Tectonics and general features of the relief. Geological structure and relief of Russia

Geological structure planets is directly related to the formation of the earth's crust. The geology of the planet began with the formation of the crust. Scientists, after analyzing ancient rocks, came to the conclusion that the age of the Earth's lithosphere is 3.5 billion years. The key types of tectonic structures on land are geosynclines and platforms. They are seriously different from each other.

Platforms are large and stable patches of the earth's crust that are composed of crystalline ground and relatively young rocks.

In most cases, there are no rock formations and active volcanoes on the platforms. Earthquakes are not often seen here, and vertical movements cannot develop high speed. The crystalline base of the Russian platform was formed in the Proterozoic and Archean eras, that is, two billion years ago. During this era, the planet underwent serious transformations, and the mountains became their logical outcome.

Crystal schists, quartzites, gneisses and other ancient rocks have turned them into folds. During the Paleozoic era, the mountains became smoother, their surfaces slowly oscillated.

When the surface is below the boundary ancient ocean, the process of marine transgression and accumulation of marine sediments began. Sedimentary rocks such as clay, salt, limestone accumulated intensively. When the land was freed from water, red-colored sands accumulated. If sedimentary material accumulated in shallow lagoons, brown coal and salt were also concentrated here.

During the Paleozoic and Mesozoic epochs, crystalline rocks were overlain by a thick sedimentary cover. For detailed analysis of these rocks, it is necessary to drill wells to extract the core. Specialists can conduct a thorough study of the geological structure, studying the natural outcrop of rocks.

On a par with classical geological research modern science aerospace and geophysical research methods. The rise and fall of the Russian territory, the creation of continental conditions are provoked by tectonic movements, the nature of which has not yet been explained. But the connection of tectonic processes with those that occur in the bowels of the planet is beyond doubt.

Geology distinguishes several types of tectonic processes:

Ancient. Movements of the Earth's crust that occurred during the Paleozoic era.
New. Movements of the Earth's crust that occurred during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.
Newest. Movements of the earth's crust over the past few million years.

Newest tectonic processes played a key role in the formation of modern relief.

Relief features in Russia

The relief is the totality of all the irregularities that are on the surface of the earth. This should also include the seas and oceans.

Relief performs important role in the formation climatic conditions, the distribution of certain groups of animals and plants, strongly affects the economic activity of people. According to geographers, relief is the framework of nature. The relief on the territory of Russia surprises with the diversity and complexity of its structure. Endless plains here are replaced by mountain chains, intermountain basins and volcanic cones.

Images from space and the physical map of the country make it possible to determine some regularities in the orographic pattern of the territory of the state. Orography - the relative position of the relief in relation to each other.

Features of the orography of Russia:

The territory is 60 percent plains.
The west and center of the country are lower than the other parts. The border between the parts runs along the Yenisei.
Mountains are located on the outskirts of the country.
The territory leans towards the Arctic Ocean. This is evidenced by the course of the Northern Dvina, Ob, Yenisei and other large rivers.

On Russian territory there are plains that are considered the largest on the planet - Russian and West Siberian.

The Russian Plain is characterized by a hilly relief, an alternation of uplands and lowlands. The northeast of the plain is higher than the rest of its parts. The plain rises above the ocean level in this part by more than 400 meters. In the south of the plain is the Caspian lowland. This is the lowest part of the plain, rising only 28 meters above the ocean level. The average height is 170 meters.

The relief of the West Siberian Plain does not impress with its diversity. The main part of the lowland is located below the World Ocean by 100 meters. The average height of the plain is 120 meters. The maximum height indicators are observed in the northwestern part of the plain. Here is the North Sovinskaya Upland, thanks to which the plain rises 200 meters above the ocean.

The Ural Range acts as a watershed between these plains. The spine is no different great height and width. Its width is no more than 150 kilometers. The peak of the Urals is Narodnaya Gora - its height is 1895 kilometers. The total length of the Ural Mountains in the southern direction is about 2 thousand kilometers.

The Central Siberian Plateau ranks third in terms of area among the plains in Russia. The object is located between the Yenisei and Lena. The average height of the plateau is 480 meters above the ocean. The highest point of the plain is in the zone of the Putorana Plateau. It is located 1700 meters above the ocean.

The plateau in the eastern part smoothly passes into the Central Yakut lowland, and in the north - into the North Siberian Plain. The outskirts of the country in the South-East are occupied by mountainous regions.

The highest mountains of the country are located between the Caspian and Black Seas, in southwest direction from the Russian Plain. Here is also the highest point in the whole country. This is Mount Elbrus. Its height reaches 5642 meters.

Along the southern edge of the country eastbound pass the Sayan Mountains and the Altai Mountains. The top of the Sayans is Munku-Sardyk, and the top of the Altai Mountains is Belukha. Smoothly these mountains pass into the Cis-Baikal and Trans-Baikal ranges.

The Stanovoi range connects them with the northeastern and eastern ranges. Ranges of small and medium height are found here - Suntar-Khayata, Verkhoyansky, Chersky, Dzhugdzhur. In addition to them, there are highlands here - Kolyma, Koryak, Yano-Oymyakon, Chukchi. In the southern side of the Far East, they are connected with the Amur and Primorsky ridges of medium height. For example, this is Sikhote-Alin.

In the extreme East of Russia, you can see the Kuril and Kamchatka mountains. All active volcanoes in Russia are concentrated in these places. The highest of the currently active volcanoes is Klyuchevskaya Sopka. A tenth of the entire territory of Russia is occupied by mountains.

Mineral Russian minerals

Russia is the world leader in mineral reserves among all the states of the planet. To date, 200 deposits have been discovered. total cost deposits - about 300 trillion dollars.

Russian minerals in relation to the world reserve:

oil, 12 percent;
natural gas - 30 percent;
coal - 30 percent;
potassium salts - 31 percent;
cobalt - 21 percent;
iron ore - 25 percent;
nickel - 15 percent.

In the bowels of the Russian land there are ore, non-metallic and combustible minerals.

The fossil fuel group includes coal, oil, natural gas, oil shale and peat. The largest deposits are in Siberia, the Volga region, the Baltic region, the Caucasus, the Yamal Peninsula.

The group of ore minerals includes iron, manganese, aluminum ores, as well as non-ferrous metal ores. The largest deposits are located in Siberia, Gornaya Shoria, the Kola Peninsula, the Far East, Taimyr and the Urals.

Russia ranks second in the world in terms of diamond production after South Africa. A variety of precious stones, minerals, building minerals are mined in large quantities on the territory of the Russian Federation.

The planets are closely related to each other, because the geology of the Earth begins with the formation of the crust. The age of the earth's lithosphere, as evidenced by the most ancient rocks, is more than $3.5 billion years. On land, two main types of tectonic structures are distinguished - platforms and geosynclines, which differ significantly from each other.

Definition 1

Platforms- these are stable, vast areas of the earth's crust, consisting of a crystalline basement and a sedimentary cover of younger rocks

Platforms usually don't have rock formations, vertical movements have a very low speed, there are no modern active volcanoes, earthquakes are very rare. The formation of the crystalline basement of the Russian Platform dates back to the Archean and Proterozoic eras, which is about $2 billion years ago. At this time, powerful mountain-building processes took place on the earth.

The result of these processes were mountains, composed of ancient rocks crumpled into folds such as gneisses, quartzites, crystalline schists. By the beginning of the Paleozoic, these mountain formations leveled off, and their surface experienced slow fluctuations. If the surface fell below the level of the ancient ocean, a marine transgression began with the accumulation of marine sediments. There was a formation of sedimentary rocks - limestones, marls, dark-colored clays, salts. On land, when it rose and was freed from water, there was an accumulation of red sands and sandstones. With the accumulation of sedimentary material in shallow lagoons, lakes, the accumulation of brown coal and salt. In the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, ancient crystalline rocks turned out to be overlain by a sedimentary cover of a fairly large thickness. To determine the composition, thickness, properties of these rocks, geologists drill wells in order to get a certain amount of core from it. Experts can explore the geological structure by studying the natural outcrop of rocks.

Today, along with traditional geological methods, geophysical and aerospace research methods are used. The rise and fall of the territory of Russia, the formation of continental conditions are due to tectonic movements, the causes of which are not yet completely clear. The only thing that is indisputable is that they are connected with the processes that take place in the bowels of the Earth.

Geologists distinguish the following tectonic processes:

Ancient - the movements of the earth's crust occurred in the Paleozoic;
New - movements of the earth's crust occurred in the Mesozoic and early Cenozoic;
The latest are tectonic processes characteristic of the last few million years. They played a particularly important role in the creation of modern relief.

General features of the relief of Russia

Definition 2

Relief- this is a set of irregularities on the surface of the Earth, including oceans, seas.

The relief has a great influence on the formation of climate, the distribution of plants and animals, and on the economic life of man. Relief, as geographers say, is the framework of nature, so its study usually begins with the study of relief. The relief of Russia is surprisingly diverse and quite complex. Majestic mountain ranges, ancient ridges, cones of volcanoes, intermountain basins are replacing the endless plain expanses. The physical map of Russia and images taken from space show well the general patterns of the country's orographic pattern.

Definition 3

Orography- the relative position of the relief relative to each other.

Orography of Russia:

The territory of Russia is $60% occupied by plains;
Lower are the western and central parts of Russia. A clear boundary between these parts runs along the Yenisei River;
Mountains on the territory of Russia are located on its outskirts;
In general, the territory of the country has an inclination towards the Arctic Ocean. Proof of this is the flow of large rivers - the Northern Dvina, Pechora, Lena, Yenisei, Ob, etc.

On the territory of Russia there are two major plains world - East European or Russian and West Siberian.

Relief of the Russian Plain hilly, with alternating high and low areas. The northeast of the Russian Plain is higher - more than $400 m above the level of the World Ocean. The Caspian lowland, located in its southern part, is the lowest part - $ 28 $ m below the level of the World Ocean. The average heights of the Russian Plain reach about $170$ m.

Relief West Siberian Lowland does not differ in variety. The lowlands lie mostly $100$ m below the level of the World Ocean. Her average height is $120$ m, and only in the northwest the height rises to $200$ m. The North Sosvinskaya Upland is located here.

The watershed between the plains is Ural ridge t. The ridge itself does not have high altitudes, and its width reaches $150$ km. The top of the Urals is the city of Narodnaya, with a height of $1895$ m. Ural mountains from north to south for $2000$ km.

The third largest plain in Russia is located between the Lena and the Yenisei - this high plain is called Central Siberian Plateau. The average height of the plateau above the ocean level is $480$ m. maximum height located in the region of the Putorana Plateau - $1700$ m. The plateau in the east is gradually turning into Central Yakutsk plain, and in the north it descends as a step into North Siberian lowland.

Mountainous areas Russia occupy the southeastern outskirts of the country.

To the south-west of the Russian Plain, between the Black and Caspian Seas, the highest mountains of Russia are located - caucasian. Here is the highest point of the country - Elbrus, the height of which is $5642$ m.

From west to east along the southern outskirts of Russia, they go further Altai Mountains and Sayans. The tops of which, respectively, are the cities of Belukha and Munku-Sardyk. Gradually, these mountains pass into the ranges of Cisbaikalia and Transbaikalia.

Stanovoy Ridge connects them with the ranges of the northeast and east of Russia. Here are located medium-high and low ranges - Chersky, Verkhoyansky, Suntar-Khayata, Dzhugdzhur. In addition to them, there are numerous highlands here - Yano-Oymyakonskoe, Kolyma, Koryakskoe, Chukchi.

In the southern part of the Far East of the country, they are connected with low and medium-altitude ridges. Amur and Primorye, for example, Sikhote-Alin.

Mountains in the extreme east of the country Kamchatka and the Kuriles. All the active volcanoes of the country are located here, and the highest of the active volcanoes is Klyuchevskaya Sopka. Mountains occupy $10$% of the territory of Russia.

Minerals of Russia

Russia, in terms of mineral reserves, occupies a leading position in the world. Today, more than $200$ of deposits are known, the total value of which is estimated at $300 trillion. dollars.

Certain types of Russian minerals in world reserves are:

Oil reserves - $12$%;
Natural gas reserves - $32$%;
Coal reserves - $30$%;
Reserves of potash salts - $31$%;
Cobalt - $21$%;
Stocks iron ore – $25$ %;
Nickel reserves - $15$%.

In the bowels of Russia there are combustible, ore, non-metallic minerals.

Fuels include:

Coal. The largest deposits of which are Kuznetsk, Pechora, Tungusskoe;
Oil of Western Siberia, North Caucasus and the Volga region;
Natural gas, as a rule, accompanies oil fields. But, in Russia there is also purely gas fields on the Yamal Peninsula;
Peat, the largest deposit of which is the Vasyugan deposit in Western Siberia;
Burning shale. During their distillation, a resin is obtained, in composition and properties, close to oil. The Baltic shale region is the largest.

Ore minerals are represented by a variety of ores.

Among them:

Iron ore, in terms of the reserves of which Russia ranks first in the world. Known deposits are KMA, Kola Peninsula, Gornaya Shoria;
manganese ores. There are 14 known deposits in the Urals, Siberia and the Far East. The largest deposits of manganese are concentrated in the Yurkinsky, Berezovsky, Polunochnoye deposits;
aluminum ores. The extraction of aluminum for the country is quite costly, because the ore is of poor quality. The Ural and West Siberian reserves of nephelines and bauxites are quite large. A more promising region includes the North Ural region;
Russia ranks first in the world in terms of non-ferrous metal ores. The most significant deposits are located in Eastern Siberia and on the Taimyr Peninsula.

By production diamonds in world volume, Russia accounts for $25$% and only South Africa produces more than Russia.

From non-metallic Minerals Russia produces precious stones of both organic and mineral origin, and a wide range of building minerals.

On the hypsometric map of Russia and on photographs from space, the orographic pattern of the entire territory of our country is clearly visible. It is characterized by a complex combination of low and elevated plains, plateaus, highlands and mountains.

On the vast plains, vast areas are occupied by lowlands with heights of less than 200 m, among which elevations and individual island ridges are scattered in some places. The plains of the SS are raised higher, these are rather plateaus strongly indented by valleys, especially along the edges. They form, as it were, a step in the transition from the lowlands of the west of the country to the highlands of its east. Most of the plains have a stable foundation for a long time, a calm geological regime. But in the distant past, the plains either sank or rose, and more than once served as the bottom of the sea, and their very flatness is often due to strata deposited in the ancient seas.

The mountainous regions of the country, in contrast to the plains, are not so calm: the earth's crust is here and now mobile, subject to compression, distortion, crushing, especially intense uplift and subsidence; it is the scene of ongoing modern mountain building.

The map shows that the mountainous outskirts of our country are divided into three heterogeneous stripes - southern, eastern and diagonal. South - a link of the Alpine-Himalayan belt of geologically young mountain structures (Caucasus). The eastern strip is a link of an even younger East Asian mountain belt, and with it a part of a grandiose ring of mountain systems that hugs the Pacific Ocean from almost all sides (Sikhote-Alin, the Kuril-Kamchatka ridge, Sakhalin). The third strip of mountains obliquely crosses the eastern half of the country from the uplands of Chukotka and Kolyma to the south of Siberia.

The southern and eastern bands are zones not only of the latest vertical uplifts, but also of the most recent folding. In contrast to them, the structures of the third strip are built with folds of various, including the most ancient, age. However, the latest uplift also took place here long ago, as well as in the zones of young folding.

But not all links of the folded margins were uplifted at the last stage of geological history. Some, on the contrary, sank and in some places turned out to be flooded by the Pacific, Caspian, Black seas. Therefore, the bands of raised folds do not form continuous barriers, but alternate with depressions, depressions, and in some places, in coastal areas, form islands.

Mountain fringing could exist in the north of the country, but the land here sank for a long time under the waters of the Arctic seas, and the mountain systems turned into isolated archipelagos. This is how Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya arose. Separated in the form of two islands of Novaya Zemlya and the northern continuation of the mountain shaft of the Urals.

Such, in the most general terms, is the picture of the horizontal division of the land surface of our country. But dismemberment in plan is also characteristic of the coasts, where peninsulas and islands, bays and straits are distinguished.

Major bays represent whole seas: the Baltic, White, Black with Azov, Okhotsk, each of them has its own dead-end bulges.

The Far Eastern Seas - the Bering Sea and the Sea of Japan - in contrast to the "seas-bays" are "seas-straits". Each of the marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean is also a kind of bay-strait: they are delimited by archipelagos of islands interrupted by straits.

The bottom of the seas has its own relief, in which one can distinguish between plains and mountain systems (for example, a strip of mountains with the Mendeleev, Lomonosov and Otto Schmidt mountain ranges in the Central Arctic), and the deepest depressions, including the Kuril-Kamchatskaya, the third in the world in depth , reaches 10540 m below sea level. The relatively shallow bottom near the seas of the Arctic rises above the depths of the central parts of the Arctic Ocean like a balcony, forming a continental shelf or shelf.

Plains are concentrated mainly in the western half of Russia, and plateaus, highlands and mountains prevail in the east - from the Yenisei valley to the coasts of the seas Pacific Ocean. Plains make up about 60% of the territory. The two largest of them - BE and WS - belong to the greatest plains peace. Medium-altitude mountain systems stretch like a continuous barrier parallel to the coasts of the Pacific Ocean seas. In the south, along the border, there is a belt high mountains, from which the entire territory drops to the Arctic Ocean. Along this slope flow to the north the largest rivers of Siberia - the Ob, Yenisei, Lena. And to the south from the Arctic, powerful currents of cold air pass through the plains.

The southern belt of mountains is included in the zone of high uplifts of Eurasia and consists of separate mountain systems of different ages: the Caucasus, Altai, Sayan, Baikal and Transbaikalia. The Caucasus and Altai are among the high mountains of Eurasia.

Climate is a long-term weather regime that has developed as a result of the interaction of the atmosphere with all natural and geographical factors and is subject to the influence of space and economic activity person.

The climate of Russia is formed under the influence of a number of climate-forming factors and processes. The main climate-forming processes are radiation and circulation, which are determined by the conditions of the territory.

Radiation- incoming solar radiation - the energy base, it determines the main influx of heat to the surface. The farther from the equator, the smaller the angle of incidence sun rays, the smaller the amount received. The expenditure part consists of reflected radiation (from albedo) and effective radiation (increases with decreasing cloudiness, total - from north to south).

In general, the radiation balance in the country is positive. The only exceptions are some islands in the Arctic. In winter it is everywhere negative, in summer it is positive.

Circulating. Due to the different physical properties of the land and the ocean, uneven heating and cooling of the air in contact with them occurs. As a result, there are movements air masses various origins- atmospheric circulation. It proceeds under the influence of centers of low and high pressure, their position and severity varies seasonally. However, in most of our country, westerly winds prevail, bringing Atlantic air masses, with which the main precipitation is associated.

The influence is especially great in winter, due to the western transfer of warm and humid air masses from the Atlantic.

Big sizes the territory of our country, the presence of vast valleys and large mountain systems led to a clear zonal provincial distribution of soils, vegetation and animals. The main conditions for the formation of biocomponents are the ratio of temperature and moisture. the relief of the territory and the degree of continentality of the climate have a significant influence on their distribution.

The unity of the biocomplex is due to the zonal structure of atmospheric processes, the interaction of all components of nature and the long history of the development of the territory in the Phanerozoic.

The distribution of soils, vegetation and animals on the territory of Russia determines the law of zoning on the plains and altitudinal zonality in the mountains. Therefore, when moving along the meridians or along the slopes of mountains, due to changes in hydro-climatic conditions, there is a gradual change of some types of soils and vegetation, as well as animal complexes, to others.

But at the same time, the increasing continentality of the climate to the east (up to certain limits) and the different geological history of large geostructures (platforms and folded belts) led to the differentiation of soils, flora and fauna, i.e. to the manifestation of provinciality (sectorism).

Features of the orography of the territory are predetermined by a complex geological history and diverse geological structure. Large lowlands, plains and plateaus correspond to platforms, and mountain structures correspond to folded belts.

The territory of Russia is located on several lithospheric plates: the northern part of the Eurasian, the western part of the North American, the northern part of the Amur. And only the Sea of Okhotsk plate is almost completely located on the territory of the country.

The earth's crust within Russia, as elsewhere on Earth, is heterogeneous and uneven in age. It is heterogeneous both in plan and vertically.

Rigid, stable parts of the earth's crust - platforms - differ from more mobile - folded belts, which are more subject to both compression and vertical swings. Platforms are characterized, as a rule, by a two-tier structure, where a crumpled crushed base and a cover of horizontal layers covering it are distinguished.

The oldest platforms are considered Precambrian. Their foundation is composed not only of the oldest rocks, which are more than 570-600 million years old, but was also crumpled into folds before the strata of subsequent eras arose. This is the structure of our two vast platforms, which are among the largest in the world.

In those parts where the most ancient structures of the Earth were not flooded by the seas, or where marine deposits were eroded in subsequent epochs, an ancient foundation comes to the surface - the so-called shields. There are also underground outcrops of the foundation that come close to the surface (Voronezh crystalline massif). Before its vault, only in one place did Don “dig” it.

Stable platforms increased in size over time - sections of neighboring folded zones were soldered to them, which acquired rigidity in the process of crushing. At the end of the Precambrian era, i.e. 500-600 million years ago, the Baikal folding sharply increased the Precambrian core of the future Siberian platform: huge folded massifs of the Baikal region and parts of Transbaikalia were attached to the Aldan Shield.

During the Paleozoic era, powerful folding shook the earth's crust twice. The first, called the Caledonian folding, took place in several stages in the early Paleozoic, 300-400 million years before our days. The folds in the center of the Sayans remained his monuments. The second, called the Hercynian folding, proceeded in the Late Paleozoic (200-250 million years ago) and turned a huge trough of the earth's crust between the Russian and Siberian platforms into the Ural-Tienshan folded zone. As a result of this folding, the Russian and Siberian platforms united into an integral continent - the basis of the future Eurasia.

In a wide belt adjacent to the Pacific Ocean, the main stage of the collapse of the earth's crust was the Mesozoic era - 60-190. its structures, called the Pacific, have built up Siberian platform from the east, forming powerful folded areas in Primorye, the Amur region, Transbaikalia and in the northeast of Siberia.

After the Mesozoic movements, only two vast bands have not lost their susceptibility to collapse, where the restless regime has been preserved. One stretched across the Alps and the Caucasus to the Himalayas. The second strip, bordering the east of Asia and including the western margins of the Pacific Ocean, is the East Asian folded region. Both areas continued to exist not only in the Mesozoic, but also later. It was in the Cenozoic, i.e. in the last 60 million years, they have been the scene of powerful upheavals. Here the last of the foldings unfolded - the Alpine one, during which the bowels of the Caucasus, Sakhalin, Kamchatka and the Koryatsky Highlands were crushed. These active areas continue to exist today, showing their activity by numerous earthquakes, and in the East Asian mountain-island arcs and volcanism.

In the second half of the Alpine era of folding - in the Neogene, 10-20 ml. years ago, a completely new stage in the history of the earth's crust began, which was of particular importance for the modern relief. It is associated with the latest, or neotectonic, movements, predominantly vertical uplifts and subsidences, which engulfed not only the Alpine mobile zones, but also structures of very different ages that were significantly remote from them.

The youngest folded zones were subjected to very intense impact: the Caucasus, Sakhalin and the Kuril-Kamchatka arc. All these mountainous countries now exist not so much as a result of recent folding, but as a result of the recentness and intensity of these newest vertical uplifts. In the general diagonal belt of mountains, structures of different ages were involved in the uplift, such as Precambrian (south of the Aldan shield, Baikalides of the Stanovoy Range and highlands), Paleozoic (Hercynides of Altai, Ural), Mesozoic (northeast Asia). The latest movements were expressed not only in uplifts, but also in downfalls. Lowerings of the earth's crust have created the modern appearance of the depressions of the seas and large lakes, many lowlands and basins (Baikal). Foothill depressions adjoining young mountains underwent especially strong subsidence.

The stability of platforms in relation to crushing does not mean immobility in general. Both platforms and folded areas are subject to a different type of movement - alternating vertical oscillations (notions and lowerings).

The connection between the relief and the structure of the earth's crust is approximately as follows: the higher the borrowed surface, the greater the thickness of the crust. The largest is where the mountain formations are (40-45 km), the smallest is the hollow Sea of Okhotsk. isostatic equilibrium. At the contact of the Eurasian and North American plates, the plates move apart (Moma rift) and the zone of scattered seismicity is formed. The latter is also characteristic of the margin of the Sea of Okhotsk plate. At the contact of the Eurasian and Amur, there is also a separation - the Baikal rift. Sea of Okhotsk at the contact with the Amur (Sakhalin and the Sea of Japan) convergence of plates - 0.3-0.8 cm per year. The Eurasian borders with the Pacific, North American, African (Arabian) and Indian (Indostan-Pamir). The belts of compression of the lithosphere between them are the Alpine-Asian in the south and the Circum-Pacific in the east. The margins of the Eurasian Plate are active in the east and south and passive in the north. In the east, the ocean subsides under the mainland: the junction zone consists of marginal seas, island arcs, and a deep-water trench. To the south are mountain ranges. The passive margins in the north are a huge shelf and a distinct continental slope.

Eurasia is characterized by linear and ring structures, established according to the data satellite images, geological and geophysical and geological research. seismic cores of the continental crust. Nuclears, 14.

The heat flow of the Earth on the territory of Russia has different meaning: the smallest values on the ancient platforms and the Urals. Elevated - on all young platforms (slabs). The maximum values are folded belts, the Baikal rift, marginal seas of TO.

With depth, the temperature in the Earth gradually increases. Beneath the oceanic plates, the temperature of the mantle reaches the melting point of mantle rocks. Therefore, the surface of the beginning of the melting of mantle matter is taken as the sole of the lithosphere under the oceans. Below the oceanic lithosphere, the mantle matter is partially molten and plastic with a reduced viscosity. The plastic layer of the mantle stands out as an independent shell - the asthenosphere. The latter is clearly expressed only under oceanic plates; it is practically absent under thick continental plates (basalt magmatism). In the vicinity of continental plates, it can manifest itself only when the hot mantle substance, due to the split of the plate, can rise to the level of the beginning of the melting of this substance (80-100 km).

The asthenosphere has no tensile strength and its substance can deform (flow) under the action of even very small excess pressures, although very slowly due to the high viscosity of the asthenosphere substance (of the order of 10 18 - 10 20). For comparison, the viscosity of water is 10 -2, liquid basalt lava 10 4 - 10 6, ice - about 10 13 and rock salt - about 10 18.

Movements of lithospheric plates on the surface of the asthenosphere occur under the influence of convective currents in the mantle. Separate lithospheric plates can diverge, approach or slide relative to each other. In the first case, tension zones with rift cracks along the plate boundaries appear between the plates, in the second case, compression zones accompanied by thrusting of one of the plates onto the other, in the third case, shear zones, transform faults, along which the neighboring plates are displaced.

As the main categories of tectonic regions, we will single out: 1. relatively stable regions - ancient platforms, mainly with a pre-Upper Proterozoic metamorphic basement, 2. Neogaean mobile mobile belts, consisting of folded regions of different ages (in place of dead geosynclinal regions) and modern geosynclinal regions, 3. areas, transitional - metaplatforms.

ancient platforms, or cratons, represent vast areas of ancient civilization measured in millions of square kilometers. continental crust, largely formed in the Archaean and almost entirely by the end of the Early Proterozoic. The Neogay is a relatively calm tectonic regime: the "sluggishness" of vertical movements, their weak differentiation over the area, relatively low rates of uplift and subsidence (less than 1 cm / thousand years). At the early mega-stage of development, most of their area experienced uplift, and subsidence mainly involved narrow linearly elongated graben-like depressions—aulacogens. At a later, plate mega-stage (Phanerozoic), a significant area of platforms was drawn into subsidence, on which a cover of almost undislocated deposits, a plate, was formed. Simultaneously with the subsidence of the basement, areas of platforms separated themselves within the plates, which for most of their history had a tendency to rise and represent vast protrusions of the ancient basement - shields.

The cover of ancient platforms usually does not bear traces of metamorphic changes, which, like the absence or limited development of manifestations of magmatism, is explained by a significant decrease in the thermal regime during the formation of ancient platforms and, as a rule, by a low heat flow over most of their territory (except for aulacogenes). However, manifestations of magmatism took place in some zones of ancient platforms, and in some rare phases, due to anomalous heating of the upper mantle beneath them, ancient platforms could become the scene of powerful trap magmatism in effusive and intrusive forms.

Movable belts. They were laid down mainly in the ancient Proterozoic. There are 2 mega-stages in their development: geosynclinal (the greatest tectonic mobility, expressed in differentiated horizontal and vertical movements and a high, albeit unstable, thermal regime in the crust and upper mantle) and postgeosynclinal (at the site of dead geosynclinal belts, activity is reduced, but much more than on ancient platforms).

The total duration of the goesinclinal process is 1-1.5 billion years, but in some areas it ends earlier. “Cycles”, the actual geosynclinal stage and a shorter one - orogenic (orogeny) are distinguished.

Actually geosynclinal: stretching of the crust, the appearance of elongated graben-like depressions. Wide deflections break up into narrow ones. At the end of the actual gesinkle. stages stop descending. At the beginning of the orogenic stage, they undergo strong compressive deformations (from the inner zones to the periphery). They turn into folded structures. During the orogenic stage, they experience gradually increasing uplift, not completely compensated by denudation, and at the late orogenic stage they turn into mountain structures. Thus, a complete reversal of the tectonic plan occurs (geosynclinal troughs into mountain uplifts). At the same time, in the zones of growing folded structures, edge deflections, as if compensating for their uplift, appear, in the rear - internal deflections or depressions filled with clastic material.

The “cycles” into which the process of development of geosynclinal belts breaks up end with the relative hardening of the crust, which acquires the features of a typical (mature) crust of the continental type over a significant (or entire) area. At the beginning of the next "cycle" there is a partial destruction of this crust and the regeneration of the geosynclinal regime, while other areas are excluded from the further geosynclinal process.

In most of the North Atlantic mobile belt, the geosynclinal process ended in the middle of the Paleozoic, in the Ural-Mongolian - at the end of the Paleozoic - the beginning of the Mesozoic, in most of the Mediterranean belt it is close to completion, and significant parts of the Pacific belt are still in different stages geosynclinal process.

Metaplatform areas. Something in between in terms of the nature of tectonic structures, the degree of mobility of the crust and features tectonic movements. On the borders. AT structurally- a combination of two main types of tectonic elements - mobile aulacogeosynclinal zones and relatively "rigid" metaplatform massifs separated by these zones from ancient platforms. Aulacogeosynclinal zones are linearly elongated zones of an intermediate nature between the aulacogenes of ancient platforms and geosynclinal troughs of mobile belts. In the Late Proterozoic, simultaneously with mobile belts framing the platforms, usually branching off from the latter. Graben-like troughs - compression - metamorphism, intrusion of intrusive bodies - folded zones (Donetsk, Timan).

The role of climate in human life cannot be overestimated. It determines the ratio of heat and moisture, and, consequently, the conditions for the occurrence of modern relief-forming processes, the formation inland waters, development of vegetation, placement of plants. Climate features have to be taken into account in economic life person.

Influence of geographical location.

Latitude	Specifies the quantity solar radiation coming to the surface, as well as its intra-annual distribution. Russia is located between 77 and 41 °, while its main area is between 50 and 70 °. This is due to the position of Russia in high latitudes, in the temperate and subarctic zones, which predetermines sharp fluctuations in the amount of incoming solar radiation according to the seasons of the year. The large extent from north to south determines the significant differences between the north and south of the territory. The annual total solar radiation is 60 kcal/cm 2 , in the far south - 120 kcal/cm 2 .
The position of the country in relation to the oceans	It directly affects the distribution of cloudiness, and, consequently, the ratio of diffuse and direct radiation, and the supply of moist air. Russia is washed by the seas from the north and east, which, with the prevailing western transport, is not significant, it affects only the coastal strip. In the Far East, a sharp increase in cloudiness reduces the influx of direct solar radiation, amounting to the same value as in the north of the Kola Peninsula, Yamal, and Taimyr.
The position of the country in relation to baric centers (CDA)	Azores and Arctic highs, Aleutian and Icelandic lows. Determine the prevailing direction of the winds, the type of weather, the prevailing air masses.
Relief	The location of the mountains from the south and east, the openness to the Arctic Ocean provide influence North Atlantic and SL to most of the territory of Russia, limit the influence of To and Central Asia. - The height of the mountains and their location in relation to the prevailing air currents determine a different degree of influence - The aggravation of cyclones - Mountain climate that changes with height - Differences in the climate of windward and leeward slopes, mountain ranges and intermountain basins - On the plains, the differences are much weaker
Features of the underlying surface	Snow increases the reflectivity of the surface, chernozems and forests reduce it. Differences in albedo are one of the reasons for differences in the radiation balance of territories receiving the same total radiation. Evaporation of moisture, transpiration of plants also vary from place to place.

Air masses and their frequency. Three types of air masses are typical for Russia: arctic air, air of temperate latitudes and tropical air.

Most of the country is dominated by air masses throughout the year. moderate latitudes, represented by two sharply different subtypes: continental and marine. Continental the air is formed directly above the mainland, it is dry throughout the year, low temperatures in winter and quite high in summer. Nautical air comes from the North Atlantic, and to the eastern regions from the northern part of To. Compared to continental air, it is more humid, cooler in summer and warmer in winter. Moving through the territory of Russia, sea air quite quickly transformed, acquiring the features of the continental.

Arctic The air is formed above the ice of the Arctic, so it is cold, has low absolute humidity and high transparency. Influence on the northern part of the country, especially the SS and NE. In transitional seasons causes frosts. In summer, advancing and drying up more and more, it brings droughts and dry winds (south of EE and WS). The air that forms over the Arctic can be called continental. Only over the Barents Sea is the maritime Arctic sea formed.

Tropical air over the southern territories, is formed over Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Caspian lowland, eastern regions Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia as a result of air transformation in temperate latitudes. Differs in high temperatures, low humidity and low transparency. Tropical sea air sometimes penetrates to the south of the Far East from the central regions of To air, to the Caucasus from the Mediterranean. Differs in high humidity and high temperatures.

atmospheric fronts.

Physical and geographical conditions of the territory. The underlying surface over which they form and acquire new properties has a great influence. Yes, in winter time moist air masses bring latent heat vaporization on a cold surface and warming occurs. In summer, too, moist air masses bring precipitation, but on a warm underlying surface, evaporation and a slight cooling begin.

The influence of the relief on the climate is great: with height, the temperature drops by 0.6 ° C for every 100 meters (due to a decrease in the radiation balance), decreases Atmosphere pressure. Exposure influence. Mountains play an important barrier role.

Special role - sea currents. Warm North Atlantic, cold around the Kuriles, Kamchatka, the Sea of Okhotsk.

Climatic features of the winter period. In cold weather in Russia, from October to April, an area is established high blood pressure(Asian maximum), an area of low pressure develops near the eastern shores (Aleutian minimum) and the Icelandic minimum intensifies, reaching the Kara Sea. Between these main baric centers of the winter period, the differences in pressure reach the greatest values and this contributes to the aggravation of circulation processes.

In connection with the western transport, the development of cyclones and anticyclones, circulation processes are very pronounced and they largely determine the distribution of heat and moisture. The influence of the Atlantic, the Asian High, the Aleutian Low, and solar radiation are clearly seen.

With Atlantic Ocean in winter, air masses bring a large amount of heat to the mainland. Therefore, in EE and the northern half of WS, the temperature decreases not so much from south to north as from west to east and northeast, which is confirmed by the course of the January isotherms.

The impact of the Asian High affects the extremely low temperature of Central Siberia, the Northeast and the position of the isotherms. In the basins, the temperature reaches -70 (the pole of cold northern hemisphere- Oymyakon and Verkhoyansk).

In the Far East, the Aleutian Low and the Okhotsk branch of the Arctic front predetermine cyclonic activity, which is reflected in warmer and snowy winters than on the continent, so the January isotherms run parallel to the coast.

The greatest amount of winter precipitation falls in the west, where air from the Atlantic enters in cyclones. From west to east and northeast, the amount of precipitation gradually decreases.

Climatic features of the summer period. The ratio of radiation and circulation conditions changes dramatically. Temperature regime is determined by radiation conditions - the entire land heats up much more than the surrounding water areas. Therefore, already from April to October, the isotherms extend almost sublatitudinally. In July, the average monthly temperatures throughout Russia are positive.

In summer, the Azores High moves to the north and its eastern branch penetrates the EE plain. From it, the pressure decreases to the north, south and east. Above the Arctic Ocean the Arctic maximum remains. So cold air moves to the inner, warmer territories of Russia, where it heats up and moves away from the saturation point. This dry air contributes to the occurrence of droughts, sometimes with dry winds in the southeast of the EE plain, in the south of the WS plain and in the north of Kazakhstan. The development of dry, clear and warm weather is also associated with the spur of the Azores High. Above TO, the North Pacific High moves to the north (the Aleutian Low disappears), and sea air rushes to land. There is a summer Far East monsoon.

In summer, also the western transfer - from the Atlantic - the largest number precipitation.

All air masses that enter the country in summer are transformed into continental air of temperate latitudes. On atmospheric fronts (arctic and polar), cyclonic activity develops. It is most pronounced on the polar front above the BE plain (continental and marine temperate).

The Arctic front is expressed within the Barents and Kara seas and on the coast of the eastern seas of the Arctic Ocean. Along the Arctic front, cyclonic activity intensifies and causes prolonged drizzling rains in the subarctic and arctic zones. In summer, the maximum precipitation falls, which is associated with increased cyclonic activity, moisture content of air masses and convection.

Changes in radiation and circulation conditions occur in spring and autumn. In spring, the negative radiation balance turns into a positive one, and vice versa in autumn. In addition, the position of high and low pressure areas, the type of air masses, and, consequently, the position of atmospheric fronts are changing.

The largest bays are whole seas: the Baltic, White, Black with Azov, Okhotsk, each of them has its own dead-end bulges.

Plains are concentrated mainly in the western half of Russia, while plateaus, highlands and mountains prevail in the east - from the Yenisei valley to the shores of the Pacific seas. Plains make up about 60% of the territory. The two largest of them - BE and WS - belong to the greatest plains in the world. Medium-altitude mountain systems stretch like a continuous barrier parallel to the coasts of the Pacific Ocean seas. In the south, along the border, there is a belt of high mountains, from which the entire territory descends to the Arctic Ocean. Along this slope flow to the north the largest rivers of Siberia - the Ob, Yenisei, Lena. And to the south from the Arctic, powerful currents of cold air pass through the plains.

Climate is a long-term weather regime that has developed as a result of the interaction of the atmosphere with all natural and geographical factors and is influenced by space and human economic activity.

Radiation- incoming solar radiation - the energy base, it determines the main influx of heat to the surface. The farther from the equator - the smaller the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, the smaller the amount comes. The expenditure part consists of reflected radiation (from albedo) and effective radiation (increases with decreasing cloudiness, total - from north to south).

In general, the radiation balance in the country is positive. The only exceptions are some islands in the Arctic. In winter it is everywhere negative, in summer it is positive.

Circulating. Due to the different physical properties of the land and the ocean, uneven heating and cooling of the air in contact with them occurs. As a result, there are movements of air masses of various origins - atmospheric circulation. It proceeds under the influence of centers of low and high pressures, their position and severity varies seasonally. However, in most of our country, westerly winds prevail, bringing Atlantic air masses, with which the main precipitation is associated.

The influence is especially great in winter, due to the western transfer of warm and humid air masses from the Atlantic.

The large size of the territory of our country, the presence of vast valleys and large mountain systems led to a clear zonal provincial distribution of soils, vegetation and animals. The main conditions for the formation of biocomponents are the ratio of temperature and moisture. the relief of the territory and the degree of continentality of the climate have a significant influence on their distribution.

The distribution of soils, vegetation and animals on the territory of Russia determines the law of zoning on the plains and altitudinal zonation in the mountains. Therefore, when moving along the meridians or along the slopes of mountains, due to changes in hydro-climatic conditions, there is a gradual change of some types of soils and vegetation, as well as animal complexes, to others.

Features of the orography of the territory are predetermined by the complex geological history and diverse geological structure. Large lowlands, plains and plateaus correspond to platforms, and mountain structures correspond to folded belts.

The earth's crust within Russia, as elsewhere on Earth, is heterogeneous and uneven in age. It is heterogeneous both in plan and vertically.

In a wide belt adjacent to the Pacific Ocean, the main stage of the collapse of the earth's crust was the Mesozoic era - 60-190. its structures, referred to as the Pacific Ocean, built up the Siberian platform from the east, forming powerful folded areas in Primorye, the Amur region, Transbaikalia and in the northeast of Siberia.

After the Mesozoic movements, only two vast bands have not lost their susceptibility to collapse, where the restless regime has been preserved. One stretched across the Alps and the Caucasus to the Himalayas. The second strip, bordering the east of Asia and including the western margins of the Pacific Ocean, is the East Asian folded region. Both areas continued to exist not only in the Mesozoic, but also later. It was in the Cenozoic, i.e. in the last 60 million years, they have been the scene of powerful upheavals. Here the last of the foldings unfolded - the Alpine one, during which the bowels of the Caucasus, Sakhalin, Kamchatka and the Koryatsky Highlands were crushed. These active regions continue to exist today, showing their activity by numerous earthquakes, and in the East Asian mountain-island arcs by volcanism.

The connection between the relief and the structure of the earth's crust is approximately as follows: the higher the borrowed surface, the greater the thickness of the crust. The largest - where the mountain formations (40-45 km), the smallest - the basin of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk. isostatic equilibrium. At the contact of the Eurasian and North American plates, the plates move apart (Moma rift) and the zone of scattered seismicity is formed. The latter is also characteristic of the margin of the Sea of Okhotsk plate. At the contact of the Eurasian and Amur, there is also a separation - the Baikal rift. Sea of Okhotsk at the contact with the Amur (Sakhalin and the Sea of Japan) convergence of plates - 0.3-0.8 cm per year. The Eurasian borders with the Pacific, North American, African (Arabian) and Indian (Indostan-Pamir). The belts of compression of the lithosphere between them are the Alpine-Asian in the south and the Circum-Pacific in the east. The margins of the Eurasian Plate are active in the east and south and passive in the north. In the east, the ocean subsides under the mainland: the junction zone consists of marginal seas, island arcs, and a deep-water trench. To the south are mountain ranges. The passive margins in the north are a huge shelf and a distinct continental slope.

Eurasia is characterized by linear and ring structures, established according to satellite imagery, geological, geophysical and geological studies. seismic cores of the continental crust. Nuclears, 14.

The heat flow of the Earth on the territory of Russia has a different meaning: the smallest values on the ancient platforms and the Urals. Elevated - on all young platforms (slabs). The maximum values are folded belts, the Baikal rift, marginal seas of TO.

ancient platforms, or cratons, represent vast areas of ancient continental crust measured in millions of square kilometers, largely formed in the Archean and almost entirely by the end of the Early Proterozoic. The Neogay is a relatively calm tectonic regime: the "sluggishness" of vertical movements, their weak differentiation over the area, relatively low rates of uplift and subsidence (less than 1 cm / thousand years). At the early mega-stage of development, most of their area experienced uplift, and subsidence mainly involved narrow linearly elongated graben-like depressions—aulacogens. At a later, plate mega-stage (Phanerozoic), a significant area of platforms was drawn into subsidence, on which a cover of almost undislocated deposits, a plate, was formed. Simultaneously with the subsidence of the basement, areas of platforms separated themselves within the plates, which for most of their history had a tendency to rise and represent vast protrusions of the ancient basement - shields.

Movable belts. They were laid down mainly in the ancient Proterozoic. 2 mega-stages pass in their development: geosynclinal (the greatest tectonic mobility, expressed in differentiated horizontal and vertical movements and a high, albeit unstable, thermal regime in the crust and upper mantle) and post-geosynclinal (at the site of dead geosynclinal belts, activity is reduced, but much more than on ancient platforms).

Metaplatform areas. Something in between in terms of the nature of tectonic structures, the degree of mobility of the crust and the features of tectonic movements. On the borders. Structurally, it is a combination of two main types of tectonic elements - mobile aulacogeosynclinal zones and relatively "rigid" metaplatform massifs separated by these zones from ancient platforms. Aulacogeosynclinal zones are linearly elongated zones of an intermediate nature between the aulacogenes of ancient platforms and geosynclinal troughs of mobile belts. In the Late Proterozoic, simultaneously with mobile belts framing the platforms, usually branching off from the latter. Graben-like troughs - compression - metamorphism, intrusion of intrusive bodies - folded zones (Donetsk, Timan).

The role of climate in human life cannot be overestimated. It determines the ratio of heat and moisture, and, consequently, the conditions for the flow of modern relief-forming processes, the formation of inland waters, the development of vegetation, and the placement of plants. Climate features have to be taken into account in the economic life of a person.

Influence of geographical location.

Latitude	Determines the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface, as well as its intra-annual distribution. Russia is located between 77 and 41 °, while its main area is between 50 and 70 °. This is the reason for Russia's position in high latitudes, in the temperate and subarctic zones, which predetermines sharp fluctuations in the amount of incoming solar radiation by the seasons of the year. The large extent from north to south determines the significant differences between the north and south of the territory. The annual total solar radiation is 60 kcal/cm 2 , in the far south - 120 kcal/cm 2 .
The position of the country in relation to the oceans	It directly affects the distribution of cloudiness, and, consequently, the ratio of diffuse and direct radiation, and the supply of moist air. Russia is washed by the seas from the north and east, which, with the prevailing western transport, is not significant, it affects only the coastal strip. In the Far East, a sharp increase in cloudiness reduces the influx of direct solar radiation, amounting to the same value as in the north of the Kola Peninsula, Yamal, and Taimyr.
The position of the country in relation to baric centers (CDA)	Azores and Arctic highs, Aleutian and Icelandic lows. Determine the prevailing direction of the winds, the type of weather, the prevailing air masses.
Relief	The location of the mountains from the south and east, the openness to the Arctic Ocean ensure the influence of the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean on most of the territory of Russia, limit the influence of To and Central Asia. - The height of the mountains and their location in relation to the prevailing air currents determine a different degree of influence - The aggravation of cyclones - Mountain climate that changes with height - Differences in the climate of windward and leeward slopes, mountain ranges and intermountain basins - On the plains, the differences are much weaker
Features of the underlying surface	Snow increases the reflectivity of the surface, chernozems and forests reduce it. Differences in albedo are one of the reasons for differences in the radiation balance of territories receiving the same total radiation. Evaporation of moisture, transpiration of plants also vary from place to place.

Air masses and their frequency. Three types of air masses are typical for Russia: arctic air, air of temperate latitudes and tropical air.

Most of the country is dominated by air masses throughout the year. moderate latitudes, represented by two sharply different subtypes: continental and marine. Continental the air is formed directly above the mainland, it is dry throughout the year, low temperatures in winter and quite high in summer. Nautical air comes from the North Atlantic, and to the eastern regions from the northern part of To. Compared to continental air, it is more humid, cooler in summer and warmer in winter. Moving through the territory of Russia, the sea air is quite quickly transformed, acquiring the features of a continental one.

Tropical air over the southern territories, is formed over Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Caspian lowland, the eastern regions of the Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia as a result of the transformation of air in temperate latitudes. Differs in high temperatures, low humidity and low transparency. Tropical sea air sometimes penetrates to the south of the Far East from the central regions of To air, to the Caucasus from the Mediterranean. Differs in high humidity and high temperatures.

atmospheric fronts.

Physical and geographical conditions of the territory. The underlying surface over which they form and acquire new properties has a great influence. So, in winter, moist air masses bring the latent heat of vaporization to a cold surface and warming occurs. In summer, too, moist air masses bring precipitation, but on a warm underlying surface, evaporation and a slight cooling begin.

The influence of the relief on the climate is great: with height, the temperature drops by 0.6 ° C for every 100 meters (due to a decrease in the radiation balance), atmospheric pressure decreases. Exposure influence. Mountains play an important barrier role.

Special role - sea currents. Warm North Atlantic, cold around the Kuriles, Kamchatka, the Sea of Okhotsk.

Climatic features of the winter period. In cold weather, in Russia, from October to April, an area of high pressure is established (Asian maximum), an area of low pressure develops near the eastern coasts (Aleutian minimum) and the Icelandic minimum intensifies, reaching the Kara Sea. Between these main baric centers of the winter period, the differences in pressure reach the greatest values and this contributes to the aggravation of circulation processes.

From the Atlantic Ocean in winter, air masses bring a large amount of heat to the mainland. Therefore, in EE and the northern half of WS, the temperature decreases not so much from south to north as from west to east and northeast, which is confirmed by the course of the January isotherms.

The impact of the Asian High affects the extremely low temperature of Central Siberia, the Northeast and the position of the isotherms. In the basins, the temperature reaches -70 (the cold pole of the northern hemisphere - Oymyakon and Verkhoyansk).

In the Far East, the Aleutian Low and the Okhotsk branch of the Arctic front predetermine cyclonic activity, which is reflected in warmer and snowier winters than on the continent, so the January isotherms run parallel to the coast.

The greatest amount of winter precipitation falls in the west, where air from the Atlantic enters in cyclones. From west to east and northeast, the amount of precipitation gradually decreases.

Climatic features of the summer period. The ratio of radiation and circulation conditions changes dramatically. The temperature regime is determined by radiation conditions - the entire land heats up much more than the surrounding water areas. Therefore, already from April to October, the isotherms extend almost sublatitudinally. In July, the average monthly temperatures throughout Russia are positive.

In summer, the Azores High moves to the north and its eastern branch penetrates the EE plain. From it, the pressure decreases to the north, south and east. Above the Arctic Ocean the Arctic maximum remains. Therefore, cold air moves to the inner, warmer territories of Russia, where it heats up and moves away from the saturation point. This dry air contributes to the occurrence of droughts, sometimes with dry winds in the southeast of the EE plain, in the south of the WS plain and in the north of Kazakhstan. The development of dry, clear and warm weather is also associated with the spur of the Azores High. Above TO, the North Pacific High moves to the north (the Aleutian Low disappears), and sea air rushes to land. There is a summer Far East monsoon.

In summer, the western transfer - from the Atlantic - is also the largest amount of precipitation.

Nepeina V.V., geography teacher of the first category, MOU "Fominskaya secondary school"

Theme of the lesson: "General features of the geographical position and general features of the relief of the southern continents".

Project No. 12 "Relief of the southern continents"

Thing: Geography

Class: 7

Methodical complex: V.A.Korinskaya, I.V.Dushina, V.A.Schenev

Geography of continents and oceans. 7th grade

Moscow, Bustard, 2009

The purpose of the lesson: begin to form students' understanding and knowledge of the general features of the southern continents in a geographical position

and relief

Lesson objectives:

Educational:- identify similarities and differences in the geographical position of the southern continents, determine why

Africa, South America and Australia are continents with a hot climate, and Antarctica is the coldest continent;

- find common features in the relief of the southern continents: the plains prevailing in the relief are on platforms, the mountains are on

the outskirts of the continents;

Decide on the patterns of occurrence of minerals: fuel and salts - in the sedimentary cover

platforms, ore - on the plateaus and in the mountains

Developing: develop the ability to work with a map: analyzing, comparing, highlighting common and different; draw conclusions on

work done; train mindfulness

continue to develop critical thinking

Educational: cultivate diligence, communication skills, responsibility for the implementation of tasks

Lesson type: Combined

Means of education: textbooks, physical maps, maps of the structure of the earth's crust, didactic materials, workbooks,

blackboard

Educational Technology: case method, problem-dialogical, collaborative learning

Forms of organization of educational activities: group, steam room, individual, frontal

Teaching methods: case method, partial search, reproductive

Control system: teacher control and self-control

Predicted result:

personal:

Development of cooperation when working in a group, in pairs;

Building confidence in acquired knowledge

Acquiring the ability to learn and purposeful cognitive activity

metasubject:

Ability to analyze, summarize, find the right information

Ability to identify the topic and independently determine tasks

Ability to organize educational cooperation and joint activities

Develop the skill of self-control

subject:

Students acquire knowledge about the geographical position of the southern continents

They understand why three continents are in a hot climate, and Antarctica is the coldest continent

It is revealed that plains prevail on the continents, at the base of which there are ancient platforms, and mountains are located on the outskirts of the continents - at the junction of lithospheric plates

They are convinced that energy minerals, such as oil, natural gas, coal and salts, lie in the sedimentary cover of the platforms, and ore minerals lie on the plateaus and in the mountains

Lesson structure:

Lesson stage	Teacher activity	Student activities
Organizing time	Hello! Our guests today are geography teachers from schools in the district. Let's greet each other!	They clap in greeting.
Control d / z	Control questions on the studied oceans. (see Appendix1) Post-hour teacher control	Within 5 minutes, answer 10 questions about the oceans.
Motivational and goal-setting	Arouse interest in the topic of the lesson and define it - preliminary task: Each is given a "case" - 2 cards (see Appendix 2 and 3), but it is necessary to discuss in groups: In three minutes, name the topic of the lesson and tasks.	Discuss in groups and name the topic "GP of the continents and the relief of the southern continents" and write it down in a notebook It is assumed that it is necessary to find common and different features of these continents in the GP and relief, and which continents belong to the southern ones.
Search for new knowledge, stage reflections: A) southern continents B) GP of the continents B) the relief of the continents	A diagram is prepared on the board in advance (see Appendix 4) Exercise: what does this diagram show? The southern continents are circled together and the question is asked: What are these continents? We are studying these continents today in the lesson Orienting task: In the course of pair work, identify the features of the GP of the southern continents using the questions on card 1 (see Appendix 2) - the cards are individual, they must be filled out, but you work in pairs. Teacher's word: Highlight the main common feature in the GP of the southern continents Name the main differences In the course of group work with a physical map of the world and a map of the structure of the earth's crust in atlases, fill in the gaps in card 2 (see Appendix 3) - everyone fills in the card. Predictive task after the work is done: Check the correctness of the task (See Annex 5) The result of the lesson - what were the objectives of the study? Briefly describe the results	Answer: the collapse of the ancient continent of Pangea into Laurasia and Gondwana, and then into the modern continents: S. America, Eurasia, South America, Africa, Australia The four southern continents are called: S.A., Africa, Australia, Antarctica In the course of pair work, they find out the similarities and differences in the GP of the southern continents and fill in the gaps in the cards Answer: South America, Africa and Australia are hot continents, since most of them are located in tropical latitudes In South America there is a temperate climatic zone, and Antarctica is a cold continent, since it is almost completely beyond the Arctic Circle Group work on the analysis of two cards with filling in the gaps in the card Carry out self-control, correct errors, supplement Recall tasks and draw conclusions on their implementation
Intermediate control acquired knowledge	Individual written work on the control of acquired knowledge (see Appendix 6) Included teacher control: Correct answers are read	Answer questions in written form individual work After each answer, those who had the correct answer raise their hands.
Reflection	Oral frontal conversation with orienting sentences: Now I know that…. I like it… I did not like… It was difficult for me... At home, you need to pay attention to ...	Give your opinion about the lesson
House. exercise	Blackboard writing: paragraph 21 The task is written in advance on the card for each: Practical work on k / k- on the physical map of the world, draw the mountains and the most high points southern continents, excluding Antarctica Sign the oceans that wash these continents	Write down homework and receive task cards

Appendix 1.

Checkpoint on the oceans.

The longest ocean

The ocean, which was named by F. Magellan -

The deepest ocean

The ocean where the mid-ocean ridge was first discovered

The ocean, where the Mendeleev and Lomonosov ridges stretched along the bottom

The ocean to which the saltiest sea belongs -

The oldest ocean

The most developed ocean

Recognize the ocean by the description: “Washes eastern shores Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates large island, Monsoon warm current - source a large number moisture." -

The ocean, where the largest shelf with rich reserves of oil, gas, coal,

A) the Arctic

B) Atlantic

B) Indian

Appendix 2

Geographical position of the southern continents.

Completing these tasks will help you determine the main common feature of the southern continents (excluding Antarctica)

The equator crosses the southern continents: ______________________ and ______________________.

The equator does not cross the southern continents _____________________ and ______________________.

The southern continents ________________ and _______________ are located in the northern and southern hemispheres.

The continents __________________ and __________________ are located entirely in the southern hemisphere.

The northern tropic crosses the southern mainland _______________________.

The southern tropic crosses the continents __________________, __________________ and _________________.

Most of South America, Africa and Australia are located at ________________________________ latitudes.

Almost the entire territory of Antarctica is located beyond the _________________________ polar circle.

The prime meridian crosses _____________________ and ____________________.

Both the western and eastern hemispheres contain __________________ and ________________.

Fully in western hemisphere located______________________________.

The ______________ is located entirely in the Eastern Hemisphere.

E, SE,T,ST climatic zones in ____________________ and in ____________________.

E, SE, T, ST, U climatic zones in ______________________________.

SE, T, ST climatic zones in __________________________.

Sant., Ant. climatic zones in ____________________.

The hottest continent is _____________________.

The driest continent is _____________________.

The wettest continent is _______________.

The coldest continent is ____________________.

Appendix 3

_______________________________________-

_________________________

The mountains located on ______________________ continents,

At the base plains are ________________________________________.

On the plains:

BUT) hollows correspond –______________________ ________________ (Amazonian)

B) ledges correspond – _____________________________

At the base mountains are _______________________________________ – boundaries of lithospheric plates.

___________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

Appendix 4

S. America

L a v r a z i i

G o n d v a n a

P a ng e i

Australia

Antarctica

Appendix 5

Common in the relief of the southern continents.

After completing this task, try to remember the common features.

There are two main forms in the relief of the southern continents:

mountains and plains.

Most of the continents are plains.

The mountains are located on the outskirts of the continents since the plains were in the center of Gondwana.

At the base plains are ancient platforms.

On the plains:

BUT) hollows correspond – lowlands (Amazonian)

B) ledges correspond - plateaus (East African, Brazilian)

At the base mountains are folded belts – boundaries of lithospheric plates.

In the sedimentary cover (or layer) of the platforms lie oil, pr.gas, stone. coal, salt.

Ore minerals occur in mountains and plateaus.

Appendix 6

Control tasks on the southern continents.

The equator crosses almost in the middle of the mainland _______________ (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica).

Entirely in the southern hemisphere are the continents ___________________ and _______________ (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica).

Is it correct that South America, Africa, Australia are located near the equator, so high temperatures prevail there for the most part of the year? (Yes or no)

Mountains are located on ____________________________ continents (in the center or on the outskirts).

On the continents, the relief is dominated by _____________________ (mountains or plains).

At the base of most of the continents are _____________________ (fold belts or platforms).

Deposits of oil, natural gas, phosphorites are confined to ___________________________________ (crystalline basement or sedimentary cover).

Portal for the student. Self-training

Relief features in Russia

Mineral Russian minerals

General features of the relief of Russia

Minerals of Russia

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