force in the evolution of living nature, with the emergence of society, with the transition of matter to the social level of development, sharply weakens its effect and ceases to be the leading evolutionary factor.

The mutation process is the only evolutionary factor that retains its former importance in human society.

Isolation as an evolutionary factor has recently played a significant role. With the development of means of mass movement of people on the planet, there are fewer and fewer genetically isolated groups of the population.

The last of the elementary evolutionary factors - population waves - even in the relatively recent past played a significant role in the development of mankind.

Topic 5. Human morphology

Question 1. The variety of forms and factors of human variability

Each person is morphologically unique, since the hereditary program implemented in his ontogenesis is unique, and the environmental conditions that control the implementation of the genotype into the phenotype are also specific. Among morphological individuals, certain types can be distinguished according to the principle of similarity, i.e. generalized variants of variability.

The variability of the body structure is established by interpopulation, intrapopulation and individual comparisons. It has both geographical (in connection with environmental conditions) and historical conditionality.

Confirmation of the wide morphological variability of the human body is the asymmetry (dyssymmetry) of the body structure, the uneven quantitative and qualitative expression of its structures on the right and left. An example would be the location of unpaired organs: the heart, liver, stomach, spleen, and others, shifted away from the median plane of the body. A person is characterized by the predominance of the right upper and left lower limbs - right-handedness and left-footedness.

Question 2. Growth and development of the human body

The growth and development of organisms are complex phenomena, the results of many metabolic processes and cell reproduction, an increase in their size, processes of differentiation, shaping, etc. These problems are dealt with by specialists of various profiles: embryologists, morphologists, geneticists, physiologists, physicians, biochemists, etc.

There are two types of morphological studies of the human growth process: longitudinal and transverse. In longitudinal studies (individualizing method), the same children are measured annually or several times a year for a number of years. In cross-sectional studies (generalizing method), children of different ages are examined in a short period of time. Thus, an average picture of the growth processes for this group is recreated. The difficulty of longitudinal studies lies in the fact that during the selection of material, as a rule, some of the children drop out and it is practically impossible to examine the entire intended group. Therefore, some variants of a mixed longitudinal study are often used. Cross-sectional studies make it possible to establish normal growth rates and normal limits for each age, however, unlike longitudinal studies, they do not reveal individual differences in growth dynamics. Based on longitudinal studies, it is possible to identify the relationship between morphological and functional parameters, as well as to understand the role of endogenous and exogenous factors in growth regulation.

Question 3. Periodization of individual development

The development of a scientifically substantiated periodization of human ontogeny is extremely complex. It is obvious that any signs alone - morphological, physiological or biochemical - cannot be taken as the basis of periodization. An integrated approach is needed. In addition, periodization should take into account not only biological, but also social factors associated, for example, with the education of children or the retirement of the elderly.

In the most general form, the periodization of the ontogenesis of mammals in general and humans in particular was proposed by the school of A.V. Nagorny in the 60s. These authors divide the entire full cycle of individual development into two periods: prenatal (intrauterine) and postnatal (extrauterine).

Three periods are distinguished in postnatal development: 1) the period of growth, when all the features of the organism (morphological, physiological, biochemical) are formed; 2) a period of maturity during which all these features reach their full development and remain largely unchanged; 3) the period of old age, characterized by a decrease in body size, a gradual weakening of physiological functions.

Question 4. Biological age

When describing the main morphological features of a person in different age periods, as a rule, average indicators are used. However, individual differences in the processes of growth and development can vary widely. These differences are especially pronounced during puberty, when very significant morphological and physiological changes in the body occur in a relatively short period of time. The existence of individual fluctuations in the processes of growth and development served as the basis for the introduction of such a concept as biological age or developmental age.

The formulation of the concept of "biological age" has more ...........

The YouTube channel "Russian Anthropological School of the Russian State Humanitarian University" has posted a full course of video lectures by the director of the Institute of World Culture of Moscow State University and the Russian Anthropological School of the Russian State Humanitarian University, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov (1929-2017) "Semiotic Anthropology". Lectures were delivered via Skype in October-December 2016. In them, Vyacheslav Ivanov touched on the topics of man's place in space, the evolutionary significance of morality and religion, the differences between ancient and modern man, chronology and history in Greek science and its continuations, secret male unions, "hieroglyphic" and "alphabetic" cultures, biosphere and noosphere, the role of folklore in the transmission of information in non-literate societies, the role of humor and wit in culture, and more. others

General introductory remarks: A) What is the concept of this course at the Russian Anthropological School? Why is he unique? B) Why is it necessary to study rare humanitarian disciplines? C) What kind of career can a person with a liberal arts education have? D) What kind of research are you, lecturer Ivanov, currently doing in particular and will you reflect them in your lectures?

Man's place in space. Anthropic principle. The main parameters of the Universe after the Big Bang, which made possible the evolution towards Man. Time in relation to the singularity (moment of the Big Bang) according to the theory of relativity. The Universe at this moment of the beginning of time, according to the research of Acad. HELL. Sakharov and other scientists (two-strong and weak-formulations of the anthropic principle: favoring the emergence of intelligent life or the direction of development in the direction of its emergence). The main characteristics of the density of matter and temperature. The role of the Observer and the Cosmos as the Observed. The degree of reality of the surrounding world according to different concepts.

Biosphere and noosphere (Vernadsky). From animal to human. The correlation of the geosphere, Man and the biosphere and various interpretations of Darwinian evolution: nomogenesis according to L.S. Berg. Molecular biology and theory of evolution. Anthropoids, hominids and man; primatology and anthropology.

The evolutionary significance of morality, ethics and religion. Are the gods dead?

A summary of modern results of comparing the findings of archeology, genetics, comparative linguistics and research into the history of ancient mythology. A picture of the development of higher anthropoid primates From the orangutan (11 million years) to the gorilla, chimpanzee (8-6 million years), bonobos.

Difference between ancient and modern. History in time. Anemism, Levy-Bruhl - "Primitive thinking", participation, Jung - archetypes, world tree, collective unconscious, neolithic revolution. Freud is a totem. Levi-Strauss - structuralism, a systematic description of the myths of the tribes of South America. Vygotsky - "Thinking and Speech", stages of child development, repeating the history of the development of the ancients. James is a bicameral brain. Relay of life.

Correlation between language and metalanguage. A strictly synchronous point of view in the absence of opposites is the Indian science of language (Panini). Ancient Indian sculpture and dance (influence on Bejart). Diachrony and synchrony (Saussure and structuralism). Reconstruction in science. Panchrony and universals.

Chronology and history in Greek science and its sequels. Criticism of history by Morozov and Fomenko. Ideas of cycles in history (ancient Indian periods - yuga, Yeats, Khlebnikov). Cycles of Kondratieff. Evolution and progress. Physiology of activity (N.A. Bernshtein), plans of behavior and frontal lobes. The present as a starting point, the anthropocentrism of language. The role of the future in European cultures. Information and entropy. Search for a new one. Reasons for the appearance of the avant-garde.. Elimination. Noosphere and omega point according to Teilhard de Chardin. Regression and the idea of ​​"the end of Europe" (Spengler). End of story by Fukayama. Fedorov's Philosophy of the Common Cause, the Idea of ​​Resurrection and Russian Cosmic Philosophy.

Hieroglyphic" and "alphabetic" cultures. The difference between the meanings of signs in the writings of these types. Differences in terms, pace and volume of training (time and nature of examinations for officials in old China, etc.). The role of discreteness in cultures of the alphabetic type: the concept of natural series and logical inference. The value of the discrete principle in the sciences of the twentieth century. - genetics, phonology, etc. (about this - Bugaev, Florensky, Kolmogorov). Sketch of L. Tolstoy about karma. Comparison of the "Book of Changes" (I Ching) with modern genetics: similarities and differences. Introduction of hieroglyphs into the language of modern science and criticism of deconstruction. An example of differences in the structure of the definition of a criminal in the hieroglyphic detective story (Liao Zhai=Pu Song Ling) and in the detective story with abduction (Edgar Poe).

"Evolution of the Noosphere in the Early Stages". Different types of thinking of the individual and society in cultures of different types. Hypotheses about a special "primitive" thinking: animism, Levy-Bruhl's theory of participation. The problem of the collective unconscious. Interpretation of totemism by Durkheim and Mauss, Freud, Levi-Strauss. "The Thought of a Savage" and bricolage according to Levi-Strauss. The difference between complex and conceptual thinking and their development and decay according to Vygotsky; biological sources of intelligence. Neurophysiological hypotheses: Jaynes on the "collapse of the bicameral brain" and the rise of consciousness: the difference between the Ancient East and Greece. Jerusalem and Athens, wisdom and reason. Buddhist logic in comparison with European. Justification of Alien Animation and the Problem of the Other-Neighbor in European Philosophy.

Numbers and mathematical concepts in cultures of different types. Assumed biological roots of the determination of number and quantity, their development and degeneration in "primitive" societies (new data on the cultures of the Amazon basin). Numbers in Paleolithic graphics. Early gestural ways of encoding numbers (Ancient Egypt and parallels in other cultures), neurophysiological origins (Gerstmann's syndrome). Hypotheses about the nature of mathematics in ancient Egypt, features of the language of mathematical and medical papyri.

Lack of evidence as the main difference between ancient Indian and European mathematics. An example of Ramanujan. The role of intuition in the cultures of the East and West (different periods). The problem of contradiction and the principle of "the third is not given". Intuitionism and the constructive principle in mathematics; parallels in early cultures. The role of very large and very small numbers in the physical picture of the world. Anthropic principle. Pythagoreanism. Computing capabilities of modern and future computers. Technique of oracles and predictions; probabilistic approach and determinism: in what cultures does God or gods play (play) dice.

The role of folk art and folklore in the transmission of information in non-literate societies. An assessment of the amount of information transmitted by storytellers in the form of songs accompanied by music. Comparison with the amount of information stored and processed by the individual brain, the whole culture and the noosphere. The likely role of music in early societies. Social and semiotic consequences of the appearance of writing and its spread after the Neolithic revolution. The need for accounting in a productive economy, the importance of scribes and the emergence of bureaucracy. The difference between written literature and folklore. Genre differences between folklore and written literature.

Written literature, different from folklore. Doctor Zhivago and Doctor Faustos. Military literature on the example of the Spanish Civil War - Pasternak, Thomas Mann, Grossman, Orwell, Hemingway ...

Kings and advisors. Public institutions of a rigidly organized type (men's unions, churches, monastic orders, parties, mafia groups, etc.) in Eastern and Western traditions. Zoopsychological parallels. Overcoming the Leadership Tendency According to Wagner and the Prehistory of Society (Tikh). The symbolic role of the sacred king and his advisers (Hokart), their new functions after the Neolithic revolution. Stability and probability of catastrophic development in structures of this type. Veneration of the past and the canon in the cultures of the East. The limited number of gods in the pantheon, prominent figures of the past in different areas of life (classics) as a manifestation of the degree of rigid fixation of the main features of culture. Stability of vocabulary and other aspects of the language. Violations of stability at the limiting rigidity of restrictions. Carnival laughter culture and relationship inversion. Joking bickering between halves in dualistic societies. The role of humor and wit. Laughter as peculiar to man (ancient sources of Rabelais, "The Name of the Rose" by W. Eco). The seriousness of fundamentalist religion and official social institutions.

Representations of different cultures about the reality of the surrounding world (cf. the dialogue of different thinkers of the East and West according to Shcherbatsky). The ratio of external and internal. Mysticism in relation to the individual and the collective. The problem of the "bridge" to heaven in shamanism and subsequent cultures. Choosing a savior and mediator (“I want to talk to God without a Christos phone,” Rilke). Attitude towards nature. The role of the aesthetic principle in comparison with others (ethical, religious: Kierkegaard). The idea of ​​Eternal Femininity. Dualism and Gnosticism in Medieval Asia along the Silk Road. The Impact of Arab Medieval Ideas on Europe (Veselovsky and Marr). Gnosticism in European poetry from Dante to Blok. Atheism, theomachism and the conflict of faith and reason in Western societies of modern times. Fundamentalist tendencies of the societies of the East. Art and the problem of World Harmony. The thesis “the world will be saved by beauty” (Dostoevsky) and its implementation in the history of individual cultural traditions: Russian and Byzantine (at different stages), Western European, Old Middle Eastern, South Asian (in particular, Indian) and Ancient Far Eastern. Types of attitude to the world and their aesthetic and philosophical expression. The role of form in art and methods of its study. The history of art without names and the problem of the role of the Genius ("Artist" or Superman, according to Nietzsche). Modern methods of studying art. The role of the Russian formal school. Art and Information Theory.

Hand and brain. Man and his tool. Engineering point of view ( common features ancient Roman and modern American society). The role of technology and tools. Bergson on intelligence and instinct. Comparison with the social systems of invertebrates and their communication (bee dances). Bringing intellectual and linguistic operations outside (gesture language, oral natural language, other systems of signs). Rock painting and its symbolism according to Leroy-Gourhan, Universal semiotic complexes of the era of the world tree according to Toporov (Boddhi tree, image of the crucifixion). Musical instruments as an external realization of the potential of the temporal regions of the right hemisphere. The value of cinema, television and other means of communication. Computers as an extension of the left hemisphere of the brain. The Internet and the possibilities of world culture. Probable development of quantum computers and prospects for the future. The brain as a discrete Turing computer combined with a quantum one.

The main types of civilizations and their differences. The degree of isolation of cultural worlds. Possibilities of communication between them. The Question of Universals, Mutual Influences, and Convergence: The Degree of Independence of the Civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. The main periods of the history of culture on Earth. Cave art. Urban revolution. Axial time, similarities and differences of the main world religions. Trends in the development of European cultures of modern times. Global civilization and its future. The death of local cultures, religions and languages ​​(fundamentalist restoration as a reaction to the threat of death, the aggravation of religious and ethnic conflicts as part of the globalization process). Languages ​​in space. The problem of meaningfulness (or absurdity) of history and the role of the noosphere.

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1. Anthropology - the science of the origin and evolution of man, the formation of races and normal variations in physiological development.

Thing - the origin of human races, the constitution of the human body

Object - person

The main task -study of the process of a person's transition from a biological principle to a social one

2 .sections of anthropology:

Morphology (studies the nature of human variability and features of its physiological significance, reveals age-related changes at different stages of human development, connections with sexual phenomena, the influence of living and working conditions on people)

Anthropogenesis (considers questions: place of man in the system of the animal world, ways of hominization, study of modern and fossil forms of monkeys, evolutionary form of man)

Rasogenesis (studies the similarities and differences between human races, the cause and history of races and the classification of races and the pattern of races on Earth

Methods:

Paleontological (revealing the formation of man, the reason for humanization)

Anatomical-morphological (establishes similarities between races and sexes)

Anthropometric(body measurement)

3 .anropology was formed in the middle of the 19th century. the history of formation is associated with the opening of a society of natural science lovers, the publication of scientific journals and research in anthropology

The date of birth of anthropology is 1864, when, on the initiative of Pyotr Bogdanov, the anthropological department "Society of Natural Science Lovers" was organized, with his name is associated the 1st period of the father of anthropology, which was called "Bogdanovsky"

Peter Simon strips-dictionary of languages ​​and dialects, expeditions studying East Siberia and the Volga region. Contribution to the study of languages.

Karl Baer (the founder of embryology and craneology (the science of the skull), studied the stages of intrauterine development)

Miklukho-Maclay (distinction of races, made an expedition (popuases, studied them lived with them)

V.V. Burnak (human morphology, 1932-first classification, author of a textbook on anthropology)

Dmitry Anunin (investigated the skeleton of monkeys, the problem of the origin of human races, the origin of races from one ancestor, 1889 - anthropological exhibition, founder of the scientific research institute)

4 .Physicists have come to conclusions regarding the origin of mankind. According to physicists, there are many worlds of universes, the universe did not exist in its present form. A reasonable person. if there were no people, there would be no way to study and know oneself. man, with the help of art and science, will capture the Universe. Physics and quantum. The mechanics that in the wake of those active revolutions, stars arose, then planets, and life on the planet. at the end of the 20th century, due to the breakthrough of molecular genetics and the disclosure of DNA, it became known that humanity contains identical DNA. According to molecular genetics, our ancestors are descendants of Cro-Magnons or the crossing of a Neanderthal marriage and Cro-Magnon. According to archaeologists, geographers, it was found that more than 100 million years ago. there were several groups on the territory of Sahara. About 7 thousand years ago due to climate change, the Sahara began to turn into a lifeless one. there was a resettlement of people (Lucy moved to Arabia, but then to Dobak. Ancestors settled from North Africa to Southeast Asia, Siberia, Europe. The races originated from a reasonable person. developed voice apparatus, the ability to grimace, the detection of mirror reflection is discovered. Today, the main problem of ontogeny is culture and technology have reached a level that is dangerous for humanity.

5 .Theories of the emergence of Homo sapiens:

1) Creationism (divine theory) - (a philosophical and methodological concept, within which the main forms of the organic world (life), humanity, the planet, the Earth, and the world as a whole, are considered as deliberately created by some kind of superbeing or deity)

2) panspermism (cosmic theory) - (The hypothesis of the appearance of life on Earth as a result of the settlement of the so-called "germs of life" from outer space.)

3) aqua theory (water monkey theory, Max Westennofer) (the theory of the origin of man, which, in contrast to the generally accepted theory based on the "savannah" dominant factor that forced the great apes to move to bipedalism, considers water as the dominant factor. Hypothesis is intended to justify the difference between man and other primates (lack of hair, protrusion of the chest in females, protrusion of the nose) by the aquatic way of life of one of the ancestors.)

Lecture 1. Topic: The concept of anthropology. Its place in the system of sciences and practice. Lecturer: Ilina Irina Sergeevna State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Pacific State Medical University" of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation

The term is of Greek origin and literally means "the science of man" (anthropos - man and logos - word, doctrine, science) Aristotle was the first to use the term. Anthropology

Anthropology (or anthropological science) in a broad sense is a field of knowledge, the subject of which is a person. The present time is characterized by an ambiguous understanding of the content of anthropology: 1) as a general science of man, combining the knowledge of various natural sciences and the humanities; 2) as a science that studies the biological diversity of man (biological or physical anthropology)

Philosophical anthropology is the science of the essence and essential structure of man, of his main relationships: to nature, society, to people, to himself, about his origin, about the social and metaphysical foundations of his existence, about the main categories and laws of his being.

Religious anthropology is a section that considers a person in relation to the supernatural (divine) principle, from the standpoint of the theological worldview; the doctrine of the essence, origin and purpose of man, of the soul of man and his aspirations to God, based on sacred texts and doctrinal tradition.

Cultural anthropology is a branch of science focused on the study of the cultures of individual peoples and humanity as a whole. Cultural anthropology studies the processes of formation and development of man, society and culture. Social anthropology is a branch of science that studies man and human society, social institutions of various peoples. Assumes a broad humanistic view of the world, based on comparative (cross-cultural) studies and trying to describe all societies - both ancient and modern, comparing them with each other.

Physical (biological) anthropology is a complex natural science discipline that uses biological methods to study various types of modern humans. The subject of study is the diversity of human biological characteristics (variability) in time and space. Hence the two most general branches of science: historical and geographical anthropology. Historically, a more specific division of biological anthropology has developed: anthropogenesis; race studies and ethnic anthropology; proper morphology; ecological anthropology.

Aristotle (BC) was the first to use the term "anthropology" to designate a field of knowledge that studies primarily the spiritual side of human nature. In this sense, the term has been used for over a millennium - and is still used, for example, in theology, philosophy, art history, etc. French enlighteners of the 18th century. still understood anthropology as the totality of knowledge about a person. Anthropology was presented as a universal science about man, systematizing knowledge about his natural history, material and spiritual culture, psychology, language and physical organization. German philosophers of the 18th and early 19th centuries. included in this concept mainly questions of the human mental world - anthropology in their understanding was almost identical to psychology.

By the second half of the XIX century. Anthropology began to be understood as a field of natural science that studies human nature primarily by the methods of biology and comparative anatomy. This was due to the rapid development of the natural sciences throughout the 19th century and the spread of the ideas of evolutionism. Physical anthropology took shape.

As an independent scientific discipline, physical anthropology took shape in the second half of the 19th century. In the 60s. in the countries of Western Europe, the first anthropological societies were established, the first special anthropological works began to be published. In 1850, an ethnological museum was established in Hamburg; the archaeological and ethnological museum at Harvard was founded in 1866, the Royal Anthropological Institute - in 1873, the Bureau of American Ethnology - in 1879. In 1884, the teaching of anthropology at Oxford began. In Paris, on the initiative of P. Broca, in 1859, the Anthropological Scientific Society was founded for the first time, under which a museum and an Anthropological School were organized. In 1863 the Anthropological Society was founded in London. Later similar organizations appear in Germany, Italy and other countries.

Anthropology has received the greatest development abroad in Great Britain and the USA. British anthropology developed on ethnographic material gleaned from outside the country - in numerous colonies. Anthropology in other European countries developed on the basis of local folklore and peasant culture, so it was aimed at studying relations within one society and was called ethnology. In the United States, anthropology was formed in a very specific cultural area - the study of the American Indians, i.e. original inhabitants of the continent.

The origins of anthropological research in Russia are associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller, P. Pallas and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the XVIII-XIX centuries . The works of A. Protasov, S. Zabelin, A. Shumlyansky, D. Ivanov, P. Zagorsky and other Russian anatomists and physiologists in the 18th - 19th centuries. laid a solid foundation for the development of domestic anatomy. The study of human anatomy and physiology created the basis for further anthropological research.

Naturalist, founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, Karl Baer () is also known as one of the largest anthropologists of his time, as an organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. Of particular interest is his work “On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes” (1822), which develops a view of the origin of mankind from a common “root”, that the differences between human races developed after their settlement from a common center, under the influence of various natural conditions in their habitats. This work for the first time is not just a collection of anthropological information, but is an attempt at a demonstrative logical conclusion of a certain hypothesis. Since 1842, K. Baer headed the Anatomical Cabinet of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, where a small craniological collection was kept - a collection of craniums (skulls and their fragments) of a person and his evolutionary predecessors. Baer's merits are especially noted in the development of the program and methods of anthropological, primarily craniological research. K.M. Baer

The official year of the "birth" of anthropology in Russia is 1864, when, on the initiative of the largest Russian anthropologist Anatoly Petrovich Bogdanov (), the Anthropological Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers (later renamed the Society of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography Lovers - OLEAE) was organized.

The development of Russian anthropology in the 60s - 70s. rightly called the "Bogdanov period". OLEAE was engaged in organizing numerous natural-science expeditions, exhibitions, publishing and educational activities, and promoting the financing of science. The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural history knowledge. The work program of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a complex science of the physical type of a person and his culture. In 1867, an ethnographic exhibition organized on the initiative of A. Bogdanov took place in Moscow, at which anthropological materials were also presented. Expeditions were organized to the north of Russia, to its central, western and southern regions, to the North Caucasus, to Georgia and Central Asia. The main attention was paid to archaeological excavations and the collection of craniological collections. A. P. Bogdanov

The opening of the Anthropological Exhibition on April 3, 1879 in Moscow was a real triumph for young Russian anthropology. The years of preparation for the exhibition were the period of the most intensive research activity of A.P. Bogdanov. In 1867, his largest work, Materials on the Anthropology of the Kurgan Period in the Moscow Province, was published, followed by a number of others. At this time, he formulates his theoretical views in the field of anthropology and develops methodological issues. His greatest attention as a researcher was attracted by the study of the ethnogenesis of the Russian people according to craniology. In the 70s. 19th century anthropology, not only in Russia, but also in Europe, still remained outside the circle of university disciplines, although as early as 1864 A.P. Bogdanov proposed a project to read a public course in anthropology. The problems of the origin and classification of human races acquired a political acuteness, which could not but cause a wary attitude towards anthropology in official spheres.

Dmitry Gavrilovich Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology. Being in the years on a business trip abroad, he prepared the Russian Anthropological Department at the World Exhibition of 1878 in Paris. The exposition of the department and the very achievements of Russian anthropology received the highest appraisal of European scientists - OLEAE was awarded a gold medal. In 1880, at the Moscow University, on the initiative of D.G. Anuchin, the first course in physical anthropology in Russia began to work. The first major work of D.G. Anuchina (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic apes and was a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. In a monograph on the anthropology and ethnography of the Ainu (1876), along with anthropological material, D. Anuchin widely used ethnographic, historical, and linguistic data. This integrated approach generally characterizes the direction that was initiated by D.G. Anuchin in Russia. A characteristic feature of all the activities of D. G. Anuchin was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. One of the results of his activities was the establishment in 1882 of the Anthropological Museum in Moscow, the basis for which were the collections collected for the Anthropological Exhibition of 1879. The series "Proceedings of the Anthropological Department", published under the editorship of D. Anuchin, contains a number of works devoted to the anthropological study individual peoples. D.G. Anuchin

The beginning of the "Soviet period" of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D.G. Anuchin. At his request, in the spring of 1919, the department of anthropology was established at Moscow University, which since then has been the main institution in Russia that trains specialists in the field of physical anthropology. After the Institute of Anthropology was organized in 1922, the work of Moscow anthropologists, headed by Viktor Valerianovich Bunak (a student of D. Anuchin), received a new direction. The use of biometric and geographical research methods, begun by Efim Mikhailovich Chepurkovsky (), is intensively developing. Under the leadership of V.V. Bunak, differentiated methods of morphological analysis are being developed. Studies of the anthropological composition of the population of Russia and the republics of the USSR were widely developed.

In the first decades of the XX century. Russian anthropology was a completely independent university discipline. Its basis was the almost uninterrupted scientific tradition of an integrated approach to the study of man (the famous "Anuchinsky triad" of sciences, inextricably linked: anthropology - archeology - ethnography). This period - the stage of formation of physical anthropology - includes the development of general and particular anthropological methods; specific terminology and the principles of research are formed; there is an accumulation and systematization of colossal materials relating to issues of origin, ethnic history, racial diversity and, at the same time, the unity of man as a biological species.
The subject of anthropology is man. More precisely: the subject of anthropology is the diversity of man in time and space. This diversity is made up of manifestations of a large number of very different features - anthropological features. Anthropology subject

1. scientific description of the biological diversity of modern man and interpretation of the causes of this diversity. 2. identification and scientific description of the variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological traits and systems of these (so-called anthropological) traits, as well as the identification of the causes that determine this diversity. 3. to study the processes and stages of the formation of a person as a species, as well as the nature of intraspecific variations, their anatomical and physiological characteristics, and other significant biological and social facts. Tasks of anthropology

Biology is a system of sciences about living nature. Studies the structure and functioning of a living system. Biology is a natural science for the study of man in the world around him. Psychology - studies the psyche of human and animal behavior. From the point of view of anthropology, the relationship of man in society is of interest. Ethnography (translated from Greek. tribe, people) or ethnology (ethnology) - science studies the life and cult of the characteristics of the peoples of the world, the resettlement of peoples. Philosophy studies the most general laws of society and knowledge. Culturology - the study of the function of culture, factors of development, interactions of culture, the development of symbolic systems. Sciences related to anthropology:

Anthropology occupies a special place in the circle of biological disciplines. Having the subject of its study of man, it cannot but go beyond the limits of questions of natural history; studying a person, it enters the field of knowledge where socio-historical factors operate. From this boundary position of anthropology in a number of sciences, its relation to related branches of knowledge also follows. Anthropology is inextricably linked with other biological sciences and at the same time is in close contact with the social sciences.

Lecture #6

Topic: Age Anthropology

1. Patterns of postnatal (after birth) ontogenesis (individual development) of a person.

2. Factors of growth and development in postnatal ontogenesis ( biological age).

3. The main features of human ontogenesis at the present stage ( acceleration, aging and longevity).

Ontogeny is understood as the whole complex of successive transformations of the body, starting from the stage of fertilization of the egg until the end of the life cycle. This process is characterized by the following regularities:

1. Differentiation and integration of parts and functions, autonomization of development, increasing in the course of human phyloontogenesis.

2. Dialectical unity of continuous and discontinuous gradualness and cyclicity. Typical for a person, a gradual slowdown in growth after birth is replaced by its subsequent abrupt acceleration (“pubertal spurt”).

3. Heterochronism (time difference) in the maturation of different organs and tissues within the same system. According to the concept of systemogenesis [P.K. Anokhin], vital functions mature at a faster pace, ensuring the primary formation of complex adaptive reactions specific for each specific stage of the relationship of the organism with the environment.

4. Significant individual diversity of age dynamics, to a certain extent dependent on the uniqueness of the hereditary program.

In domestic biomedical research, the following scheme of age periodization is most often used:

Immediately after birth, the intensity of the growth process increases sharply: by 4-5 months. in today's children, a doubling of body weight at birth is already achieved. From one year to seven years, secondary sexual characteristics are not very pronounced. This period is often referred to as "neutral childhood", however, the features of sexual dimorphism in the proportions of the limbs appear quite early, and by the end of the period, sex differences in the development of fat deposition are outlined (higher in girls) and a change in body shape begins.

Perepubertal(lat. "pubertalis" - manhood) stage in human development is dominant, covers the period of puberty and includes the second childhood, adolescence and partly adolescence. In this period, two phases are usually distinguished: early or prepubertal and mature or proper puberty. prepubertal period(andrenarhe, andrenalis - adrenal glands) begins on average at 7 years for women and in 8 years for men. The most significant phenomenon of this period is the maturation of the androgenic (producing male sex hormones - androgens) zone of the adrenal cortex with an increase in the level of secretion of testosterone, androsterone, androstanedione and other corticosteroids. In addition to some intensification of growth, adrenal androgens also stimulate skeletal and initial puberty. Their importance is especially great in the entire course of the prepubertal development of women. So, in 9 - 11-year-old Russian girls, the difference between the extreme androgenization options is: for body length 10 - 11 cm, for body weight - 6.5 - 9 kg; about 40 - 50% of the total influence of the totality of factors on skeletal age depend on androgens.

AT proper puberty period (gonadarhe) the most significant shifts in morphological and functional parameters occur, and, consequently, there is a high probability of deviation of health indicators, since the frequency of extreme physiological variants increases. The latter have the same direction as the pathological changes. Therefore, accelerated or delayed development is considered as a risk factor in the course of normal ontogeny. In puberty, the “stratification” of groups increases significantly, the number of children with average rates of development decreases, and the number of accelerators and retardants increases.

The main event of the pubertal period is the maturation of the reproductive homeostat system - the himothalamus-pituitary-gonads (sex gland). The entire cycle of changes in the reproductive system is associated with the hypothalamus, the main organ that regulates autonomic functions and biological rhythms of the body, including puberty. Many researchers believe that the puberty complex is based on two main phenomena: 1) age-related decrease in the sensitivity of the hypothalamic centers to the inhibitory effect of sex hormones (androgens and estrogens); 2) increased sensitivity of the gonads to gonadotropic hormones of the pituitary gland.

Sex hormones, along with other factors, cause many important changes in the morphological and functional organization of the adolescent. They regulate the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics, affect sexual behavior, metabolism and morphogenesis. In puberty, there is a rapid increase in body size, a change in its proportions and composition, increased muscle development in men and fat deposition in women. An increase in the muscle component and an increase in the number of red blood cells and hemoglobin in men, apparently, are directly related to the effects of androgens. Androgens increase muscle performance and strength performance. Testosterone enhances andromorphic, and estrogen - gynecomorphic tendency in the topography of subcutaneous fat deposition. The first increases the volume in the shoulders and lowers in the hips, the second - on the contrary. Both groups of sex hormones stimulate the maturation of the skeleton.

An important event of the prepubertal period is spurt - a spasmodic increase in height, observed in men on average at 13-15, and in women at 11-13 years. Many factors are involved in the implementation of the growth spurt, primarily sex hormones and growth hormone (GH).

The complex of purely biological phenomena referred to as "puberty" covers changes in the morphofunctional status under the influence of hormonal and neurophysiological factors. However, during this period, the development of socio-psychological characteristics of the individual also occurs.

The maturation of the reproductive function is completed by the age of 18-20. By this time, the ovulatory cycles in women, the circadian rhythms of testosterone secretion and the production of mature sperm in men are finally established. Completion of linear growth in modern boys and girls is usually ascertained by the age of 16-20, and earlier in women. However, in some populations, growth can continue up to 30-35 years. For example, among the tall Tutsi tribes from East Africa or in the high mountain groups of India. But even after the cessation of long-term growth, morphofunctional development continues, primarily in men: an increase in body weight, chest girth, its excursion, vital capacity of the lungs, dynamometry of the hand, etc. The optimal status ("physiological norm") is usually associated with the age of 20-25 years.

biological age.

When studying any group of developing organisms, attention is drawn to the differentiation of their morphofunctional status, which is largely determined by differences in the rates of individual development. For their assessment, the category of biological age is used. The biological age of an individual is defined as the achieved level of morphofunctional maturation of the organism and is expressed through the average chronological age of the group to which he corresponds in terms of his level of development.

The basic principles for the selection of criteria for biological age are as follows:

1. Complexity. There is no consensus in science which criteria - physiological or morphological - should be the basis of the concept of biological age. From the point of view of the integrity of the biological status of a person at any stage of ontogenesis, it is desirable to assess the biological age on a comprehensive basis.

2. Relationship with chronological age. The relationship between the indicators of development of the main systems of the body and chronological age is expressed by correlations of different strengths, the magnitude of which depends on the stage of ontogenesis. Differentiating influence of the dental system, for example, is higher during periods of teething, secondary sexual characteristics - in puberty.

3. Identity of definitive status. From this point of view, the criteria of bone and tooth age, and partly of sexual development, are most suitable; to a much lesser extent - somatic development.

The leading value of the indicator at this stage of ontogenesis, its relationship with other criteria of biological age. A good example of a leading criterion for puberty is the state of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal system, the parameters of which correlate with a large number of different morphological and functional features.

4. Qualitative homogeneity of the group, against which the individual biological age is determined. Biological age is determined using regional (population) standards, which must be updated periodically (once every 5 to 10 years). Even within the same ethnic group, an ecological gradient is usually expressed: city - village.

Acceleration.

In the last century in many countries there has been an acceleration of somatic, sexual and mental development, denoted by the term "acceleration" (acceleration). According to the main criteria of morphological maturity - dental age, somatic and sexual development - the advance over the past 100 years reaches 1 - 3 years. The body length of newborns increased by an average of 0.5 - 1 cm, in preschoolers - by 10 - 12 cm, and in schoolchildren - by 10 - 15 cm. Acceleration of body length occurs primarily in childhood and adolescence. Stabilization of the length and proportions of the body now usually occurs by the age of 16-17 in women and 18-19 years in men, while earlier this was noted at 20-22 and 22-25 years. There is an accelerated development of muscle strength, the cardiovascular system, motor activity, and the formation of speech functions. The trend towards "rejuvenation" of the age of formation of visual, auditory and emotional reactions can be traced already in children of the first months of life.

Apparently acceleration may not manifest itself to the same extent depending on gender and constitutional type. Some observations noted its greater severity in men. Constitutional differences were also noted, for example, a more distinct acceleration of rates in children of the brachymorphic type, as well as in degistic girls. There are also ethnoterritorial and population differences.

Since all these phenomena have been ascertained mainly over the past century, they are collectively called the "secular trend" ("secular trend"). In addition to the intensification of biological maturation, the secular trend includes a prolongation of the reproductive period, an increase in life expectancy, a restructuring of the incidence structure, and some other manifestations, including an increase in body size at all stages of development.

Fluctuating rates of development are characteristic not only of our epoch; they have taken place before and could be multidirectional. In ancient and medieval Europe, the terms of puberty in terms of menarche were from 12 to 15 years, i.e. they actually reproduce its usual modern fluctuations in European populations. There are reasons to believe that the Neanderthals, the predecessors of modern man, had rates of skeletal maturation even more intense than those of sapiens.

Acceleration, of course, cannot be reduced to the action of any single factor. Numerous hypotheses proposed to explain this phenomenon essentially include almost all biological and social factors that can generally influence ontogeny, and, above all, the whole complex of environmental conditions. It includes: nutrition, urbanization, the progress of medicine, which contributes to the survival of extreme variants, including the largest children, systematic immunization, weakening of physical activity in the growth period, etc.

The microevolutionary processes that take place in modern populations may also be of importance - the change in gene frequencies with the ongoing mixing of the planet's population. All these factors can act both at the individual and population levels.

Apparently, the causes of acceleration, as well as its absence, can be heterogeneous for different groups of humanity. For example, among the Polynesians, not detecting over the last century accelerated development and shifts in body size, the genetic growth potential could be realized already at the previous stages of their biosocial development, which took place under favorable environmental conditions. The absence of acceleration shifts in the rural populations of the Mayan Indians in Central America is explained by the traditional way of life. An example of a specific local cause of the "epidemic" of accelerated puberty in Puerto Rico is the consumption of certain foods high in estrogen-like substances. Perhaps there are more global causes of changes in the pace of development. For example, the hypothesis of adaptation to terrestrial manifestations of solar activity cycles. It is assumed that when it weakened, “bursts” of acceleration occurred, an increase in body size: on the contrary, the maximum solar activity caused a slowdown in growth processes. The geomagnetic field acted as an intermediary between solar activity and the human body. However, this concept does not provide an exhaustive explanation of all available factors.

Thus, acceleration is a process that is heterogeneous in etiology and not entirely unambiguous in its manifestations, which has both positive and some negative sides, including the complexity of personality formation due to the discrepancy between the rates of biological and social development. It is still difficult to fully assess its possible impact on human health. Changes in the structure of morbidity may not be in a causal relationship with acceleration, but develop in parallel due to the commonality of a number of factors that gave rise to these phenomena. On the other hand, there is no doubt that acceleration reflects some very significant aspects of the relationship of the organism with the environment, especially the influence of the anthropogenic factor itself; Comparison of children with different biological ages within a single population suggests that some of the observed differences in the incidence rate of accelerated children compared to controls may be associated with a "strain syndrome" due to significant deviations in the rate of development and a pronounced "disharmony" in the formation of different systems. .

Aging is a universal and natural biological process, characterized by gradualness, timing and steady regression, leading to a decrease in the adaptive capacity, viability of the individual and ultimately determining life expectancy.

Appearances aging is diverse and affects all levels: from molecular to organismal. Its external manifestations include: a decrease in height (by an average of 0.5 - 1 cm per 5 years after 60 years), a change in the shape and composition of the body, smoothing of contours, increased kyphosis, endomorphization, redistribution of the fat component, a decrease in the amplitude of movements of the chest cells, a decrease in the size of the face due to the loss of teeth, an increase in the volume of the brain part of the skull, the width of the nose and mouth, thinning of the lips, a decrease in the number of sebaceous glands, the thickness of the epidermis and the papillary layer of the skin, graying, etc.

Age-related changes in the CNS can be traced both in structural (reduction in brain mass, size and density of neurons) and in functional parameters (decrease in the efficiency of a nerve cell, changes in EGG). Characterized by a decrease in visual acuity and the strength of the accommodative ability of the eye, a decrease in the functions of the auditory analyzer, possibly also taste and some types of skin sensitivity. Weight decreases, other morphometric characteristics change, and hormone formation in a number of endocrine glands, for example, in the thyroid and genital glands, decreases. The trend towards a decrease in basal metabolic rate: by the age of 100, its level is only 50% of the level at 30 years. Protein biosynthesis slows down and decreases, the content of fat in various tissues and in the blood increases, the ratio of lipid fractions changes, tolerance to carbohydrates and insulin supply of the body decreases. Significant changes are observed in the digestive (for example, a decrease in the secretory activity of the digestive organs), respiratory (decrease in VC), excretory (decrease in basic renal functions), cardiovascular (decrease in myocardial contractility, increase in systolic blood pressure, slowing of the rhythmic activity of the heart), blood system (decrease in the number of platelets, the intensity of hematopoiesis, hemoglobin), immunological (impaired cellular and humoral immunity, the body's ability to adapt, autoimmune disorders).

Changes are found at the cellular and molecular levels, as well as in the system of the genetic apparatus itself (the extinction of the functional activity of cells and genes, changes in membrane permeability, an increase in the frequency of chromosomal disorders).

However, the aging process is internally contradictory, since in the course of it not only degradation, disintegration, and a decrease in functions occur, but also important adaptive mechanisms are mobilized, i.e., according to V.V. Frolkis, compensatory-senile processes are unfolding - vitaukt, (from the Latin "vita" - life, "auctum" - increase). Thus, a decrease in the level of secretion of certain hormones is compensated by an increase in the sensitivity of cells to their action; under the conditions of the death of some cellular elements, others begin to perform an increased function, etc.

Such compensatory processes are especially manifest in the characteristics of the intellect, social and psychological spheres.

Like the processes of growth and development, aging proceeds heterochronously. Gerontologists noted that atrophy of the key organ of the body's immunological defense - the thymus - begins at the age of 13-15, and the gonads in women - at 48-52 years; in the skeletal system, individual shifts can appear very early, but develop slowly, while in some structures of the central nervous system they do not appear for a long time, but subsequently develop very quickly. Thus, single manifestations of "senile" involution are observed already in the third and even in the second decades of life. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between aging as a long-term heterochronous process and old age as its final phase, the nature and time of onset of which is determined by the rate and intensity of physiological aging, which in turn depends on many factors.

Naturally, the very framework of the senile period itself changed at the stages of human development and in connection with specific ecological and population specifics.

Determination of biological age during aging is necessary for solving socio-genetic, clinical, gerontological problems, in assessing the effectiveness of measures to prolong active longevity. However, in contrast to the period of development, for which there is a clear standard of status - the state at the end of puberty, in the aging period it is impossible to single out an unambiguous "standard of old age". It is proposed to take as a starting point the state of the body in the period of 20-25 years as the "optimal norm"; at the same time, the existence of a clear line between the manifestations of aging and age-related pathology is denied (V.M. Dilman).

According to another point of view (V.V. Frolkis), there is no single “ideal norm” for all ages; each stage of development, including the descending one, should be characterized by its own age norm.

Various morphological, physiological, biochemical, immunological, and, to a lesser extent, psychological indicators reflecting general and professional performance, health, and adaptability can be used as criteria for biological age. Recently, the prospects of using for this purpose data on age-related changes at the molecular level, the “molecular profile” of aging, have been pointed out.

Most often, the battery of tests used by gerontologists in determining biological age includes: body weight, blood pressure, cholesterol and glucose levels in the blood, as well as eye accommodation, visual acuity and hearing, hand dynamometry, joint mobility, some psychomotor tests.

Aging and life expectancy depend on the impact of many exogenous and endogenous factors. In interspecific comparisons, the following were found to be positively associated with lifespan: body and brain weight, cerebralization coefficient, cerebral cortex surface, adrenal weight, age of puberty, duration of the mature period; and negatively - metabolism, the frequency of chromosomal aberrations, the content of free radicals in tissues, the rate of lipid peroxidation, etc., i.e. there is a direct relationship between the species life expectancy and the power of life support systems and the opposite - with an array of damaging factors.

There is no unambiguous definition of species life expectancy. Conventionally, it is understood as the age to which approximately 80% of the representatives of the species can potentially live. However, this is not some one age, but a range of fluctuations in normal life expectancy with its extreme options - transience and longevity. Determining this age with sufficient accuracy is extremely difficult, especially in humans, since a large number of various factors affect individual life expectancy.

The French naturalist of the 18th century, J. Buffon, believed that life expectancy should be approximately 6-7 times longer than the length of the growth period, which gives a person 90-100 years. This very approximate interval fits a significant part of the estimates given by different authors. With all the relativity of the proposed calculations, this period is apparently close to the longevity limit. The maximum life expectancy of a person is about 115 - 120, possibly up to 130 years.

The data of gerontological genetics show that within the species life span of parents and offspring, it turned out to be the longest if both parents were centenarians.

A number of studies have shown unequal resistance of phenotypes to chronic and hereditary diseases. The absence of hereditary predisposition to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, etc. can be an important component of longevity. The role of the hereditary factor seems to be more significant in areas with less favorable environmental conditions.

Sex differences in life expectancy, to a certain extent, also go back to the genetic factor: the greater reliability of the genetic apparatus in female individuals. However, this assumption is not confirmed for all animal species. In accordance with the hypothesis of the male part of the population as its evolutionary vanguard, the potential tendency to lengthen life should be genotypically better expressed in males. From this point of view, it is explained that the "champions" of longevity are more common among them. However, even in this case we cannot talk about a universal regularity.

Many factors and manifestations of the aging process led to the existence of over 200 hypotheses about the nature and causes of this phenomenon. Among them, two main groups of concepts can be distinguished:

Grouped around the general molecular hypothesis of errors, which considers the aging process as a result of the accumulation of damaged molecules in the body, which occurs randomly and even chaotically. With age, the proportion of damaged biomass continuously increases, which leads to a decrease in the functional capabilities of the body, the more intense the exchange.

Course of lectures on anthropology for 1st year psychologists DonNU