In science, there are different points of view on the question of the essence of language.
1. The biological concept of language. This concept was spread in the 19th century, influenced by the advances in the natural sciences. Representatives of this concept considered language as a biological, natural phenomenon, since the material basis of language is the nervous system, speech organs, and hearing organs. However, there are cases in history when small children fell into wild animals, grew up among them (for example, among wolves), but when they returned to human society, they could not learn to speak, although their speech organs were quite normal. If a child is brought up without parents in a foreign language environment, he will speak the language of the surrounding society, and not the language of his parents. All this led researchers to the conclusion that language is not inherited and does not apply to biological phenomena.
2. Psychological concept of language. According to this concept, language is considered as a special activity of the human psyche. The psychological concept of language, which took shape in the 19th century, had a great influence on the development of linguistics. In our time, the study of the relationship between language and the mental life of a person is carried out within the framework of psycholinguistics. However, to understand the language as a means of communication, the psychological approach is insufficient, it is also necessary to analyze the links between language and society, that is, it is necessary to consider language as a social phenomenon.
3. Social concept of language. According to this concept, language is a social phenomenon, that is, a public one. Language arises and develops only in society, a person learns the language in the team in which this person grows and is brought up. Language, unlike the sound signals of animals, is not transmitted by genetic inheritance, but is acquired in the process of communication. Language serves society and cannot arise, exist, or develop outside of society.
Many modern linguists come to the conclusion that language is a multi-qualitative phenomenon, the essence of which is determined by the interaction of biological, psychological and social factors.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "language" and "speech". Language is a system of sound, verbal and grammatical means by which people think and communicate. Language is a social phenomenon, it is common to the people speaking it. Speech is the use of language by a specific person in a specific communication situation. The speech reflects the individual features of the speaker, but at the same time, the mutual understanding of the participants in communication is ensured by the fact that speech is based on the language system.
The main functions of the language are communicative, mental and cumulative functions. The communicative function is that language is a means of communication. Along with language, there are other means of communication (gestures, facial expressions, numbers, scientific formulas, traffic signs, etc.), but all of them are assigned to a certain area of human activity and convey a limited range of information. Language is a universal means of communication, it is used by all people in all spheres of activity and is able to express any information accumulated by mankind. As part of the communicative function of the language, a number of varieties can be distinguished:
1. Informative function - the transfer of information about the surrounding reality to the addressee.
2. Emotive function - with the help of language, a person expresses his assessment of objects and phenomena, his emotional state.
3. Pragmatic function - the impact on the behavior of the addressee, the expression of motivation for action or prohibition.
4. Phatic (contact-establishing) function - language serves as a means of establishing and maintaining contact between people; this function uses language tools that allow you to start communication (greeting, address), check for a contact (for example, the word Hello during a telephone conversation), show the completeness of communication (farewell).
5. Aesthetic function - speech can affect the sense of beauty, give pleasure with its beauty, imagery.
The mental function is expressed in the fact that the language serves as a means of forming thoughts, that is, with the help of linguistic means, people think, process the information they receive, and plan their actions. Thinking is inextricably linked with knowledge. There are two sources of knowledge, called "signal systems". The first signal system is sensations, that is, the result of the influence of the external world on the senses. On the basis of sensations, a representation is formed - a visual image of an object in the human mind. The first signaling system is characteristic of both humans and animals. The second signaling system is language. With the help of a word, a concept is expressed - a generalizing idea about a whole class of objects that have common features. Therefore, human abstract (generalizing) thinking is closely related to language.
The cumulative function of language is the function of preserving social experience, knowledge, and cultural traditions. The accumulated experience of mankind is preserved in language, in texts.
Question 4. The problem of the origin of the language and its development.
Various theories of the origin of the language are known.
1. Theory of onomatopoeia. According to this theory, the first words had an onomatopoeic character, that is, the sound of these words conveyed the sounds of the objects they denoted. This theory goes back to the ancient Stoic philosophers, in modern times it was developed by the German philosopher Leibniz (17th - early 18th century) and other scientists. This theory is based on the fact that in any language there are words based on onomatopoeia, for example, cuckoo, beetle, tambourine, whistle, rustle, thunder.
2. Interjection theory (the theory of the emotional origin of language). According to this theory, the language arose on the basis of involuntary exclamations expressing various emotions, the first words of the language were interjections. This theory goes back to the ancient Epicurean philosophers, in the 18th century it was developed by the French philosopher Rousseau.
3. The theory of the social (social) contract, according to which language arose through an agreement between people: primitive people, realizing the need to have a means of communication, began to agree on how to call the surrounding objects. This theory arose in the 18th century (for example, the English economist Adam Smith was its supporter). Rousseau combined this theory with the theory of the emotional origin of language: in his opinion, at the first stage, primitive people made involuntary emotional exclamations, and at the second stage, they began to agree on the meaning of words, assigning certain names to certain objects.
4. Labor theory, according to which language arose in the process of people's labor activity as a means of its coordination. The labor activity of primitive people had a collective character and required coordination of actions. Unlike animals, man created tools and mastered new ways of labor activity, which created the need for the exchange of experience. The labor theory was created in the 19th century by the German scientist Ludwig Noiret. Noiret believed that the oldest words were verbs - the names of actions, since the first statements were an incentive to perform an action. The labor theory of the origin of language was also developed by Friedrich Engels, who believed that labor activity played a leading role both in the formation of language and in the development of human consciousness.
All existing concepts of the origin of the language are hypothetical. Modern science continues to study this problem.
Every living language is in constant development. The historical development of the language is caused by various factors. There are external (social) and internal (intralinguistic) factors of language evolution.
External factors include the reflection in the language of the changes taking place in society. External factors primarily affect the development of the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the language. The vocabulary reflects everything new that appears in all spheres of society: in socio-political life, in science and technology, in everyday life, in art and literature. The emergence of new objects and phenomena, the formation of new concepts lead to the creation of new words (for example, in the Russian language of the 19th century, the words steamboat, locomotive, Decembrist, Westernizer, Slavophilism, Narodnik, Oblomovism etc.), as well as to the emergence of new meanings for old words (for example, the word train, which previously meant a row of carts traveling one after another, in the 19th century received a new, modern meaning). The interaction between different peoples and their languages is also reflected in the vocabulary, which leads to the borrowing of words from one language to another. For example, in Russian, many religious terms are borrowed from Greek ( angel, icon, gospel, bishop, metropolitan, patriarch, monk etc.), because Christianity was borrowed by Kievan Rus from Byzantium. Many words related to maritime transport are borrowed into Russian from the Dutch language (for example, sailor, steering wheel, flight, raid), since in the Petrine era, the experience of Holland was widely used when creating the Russian fleet.
Among the internal factors of linguistic evolution are the tendency to save language resources, and the tendency to change by analogy.
The trend towards economy of language resources is manifested in the fact that native speakers seek to reduce the time and effort needed to transmit information. As a result, there is a reduction in the volume of language units, the replacement of larger units by smaller ones. For example, in the Old Russian language, the infinitive of all verbs ended in a vowel and(for example, see, hear), then this sound was preserved in the infinitive only under stress, and was lost in the unstressed position. Feminine nouns in the instrumental singular used to have the ending - oh, - oh, then the ending spread - oh, uh, (the old version of the ending is much less common), as a result of which this grammatical form was reduced by one syllable. A combination of words can undergo reduction, merge into one word: for example, a combination God save turned into a word Thanks, combination whether there is a turned into a union if, combination one in ten turned into a numeral eleven.
The trend towards analogy is manifested in cases where some linguistic units are changed according to the model of others. For example, words coat, scarf, pince-nez, dash, puree, cafe in French they belong to the masculine gender, while in Russian these words have become neuter by analogy with Russian words ending in -o, -e. In German, the numeral zwo (two) received the form zwei under the influence of the word drei (three) following it in the numerical series.
Question 5. Classification of world languages. Genealogical classification.
The classification of languages is their distribution into categories based on certain characteristics. The best known genealogical and morphological classifications of languages.
Genealogical classification is based on the relationship of languages. Related languages are those that are descended from the same older language. For example, Italian, Spanish, French and some other languages are derived from Latin. English, German, Swedish, Dutch and some other languages come from the Proto-Germanic language. The Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages come from the Old Russian language, while the Old Russian language itself, like other Slavic languages (Polish, Bulgarian, etc.), comes from the Proto-Slavic language - the language of the ancient Slavs. In turn, the Proto-Slavic language, as well as the Proto-Germanic language, the Latin language and a number of other languages, descended from the Indo-European proto-language, which existed in the 5th - 4th millennium BC.
Related languages are grouped into language families. A language family is a collection of languages descending from the same proto-language (ancestor language). The languages descended from the Indo-European proto-language are united in the Indo-European family. There are other language families: Turkic, Mongolian, Semitic-Hamitic (Afrasian), Uralic, Sino-Tibetan, etc. The Turkic family includes Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Azerbaijani, Turkish, Tatar and a number of other languages. The Mongolian family includes Mongolian, Kalmyk, Buryat languages. The Semitic-Hamitic (Afrasian) family includes Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic, Hausa and a number of other languages, including the dead (that is, not currently used) ancient Egyptian, Assyro-Babylonian, Phoenician languages. The Uralic family includes Finnish, Estonian, Mordovian and a number of other languages. The Sino-Tibetan family includes Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese and a number of other languages.
Linguistic kinship can be close or distant. Therefore, as part of language families, groups of languages are distinguished. The group includes languages that are closely related. Thus, a number of groups stand out in the Indo-European family.
1. Slavic group. It includes Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian languages (they make up the East Slavic subgroup), Polish, Czech, Slovak, Upper Lusatian, Lower Lusatian languages (they make up the West Slavic subgroup), Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian languages (they make up the South Slavic subgroup).
2. Baltic group: Lithuanian and Latvian, as well as the dead Prussian language.
3. Germanic group: German, English, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, as well as the dead Gothic language.
4. Celtic group: Irish, Scottish, Welsh (Welsh), as well as the dead Gaulish language.
5. Romance group: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian, Moldavian, as well as their common ancestor - a dead Latin language.
6. Greek group: modern Greek and dead ancient Greek.
7. Albanian language (stands out in a special group).
8. Armenian language (stands out in a special group).
9. Iranian group: Persian, Afghan, Tajik, Ossetian, Kurdish and a number of other languages, as well as some dead languages, such as Scythian.
10. Indian group: Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Gypsy and a number of other languages, as well as a dead language - Sanskrit (the literary language of Ancient India).
11. Anatolian group. It includes dead languages known from ancient written monuments found on the territory of Asia Minor: Hittite, Lydian and some others.
12. Tocharian group. It includes two dead languages, which are known from ancient written monuments found on the territory of Central Asia. They are called "Tocharian A" and "Tocharian B".
The essence of the language:
Language is a social phenomenon
- Not inherited
For the development of the language, communication in society is necessary from childhood (Mowgli children)
There are no special organs of speech.
Communication can be linguistic and non-linguistic. Communication, in all cases, is the transfer of some information. 2 plans: expression, method, or form of expression (movement of the tip of the cat's tail) and the content of the transmitted information behind this expression (the excitation of the animal). Human communication is carried out mainly with the help of sound language (writing and other forms). At the same time, non-verbal forms play a significant role in human communication. Language communication is not just the communication of some facts or the transmission of emotions associated with it, but also the exchange of thoughts about these facts. Non-linguistic forms of communication are much older than spoken language. Facial expressions and gestures, sometimes brighter and more authentic, can express the feelings that we experience.
- Language is not a natural, not a biological phenomenon.
The existence and development of language is not subject to the laws of nature.
Physical signs of a person are not related to language.
Only humans have language.
What language has in common with other social phenomena is that language is a necessary condition for the existence and development of human society and that, being an element of spiritual culture, language is unthinkable apart from materiality. Language is a social phenomenon with specific properties.
Because being a tool of communication, language is also a means of exchanging thoughts, the question arises about the relationship between languages and thinking. Thinking develops and updates much faster than language, but thinking cannot exist without language. Thoughts are born on the basis of language and are fixed in it.
- Language as a sign system.
A sign is an object that points to an object. A subject is anything that has a definition in a language. a word is a sign, a pointer. Signs are substitutes for something. They carry some information. Sign = semiotic - systems of signs and rules for their use. Sema is a sign.
All signs have a material, sensually perceived form, which is sometimes called the "signifier" (exponent of the sign). semantic side.
Sound, gesture, tactile sign - the material side.
The sign is:
-it must be material, i.e. must be accessible to sensory perception, like any other thing
-it does not matter, but is directed to the meaning, for this they exist, the member sign of the second signal system
- its content does not coincide with its material characteristics, the content of things is exhausted by its material characteristics
- the content of a sign is determined by its distinctive features, which are analytically distinguished and separated from non-distinctive ones.
-sign and its content is determined by the place and role of this sign in a given system of a similar order of signs.
- Definitions and functions of the language.
Language is a means of thought formation.
Language is a means of communication, communication.
Language is the most important means of human communication, a tool for the formation and expression of thought.
Language features:
Communicative. Serves as a tool for communication, exchange of thoughts.
Ascertaining. Serves for neutral reporting of fact
Interrogative. Used to query a fact
Appellative. A means of calling, stimulating action.
Expressive. Expression of mood, emotions of the speaker.
Contact setting. Creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors.
Metalinguistic. Interpretation of linguistic facts to the interlocutor.
Aesthetic. Aesthetic impact function.
Thought-forming. Language is the forming organ of thought. (Humboldt)
- Problems of linguistics
Linguistics draws conclusions based on the analysis of many languages.
Linguistics:
Private-learning a language on the material of one language.
General-based on many languages.
Comparative - comparing different languages.
- The concept of the national language and forms of its existence
There is no single national language, but there are varieties (forms) of the national language. Dialects and group differences are studied by dialectology, and the totality of issues related to the impact of society on the language and the linguistic situations that develop in society - sociolinguistics.
The national language is divided into: territorial dialect (separation of the language into territories (Middle Great Russian, South Great Russian)), literary language (1. normalized, codified language. time and space 3. Polyfunctionality (multifunctional) 4. Stylistic differentiation), social dialect - a kind of language used in a social group (professional, jargon, slang, slang), vernacular (reduced elements in the literary language (herring, tooth, according to - anyone, no idea, no difference).
- The concept of literary language. Linguistic and sociolinguistic definition of literary language
- Genealogical classification of languages. Basic concepts, basic families
Language families are the largest associations of related languages. (branch, group, subgroup)
Proto-language is the language from which languages belonging to the same family originated.
Related languages are languages that originated from the same parent language and belong to the same family.
Living language - which is currently a means of communication.
A macrofamily is a supposed union of different families that once belonged to the same family.
GKJ emerged in the early 19th century.
Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language.
World languages - a means of communication in different countries (UN) (English, Russian, Spanish, French, Chinese, Arabic)
Creole is the main language for native speakers.
Language appears when there is active communication between peoples.
The lingua franca and pidgin languages originated from merchants.
Main families:
Indo-European family. (12 groups)
Altai family. (Turkic (Turkish, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Uzbek, Chuvash), Mongolian (Buryat, Kamchatka, Kalmyk), Tungus-Manchu (Manchu, Tungus)
Uralic family (Finno-Ugric languages! Ugric branch: Hungarian, Baltic-Finnish branch: Finnish, Estonian, Perm branch: Komi, Udmurt, Volga branch: Mordovian, Samoyed language! Nenets)
Caucasian family. Western group: Abkhazian subgroup - Abkhazian, Circassian subgroup - Adyghe. Eastern group: Nakh subgroup - Chechen, Dagestan subgroup - Avar, Lak, southern group - Georgian.
Sino-Tibetan family. Chinese branch - Chinese. Tibeto-Burmese branch - Tibetan, Burmese.
Afrosia family. Semitic branch - Arabic, Egyptian branch - ancient Egyptian, Berber-Libyan branch - Kabyle, Kushite branch - Somali, Chadian branch - Hausa.
- Indo-European family of languages
Indian group (more than 100 languages, Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu)
Iranian (Pashto, Dari, Asetian)
Greek (other Greek, Middle Greek (Byzantine), Modern Greek)
Germanic (German, Swedish, English, Danish, Norman)
Romance (French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Latin)
Armenian
Albanian
Slavic (Balto-Slavonic was divided into Baltic (Latvian, Lithuanian) Proto-Slavic (East Slavic (Russian and Ukrainian and Belarusian), Southern Slavic (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian), Western Slavic (Polish, Czech , Slovak)
Celtic (Irish, Scottish)
Baltic
Taharskaya (dead)
Anatolian (Hittite)
- Linguistic map of Russia
- The concept of language and speech.
Language:
Sign system
Reflects the experience of the people
does not depend on the people
The language unit has an abstract generalized character (go: train, person, time, life)
The number of language units is limited or countable
Speech:
System implementation
Reflects the experience of an individual
Man-made (strives for comprehensibility)
The unit of speech is specific (to walk)
The number of units of speech is endless, limitless.
- The concept of the language level. Units of language and units of speech
Language unit Level
From lowest to highest
- The concept of paradigm and syntagma
In the 19th century, the term was used in morphology. In the 20th century, it began to be used in relation to all levels. There is a basis, it has a general meaning. kinship terms.
Syntagma is the combination of units of the same level.
- The concept of synchrony and diachrony
Diachrony is the way of language in time. Sequence axis (approximate sign).
- Types of generics in the language
Phonetics and phonology
- Phonetics, Aspects in the study of sounds
Phonetics is the sound side of the language.
Phonology is the study of the phoneme. (A phoneme is the smallest unit of measurement.
Phonology appeared in the 19th century. Founder I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. development in the 20th century.
Acoustic aspect in the study of language sounds.
Each sound is an oscillatory movement. These oscillatory movements are characterized by certain acoustic properties, the consideration of which constitutes the acoustic aspect in the study of the sounds of language and speech.
Uniform vibrations - tone. Uneven - noise. In linguistic sounds both tone and noise are used in varying proportions. Tones arise as a result of vibrations of the vocal cords in the larynx, as well as response vibrations of air in the supraglottic cavities, and noises - mainly as a result of overcoming various obstacles in the speech channel by the air stream. Vowels are mostly tones, deaf consonants are noises, and in sonants tone prevails over noise, and in voiced noisy (g, e) vice versa.
Sounds are characterized by a height that depends on the frequency of vibrations (the more vibrations, the higher the sound) and strength (intensity) that depends on the amplitude of the vibration.
Timbre is a specific color. It is the timbre that distinguishes the sounds.
In the formation of speech sounds, the role of a resonator is performed by the oral cavity, nose and pharynx, and due to the various movements of the speech organs (tongue, lips, palatine curtain.
The biological aspect in the study of the sounds of a language.
Each sound uttered by us in speech is not only a physical phenomenon, but also the result of a certain work of the human body and an object of auditory perception, which is also associated with certain processes occurring in the body.
The biological aspect is divided into pronunciation and perceptual.
pronunciation aspect.
Pronunciation requires: A certain impulse sent from the brain; transmission of impulse to the nerves that perform this work; complex work of the respiratory apparatus (lungs, bronchi, tracheas); the complex work of the pronunciation organs (voice tales, tongue, lips, palatine curtain, lower jaw.
The totality of the work of the respiratory apparatus and the movements of the pronunciation organs, necessary for pronouncing the corresponding sound, is called the articulation of this sound.
The vocal cords - when stretched, come into oscillatory motion, when air passes through the glottis - a musical tone (voice) is created.
Supraglottic cavities - the cavity of the pharynx, mouth, nose create resonator tones. There is an obstacle in the path of the air stream. With close contact of the pronunciation organs, a bow is formed, and with sufficient convergence, a gap.
The tongue is a mobile organ that can take different positions. Forms a gap or a bow.
Palatalization - the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate, giving the consonant a specific color by iot.
Velarization - lifting the back of the tongue towards the soft palate, giving hardness.
The lips are an active organ. Forms a gap and a bow.
The palatine curtain can take a raised position, closing the passage to the nasal cavity, or, on the contrary, descend, opening the passage to the nasal cavity and thus connecting the nasal resonator.
Also, the active organ is the tongue, when pronouncing the trembling.
Functional (phonological) aspect in the study of the sounds of the language.
The sound performs certain functions in language and speech, and it is the background in the flow of speech and the phoneme in the language system. In combination with other sounds, it acts as a material, sensually perceived means of fixing and expressing thoughts, as an exponent of a linguistic sign.
- The sound of speech and the sound of language. Classification of sounds, Vowels with consonants
The sound of a language is a set of speech sounds that are close to each other in an articulation-acoustic relation, defined by speakers as an identity.
The sound of a language is a sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers.
The vowels can be characterized as mouth opener sounds. Consonants "mouth-switches"., when pronouncing, one or another obstacle arises in the path of the air stream. With vowels, an obstacle is not created during the passage of a stream of air, but in consonants, on the contrary.
Sounds are instant (p, b, g, k) and long (m, n, r, s).
- Classification of vowels.
when pronouncing vowels, the tip of the tongue does not play any role, it is lowered, and the back of the tongue articulates with its front, back and middle parts. At the same time, each part of the tongue rises to one level or another, only so that a link or gap does not form with the palate. The position of the lips is very important. Stretching the lips shortens the front of the resonator, which increases the resonant tone, rounding the lips into a ring and stretching them into a tube increases the front of the resonator, which lowers the resonator tone, this articulation is called rounding or labialization. Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally, in a row, i.e. in that part of the tongue that is raised when pronouncing a given vowel (front, middle, back).
Vertically - on the rise, i.e. according to the degree of elevation of one or another part of the tongue .. (upper, middle, lower)
- Classification of consonants.
They are divided according to the method of formation - it is defined as the nature of the passage for a jet of air during the formation of a speech sound. Fricative (gap) and stop (bow). And the stops are divided into: explosive (the bow breaks from a jet of air), affricates (the bow itself opens to allow air to pass into the gap and the air passes through this gap with friction, but unlike fricatives, not for a long time, but instantly, nasal (nasal, air passes bypassing through the nose, the soft palate descends and the soft tongue moves in. The bow prevents air from escaping through the mouth), lateral (lateral, the side of the tongue is lowered down, a side bypass is formed between it and the cheek, along which air escapes), trembling (vibrants, bow periodically opens to a free passage and closes again. The organs of speech tremble.) All fricatives are noisy and come in 2 varieties - deaf and voiced
At the place of formation, this is the point at which two organs in the path of the air stream converge into a gap or close, and where noise occurs when the obstacle is directly overcome (explosive, affricates, fricatives). In each pair, one organ plays an active role - an active organ (tongue) and a passive organ (teeth, palate).
Classification by active organs (labial, anterior, middle, posterior lingual)
By passive organs: labial, dental, anterior, middle, posterior.
- Basic and non-basic sounds. Criteria for their differentiation, The concept of positional alternation of sounds
- Phonetic articulation - beat (phonetic word), syllable, sound
The beats are divided into syllables. A syllable is a part of a measure, consisting of one or more sounds, while not all syllables can be syllabic (form a syllable). A syllable is the smallest pronunciation unit.!
Syllables are divided into sounds. Thus, the sound of speech is a part of a syllable, pronounced in one articulation, i.e. there will be sound. (ts - c)
- The concept of clitics. Types of clitics (proclitics and enclitics)
Enclitika is an unstressed word adjoining behind. (did anyone see it at home) (encliza)
- Phonology. Basic schools.
Phonology originated in Russia in the 70s of the nineteenth century. Its founder Baudouin de Courtenay introduced the concept of the phoneme, opposing it to the concept of sound. Based on his ideas, several phonological schools arose. 2 phonological schools.
IFS – A.A. Reformatsky, R.I. Avanesov (main), P.I. Kuznetsov (base), M.V. Panov, L.L. Kasatkin, L. Kalinchuk.
LFSH - L.V. Shcherba (founder), Verbitskaya, N.S. Trubetskoy
In the IMF - 5 vowels (The letter Y was not included)
The main difference between MFS and P(L)FS is in the evaluation of sounds that appear in significatively weak positions. The IMF establishes the principle of the invariance of the phonemic composition of a morpheme with phonetic alternations of sounds due to these positions; the phonemic composition of morphemes can change only during historical alternations. P(L)FS believes that the phonemic composition of morphemes also varies depending on such phonetic positions.
- Basic problems of phonology
- Determination of the number of phonemes
- Modern Russian37 consonant phonemes k’, g’, x’. Previously, kgh were considered as non-basic varieties of phonemes. Kgh in Russian words are used before the vowels I and E (cinema, ketchup, sprat, weight, genius, hut). MFS: if you determine the composition of the Russian language, then you need to look in Russian words.
- Phoneme definition. Phoneme functions, Phoneme and its varieties (allophone, protophone, variant and variation of the phoneme)
A phoneme is a minimal linear, semantic unit of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds and within one morpheme.
The phoneme performs 3 functions:
- constitutive
Significative (semantic)
Perceptual (function of perception)
Varieties of a phoneme: an allophone is any kind of phoneme.
The protophone is the main type of phoneme.
Non-basic varieties of phonemes are divided into phoneme variant and phoneme variation.
In relation to the perceptual function, a strong position is one in which the phoneme appears in its basic form, regardless of position; the weak position is the one in which the phoneme changes its sound depending on the position and acts as a variation of the phoneme. Father - otedz was
And significatively strong and weak positions do not belong to any one phoneme, but to the opposition of two or more phonemes, which is carried out in a strong position and is generally neutralized in a weak position. Bow - Meadow.
- Phoneme structure. Signs of a phoneme, Pairing as a property of a phoneme
A phoneme is a minimal but complex unit; it consists of a number of features. Signs are determined by the main type: 1. Differential sign (DP) - a sign by which one phoneme differs from another phoneme. 2. An integral feature (IP) is a feature that is included in a phoneme, but does not oppose it to another phoneme.
The nature of the feature is determined only in the opposition of the phoneme. How many oppositions phonemes include, so many differential features it has. Pairing is a property of phonemes, but not sounds.
P - B. (steam room deaf / ringing.)
Ts-DZ-Ts '- extra-pair deaf / sound and soft / TV.
Paired are phonemes that differ in one differential feature and have the ability to be neutralized.
(P)
1.yy
2.cm-adult
3. noisy, deaf.
4.tv
T,k - DP
F - DP
B - DP
P”- DP
Those phonemes that are not neutralized by place and method of formation.
- Distinguishability of phonemes. The composition of the phonemes of the Russian and the studied foreign language
perceptual - to promote the identification of significant units of the language - words and morphemes;
significative - to help distinguish between significant units.
- Phoneme boundaries. Criterion for combining sounds into a phoneme (morphological or functional)
The IFS has developed a functional or morphological criterion. If sounds form one morpheme, then they belong to one phoneme.
Desk (a) (a)
Board, winter, mountain. For verification - a word of the same part of speech, the same grammatical constructions.
Phonemic is basically the same as orthographic.
- The teaching of the IMF about the position of the phoneme. Significantly strong and weak positions
(above the letter) A significative-strong position is a position in which phonemes differ, are opposed, and thereby distinguish words:
Vowel - stress (u-and unstressed position is strong.
For deafness / voiced phonemes paired - position before the vowel (code-year), - before sonorants, - before B (your-two)
For couples on TV / soft. - the end of a word, - before a vowel
Significative-weak position - a position in which phonemes do not differ, are not opposed, do not distinguish between words (non-distinction) (Neutralization - rock horn) OPTION.
For vowels - unstressed position (sama-soma, mela-mila)
For paired deaf / sound phonemes - the end of the word!
For couples on TV / soft. Phonemes. For dental before soft phonemes
In the middle of a word before deaf / sound. consonants.
Pro [b] ka - pro (n) ka
- Perceptually strong and weak positions of the phoneme
Steam(+), five(-)
Perceptually - a weak position - a position in which the phoneme appears not in the main form, but in the form of a variation. (father was otedz)
- Letter. Correlation of oral and written language. Types of writing that convey a content plan
The history of the science of language shows that the question of the essence of language is one of the most difficult in linguistics. It is no coincidence that it has several mutually exclusive solutions, cf.:
- - language is a biological, natural phenomenon, independent of man (“Languages, these natural organisms formed in sound matter ..., show their properties of a natural organism not only in the fact that they are classified into genera, species, subspecies, etc. ., but also in the fact that their growth occurs according to certain laws, - A. Schleicher wrote in his work "The German language". - The life of a language does not differ significantly from the life of all other living organisms - plants and animals. Like these latter, it has a period of growth from the simplest structures to more complex forms and a period of aging ") - And this means that, just like animals and plants, languages \u200b\u200bare fighting among themselves for existence" and obey the law of natural selection;
- - language is a mental phenomenon that arises as a result of the action of an individual spirit - human or divine (“Language,” W. Humboldt wrote, “is a continuous activity of the spirit, seeking to turn sound into an expression of thought”);
- - language is a psychosocial phenomenon, which, according to I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, has a “collective-individual” or “collective-psychic” existence, in which the individual is at the same time general, universal;
- - language is a social phenomenon that arises and develops only in a team (“Language is a social element of speech activity,” said F. de Saussure, “external but relative to the individual, who by itself can neither create a language nor change it” . In a more pointed form, the same idea was expressed by the American linguist W. Whitney, who spoke of language in the following way: “If we want to give a language a name that most accurately reveals its essential character ... we will call it an institution, one of the institutions that create human culture » ).
It is easy to see that in these different definitions, language is understood either as a biological (or natural) phenomenon, or as a psychic (individual) phenomenon, or as a social (public) phenomenon. Meanwhile, the definition of language, its essence “is important for building a theory of language. It fixes one or another ontological representation of the language, which largely determines the understanding of the object or subject of science and the methods of studying this object.
If language is recognized as a biological phenomenon, then it should be considered on a par with such human abilities as eating, drinking, sleeping, walking, etc., and it should be considered that language is inherited by man, since it is inherent in his very nature. However, this contradicts the facts, since the language is not inherited. It is assimilated by the child under the influence of speakers (cf. the situation with children who were in long-term isolation and brought up in an animal environment: they could not speak). Therefore, the ability to speak is not an innate biological ability of a person, but largely depends on his social experience. At the same time, work in the field of psycholinguistics has proved that a person has a linguistic ability that allows him to assimilate the system of signs of a particular language and the rules for combining these signs in the construction of a text already in the early years, however, the realization of this language ability occurs in the process of communication between a person and surrounding people - native speakers. given language.
It is hardly legitimate to consider language as a mental phenomenon, arising as a result of the action of an individual spirit - human or divine. In this case, humanity would have a huge variety of individual languages, which would lead to a situation of Babylonian confusion of languages, misunderstanding of each other even by members of the same team.
There is no doubt that language is a social phenomenon: it arises and develops only in a team due to the need of people to communicate with each other. And if there were no society, there would be no language. Therefore, language is a product of social activity, it "is part of the social experience of mankind, develops along with human society and is assimilated by each individual only through communication with other people."
A different understanding of the essence of the language gave rise to different approaches to its definition, compare:
“Language is thinking expressed by sounds” (A. Schleicher);
“Language is a system of signs in which the only essential thing is the combination of meaning and acoustic image” (F. de Saussure);
“Language is practical, existing for other people and only thereby existing also for myself, real consciousness” (K. Marx, F. Engels);
“Language is the most important means of human communication” (V. I. Lenin);
“Language is a system of articulate sound signs that spontaneously arises in human society and develops, serving for the purposes of communication and capable of expressing the totality of a person’s knowledge and ideas about the world” (N. D. Arutyunova).
All these definitions reveal the most essential properties of the language. They are based on different premises. And this fact already suggests that language is a complex phenomenon, so it is extremely difficult to find an unambiguous adequate definition. Each of these definitions (and their number can be increased indefinitely) emphasizes different aspects of the language: its relation to thinking, the structural organization of the language, the most important functions, etc., which once again indicates that the language is a complex sign system working in unity and interaction with human consciousness and thinking.
According to academician V. M. Solntsev, who devoted an entire monograph to the study of the essence of language, “language as an extremely complex entity can be defined from different points of view, depending on which side or sides of the language are distinguished. Definitions are possible: a) from the point of view of the function of language (or functions of language): language is a means of communication between people and as such is a means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts; b) from the point of view of the device (mechanism) of the language: language is a set of certain units and rules for the use of these units, i.e. combination of units; c) from the point of view of the existence of language: language is the result of a social, collective skill of “making” units from sound matter by pairing some sounds with some meaning ... Since it is hardly possible to give a sufficiently complete characterization of the language in a single definition, - writes V. M Solntsev, - we consider it expedient to rely on the most general definition, concretizing it as necessary with certain special characteristics.
These characteristics run through the entire book by V. M. Solntsev “Language as a system-structural formation”. Each time, one of the sides of the language is updated in them, cf.: "Language is a set of rules according to which sentences are made, and a set of units endowed with meaning, or meaning, that are used in accordance with the rules." “Language is a system, but it is a system of a different kind and order than those systems that in speech are made from the elements of language. The language system is a kind of “pantry”, where rules and elements (or units) are combined (not in the literal sense, of course)”, etc. The totality of these characteristics of the language allows us to present an adequate picture of the linguistic phenomenon.
Being a social phenomenon, language has the properties of social purpose, i.e. certain functions. Among its functions, the most important are:
- 1) communicative(to be a means of human communication) with its derivatives: a contact-establishing function (cf. the greeting or farewell formulas that are found in all languages); appellative function (i.e., the function of calling, inciting to action); conative function (i.e., the function of assimilation of information by the addressee, associated with empathy, cf. the magical power of spells or curses in an archaic society or advertising texts in a modern one); volitional function (i.e., the function of influence associated with the will of the speaker); epistemic function (i.e. the function of storing and transmitting knowledge about reality, the traditions of culture, the history of the people, national identity); this function of language connects it with reality (fragments of reality, isolated and processed by human consciousness, are fixed in language units: for example, in Central Australia there lives a small tribe of aborigines who were forced to change the word for water nine times within five years, because that a man bearing the name "Water" was dying);
- 2)cognitive function(that is, the epistemological, cognitive function of being a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality), this function of language connects it with the mental activity of a person, since “language in a certain way organizes a person’s knowledge about the objective world, dismembers them and fixes them in human consciousness; this is the function of reflecting reality, i.e. the formation of categories of thought and, more broadly, of consciousness”; in the units of the language, thus, the structure and dynamics of thought materialize (cf. the definition of the language of academician Yu. S. Stepanov: “Language is the space of thought”); derivatives of this function: axiological function (i.e. evaluation function); nominative function (i.e. naming function); closely related to this function is the function of generalization, which allows us to express the most complex concepts with the help of language. Generalizing and highlighting the individual, unique, the word has the ability to "replace" objects and phenomena of the outside world. Cognizing reality, a person constructs it in different ways, which finds its expression in the language (cf.: in the language of the Eskimos there are more than 20 names for ice, and in the language of the Arabs there are many names for camels, in which a variety of signs are actualized); predicative function (i.e., the function of correlating information with reality), etc.
In addition to these basic functions of language, sometimes they distinguish an emotional or expressive function (to be a means of expressing human feelings and emotions), aesthetic, poetic, metalinguistic (metalinguistic - to be a means of researching and describing language in terms of the language itself) and some others.
Language is a naturally occurring (at a certain stage in the development of human society) and naturally developing sign system. Language has certain functions. The function of language is the role, purpose of language in society. Linguists identify about 12 language functions, of which two are basic - communicative and cognitive. Communicative is a function of communication, cognitive is a thought-forming function, it is also called expressive, epistemological, representative (in figurative terms, “language is the clothes of thoughts”).
communicative function. Language is the most important means of communication, but not the only one. There are other means of transmitting information: gestures, facial expressions, works of art, scientific formulas. But all these are auxiliary means, their possibilities are limited: music conveys feelings, not thoughts, mathematical symbols convey the content of only mathematical concepts and so on. Language is the universal means of communication. The communicative function is manifested in the following areas of human activity: 1) in establishing contact, 2) in storing and transmitting the traditions and culture of the people, i.e. Language is the link between generations.
The cognitive function is found in the following areas of human activity: 1) in naming objects and phenomena of the surrounding world; 2) in the possibility of assessing these phenomena.
To these two most important ones, an emotional function is added, which manifests itself in the fact that language is a means of expressing feelings, and a metalinguistic function (language is a means of scientific description of oneself).
Language is also a means of influencing the mental properties and behavior of individuals and entire masses, i.e. language has a phatic (suggestive-magical) function. According to Murzin L.N., this function should be placed next to the representative function in terms of significance in understanding the phenomenon, in understanding its essence. Suggestion in the broad sense of the word is a speech effect on the psychological attitudes of the recipient. Magic is the same suggestion, but to an extremely high degree, when the representative function of the language not only fades into the background, but is essentially excluded from the communicative process. Magic is distinguished by the “injection” of linguistic suggestive means, their excess in a speech work. In addition, magic requires the synthesis of various kinds of influences, both verbal (verbal) and non-verbal (gesture, facial expressions, melody, etc.). Examples of magical texts that have long been familiar to all of us are conspiracies, ritual actions of a shaman, prayers, a lullaby, poems, and so on.
The nature of a linguistic sign is such that it is capable of evoking a feeling of obscure, incomprehensible, mysterious, which is one of the foundations of the magical effect of linguistic means.
The suggestor uses the group of linguistic means that can be called directive language: verbs in the form of the imperative mood, words with the meaning “necessary”, must” and so on, the corresponding timbre, which is called “metal in the voice”, intonation contrast when the bass register is suddenly replaced by a rumbling baritone or falsetto, etc. Hypnotists and psychotherapists resort to such means. In this case, the language is openly prescriptive. If the directives of the suggestor are aimed at the subconscious, then indirect statements prevail in it, which are characterized by a contradiction between the purpose and the form of the statement, for example, the request is expressed in the form of a question, the statement is expressed in the form of an assumption.
A number of statements can be “packed” in the sentence structure, and only one is relevant at the moment, the rest go into the shadows and therefore do not fall into the “bright spot of consciousness”, but are perceived by the subconscious of the suggestant (suggerend). This is widely used by politicians, psychotherapists. For example, if you need to inspire some thought, then it is expressed not in the main, but in the subordinate clause, which cannot occupy the final position: “While you are in perfect peace, you are thinking about your loved ones - wife and children” . We can say that the results of all steps of creating a proposal, except for the last one, get into the subconscious. Therefore, psychotherapists, who have long noticed this feature of our perception, do not recommend starting phrases with a NOT particle. If you say "Don't worry because..." the patient becomes nervous. Negation should be at the end of the statement, then the positive thought will be fixed in the subconscious.
Among the grammatical categories, the future tense occupies a special place in the covertly directive language, because it contains a certain possibility associated with the desire to realize it. Thus, if they say “Everything will be fine!”, This means that “Let everything be fine!”, i.e. “I wish everything was good!”. Psychotherapists put directives in a descriptive and narrative form, while describing what is desirable to have at the moment. Therefore, the forms of the present tense are widely used: “I am calm, my breathing is deep, my heart is working normally ...”. The general lexical tone of such a language is uncertainty, vagueness. The suggestor does not force, does not oblige, but offers to make a choice, opens up the possibility, but the possibility that he considers correct and unique. Therefore, verbs of coercion are used (forces, requires, obliges), but in combination with an inanimate noun or impersonal pronoun (Everyone obeys an inner voice, the work of your heart requires constant attention ...”). The sound side of the language has a sufficiently high degree of suggestive influence: the sound itself, causing certain associations, repetitions (causing a “soporific” effect, which contributes to the penetration of information into the subconscious), the rhythmic organization of the text.
With a suggestive impact, communication is irrational, so verbosity and monotony (as opposed to, for example, business communication) just provide the effect of suggestion.
Verbal (verbal) means of suggestion are necessarily accompanied by non-verbal ones. These include socio-psychological characteristics of communicants. The suggestor must have authority (image) and feel his psychological superiority over the suggestor (priests, teachers, doctors, etc. have such authority). The image creates an incentive to influence - trust in the source of information. This factor performs the function of “indirect argumentation”, which compensates for the absence of direct argumentation in the act. On the other hand, the suggestor usually assumes that the object of influence is capable of being suggested. So, an increased predisposition to suggestion is observed 1) in children; 2) in persons in a state of sleep; 3) in persons in a narcotic state; 4) in persons in a state of hypnosis; 5) in persons in an affective state (for example, with religious exaltation); 6) in persons with a low level of intelligence; 7) the persons that make up the group. Let us explain the last condition. Awareness and controllability of behavior, a sense of personal gain and security disappear in the crowd. The mass is characterized by radicalism and maximalism; urgency in the implementation of suggested ideas is accompanied by the elimination of the concept of impossibility. Z. Freud considered the state of a person in a crowd to be affective and even hypnotic. To captivate the masses, other methods are used than to influence an individual. It is necessary to influence the imagination of the crowd, and not logic, therefore, it is necessary to choose words-symbols that are stable images, consecrated for centuries, located in the depths of the national mentality. When influencing a mass of people, you need to use affirmative statements and use repetitions.
The sign essence of the language. A sign is a material object acting as a representative of another object. These are traffic lights, road signs. Each sign has two sides: a material shell (a visual or auditory image) and an inner one (content, what it means, what it actually relates to). This two-sidedness of the sign in the language was called “dualism of the linguistic sign” (the term was proposed by Sergey Osipovich Kartsevsky). The most famous language sign is the word. The word has two sides: external (sound range or graphic image) and internal (what the word means). Without a signifier, without content, it's just a scale. So, we can type a series of letters on the keyboard "prol". This is not a sign, this is not a word, because it is not correlated with any object in the world around us. And without the signifier, the sign also does not exist; without the signifier it is a vague thought.
In addition to the word, there are other signs in the language - units of the language. These units are characterized by different properties, between which it is often difficult to find something in common (for example, a morpheme and a text), therefore several levels are distinguished in the language: the level of sounds, the level of morphemes, the level of words, the level of sentences. Each level combines units of the same type - all sounds, all morphemes, all words, all sentences. The law of compatibility operates in the language - units of the same level are combined: sound with sound, word with word and under. As a result, a unit of a higher level arises (the combination of phonemes creates morphemes, morphemes are combined into words, etc.). It is believed that a hierarchical (from Gr. hieros sacred + arche power) type of connection is established between units of different levels, implying the arrangement of the elements of the whole from the highest to the lowest. There are two types of hierarchy - connection and subordination. The hierarchy of subordination lies in the fact that the place in the lower ranks determines the form of dependence on the top (for example, social hierarchy). A connection hierarchy is possible: one part, connecting to another, interacts with it and together forms a whole. Language is a model of a hierarchy of connection: the lesser manifests its functions in the greater.
Not all units are bilateral, but only units, starting with a morpheme. A sound (phoneme) is a unit that has no content; it does not correspond to any reality in the surrounding world. Let's see what the content of other units is. Morphemes: for example, the suffix TEL - a person by action, “the one who ...” - the reader (the one who reads), the teacher (the one who teaches), the prefix C - the movement from top to bottom: run away, move out, fly off, etc. . The sentence reflects the situation, the “scene”: “A man is walking”, “It is dawning”.
Thus, the essence of language is that it is a sign system. Since this is a “system of systems”, a complex, grandiose system, it is impossible to study the language “in general”. For the convenience of research, sections of linguistics are distinguished: phonemes are studied in phonology, morphemes in morphemics, sentences in syntax. The word as the most complex linguistic unit is considered at all levels of the language: from the point of view of meaning (this is one of the most important aspects of the word), it is considered in lexicology, and as a part of speech - in morphology, from the point of view of functioning as a member of a sentence - in syntax. The main, main sections of the language are phonology, lexicology, morphology and syntax. Morphology and syntax are combined into one general section called grammar.
The public nature of language. Language is a social phenomenon. Numerous definitions of language emphasize its social function. So, by its very nature, language is a social phenomenon. The social nature of the language is manifested in its functions. The interaction of language and society is found in the fact that language arises, functions and develops only in society; in addition, the social differentiation of society is reflected in the language.
Society is heterogeneous, it is divided into men and women; young and old; educated and uneducated; living in different regions of Russia. Not all differences between people are significant for language. Chief among them are territorial differences. The territorial varieties of a language are called dialects. In different regions, the same phenomena are called differently: wolf - biryuk, squirrel - veksha, beet - beetroot. Social varieties of language are called jargons. The two main ones are youth and student (stipeshka, hostel, etc.). For a long time there has been a thieves' slang (bear cub, plucker, family, etc.). For people of the same profession, there are professional languages, in which terms, professional words play a big role: steering wheel - “steering wheel” and so on. The speech of men and women also differs. So, for men, a stretching of consonants is typical (dur-r-rak), and for women, a stretching of vowels (Well, oh, very funny). Women's speech is characterized by verbosity, greater emotionality compared to men's speech, a tendency to exaggeration, hyperbolization. For male speech, it is common to use swear words to express a positive assessment, which is uncharacteristic for women; women are more likely to resort to euphemisms, female speech is characterized by evasiveness and uncertainty, as well as, by all accounts, illogicality. To express many meanings, women often use intonation, and men use vocabulary.
Language is not the only social phenomenon. Social phenomena include religion, politics, sports, art, etc. Language is the most democratic of social phenomena. Not all members of society are required to be politicians, athletes, paint, etc. But ignorance of the language puts a person outside of society, he becomes "Mowgli".
Thus, the entire language is divided into a national language, one that is included in the language stock of most native speakers, and limited use: those linguistic means (practically words) that are known only to people connected by a non-linguistic community (territory, profession, age, etc.). ).
One should not think that everything in a language is conditioned by its social nature. Social factors influence the language indirectly. Society can most actively influence the vocabulary (for example, the language is constantly updated with new words: stapler, bifilife, hacker, user, etc.). But the number of phonemes, types of declension, structural types of sentences, etc. does not depend on social phenomena.
The concept of "modern Russian literary language".
"Modern language" - this term is understood in different ways. A broad understanding includes the era from Pushkin to the present day. Indeed, over the past 200 years, the language has not undergone significant changes in the phonetic, morphological and syntactic structure, and lexical changes were not so significant that we need to translate the literature of Pushkin's time. At the same time, the language lives and develops, and the living language of our contemporaries is the form that exists in the second half of the twentieth century. Therefore, a narrow understanding of "modern language" - from the 50s of the twentieth century to the present day. Average understanding - from M. Gorky to the present day (the entire twentieth century).
“Russian language” is the language of the Russian nation, but due to historical processes, the Russian language is also native for people who are not Russian by nationality. There are many bilinguals in our state who have two native languages, in which they can think almost the same way. Historically, on the territory of the former Tsarist Russia, the Russian language began to play the role of the language of interethnic communication.
The Russian language is included in the eastern group of Slavic languages, the common ancestor of which was the Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) language. The closest relatives of the Russian language are the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, which are also included in the eastern group of Slavic languages.
“Literary language” is a standardized language, the highest form of the national language. Literary language is universal, on its basis scientific essays, journalistic works are created, it underlies business speech and fiction. At the heart of the literary language is the concept of the norm. The language norm is the most common of the existing ones, entrenched in the practice of exemplary use, and the language variants that perform their function in the best way. Language means are considered normative, which are characterized by 1) regular use; 2) the correspondence of this way of expression to the possibilities of the Russian language system; 3) public approval, and writers, scientists, the educated part of society act as judges. The norms are mobile, historically changeable (for example, the word “coffee” in the 19th century was used in the neuter gender, and in the 20th century it was used in the masculine gender, the use of the neuter gender is also acceptable).
The main collection of norms is dictionaries, reference books and textbooks. Spelling standards (spelling) are reflected in spelling dictionaries, pronunciation standards - in orthoepic ones. There are dictionaries of compatibility (“Educational Dictionary of Compatibility of the Russian Language”, etc.). Stylistic norms are presented in the form of stylistic marks in explanatory dictionaries (simple, bookish, colloquial, etc.). The section of linguistics, the subject of which is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, is called lexicography.
The literary language is characterized by a number of features:
1. This is a codified variety of the Russian language, usually associated with a written form of communication; it is focused on fixing and, as it were, designed for recording and reproducing what has been recorded. The leading form of the literary language is written, although it is also found in oral form. The formation of the oral form of literary speech dates back to the beginning of the 19th century and continued throughout the 20th century.
2. Literary speech serves as a means of implementing the entire range of knowledge accumulated by native speakers of the Russian language in connection with progress in the field of material and spiritual culture; that is why literary speech has an ever-expanding scope of its application: it is used in all types of human activity and thus serves as a means of communication over a larger area than other forms of the Russian language.
3. Literary speech is characterized by such a system of norms that qualify as exemplary; that is why such norms appear in the minds of native speakers as obligatory, and literary speech itself is perceived as opposed to dialectal and socially limited.
4. Literary speech is such a variety of the Russian language, which is reflected in the polishing and improvement of "raw" material in acts of speech activity.
5. The system of norms of the Russian language is being codified; it is instilled in the learning process, distributed with the help of teaching aids, dictionaries, etc.
6. Literary speech is characterized by selectivity. The selection of language means is perhaps the most important of the patterns of development.
There are two FORMS of language - oral and written. Oral - primordial, this is the form in which any language originally exists. The written form arose from the need of society to convey information to distant interlocutors or another generation. The oral form of speech is characterized by spontaneity, unpreparedness. This speech is perceived immediately, directly by the organs of hearing, it exists as "speaking" with its characteristic melody, rhythm, intonation. Oral speech is focused on momentary perception, on the interlocutor and is built taking into account his reactions. Oral speech is direct, expressive, it uses different means of updating the verbal form: intonation, timbre and power of the voice, repetition, violation of word order, distortion of the sound side of the word, etc. All this is aimed at strengthening the influencing factor of the utterance and raising the emotional tone of speech activity.
Written speech is focused on the perception of the organs of vision, so this speech can be referred to more than once. Written speech is different in that the very form of speech activity reflects the conditions and purpose of communication. The choice of words, expressions, syntactic constructions, the arrangement of words in the structure of sentences - all this is subject to stylistic restrictions. So, scientific texts are distinguished by the fact that they are characterized by the use of terms, detailed structures of complex sentences, etc. In the texts of official business correspondence, there is a standardization of the form of presentation, language formulas of legal practice, etc.
Written and oral speech is carried out in a dialogic and monologue form. Dialogue involves spontaneity, a direct reaction to the words of the interlocutor, the use of non-verbal means of communication (gesture, facial expressions, posture, facial expressions, eyes, etc.), change of topic, the use of short and incomplete sentences, the possibility of asking questions, clarifications in the course of communication. The monologue presupposes preparedness, structural organization (it is especially important to think over the beginning and end of the speech), lack of orientation towards the interlocutor, i.e. the impossibility of changing or restructuring the theme, etc.
The nature and essence of language
1. Language is a social phenomenon. Language, as a social phenomenon, arises in society to serve the needs of people, but there are many phenomena in language that cannot be explained only by the social nature of language. The language of an individual depends on the environment and is influenced by the speech of the collective.
Biological approach to language.
Language is a universal biological property as a psychophysical reserve in the human brain. language is a biological, natural phenomenon, independent of man. It is generated in the human body, in its speech apparatus. Language is a tool through which a person forms thoughts and feelings, moods, desires, will and activity. Language is a tool through which a person influences people, and others influence him.
3. Mental approach to language. It is found in the fact that language-speech is not only a form of expression of thoughts and emotions, but also a means of forming thoughts, a form of existence of thinking.
Conclusion: language is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, which is unthinkable to consider only from one side. Each of the considered approaches is correct in its own way, but in order to determine the nature of the language as accurately as possible, one has to turn to all its aspects, remember its biological nature, do not forget about the social side and consider it from the point of view of the human psyche.
Language Features
Language as a social phenomenon performs a number of functions:
1. Formation and expression of thought. Thought is formed in the form of words and a combination of words. Only when a global undivided thought is uttered, it acquires clarity and clarity. Human. language is the most adequate form of expression of thought. Thought can be expressed by other means, for example. in figurative-symbolic formulas, mathematical signs, etc.
communicative(or communication function) - the use of language to convey information, to be a means of communication between people. This global function is represented by sub-functions that can be used in speech in isolation or in a selective characteristic with each other:
cognitive (or cognitive function) - the formation of the thinking of the individual and society; the possibility of obtaining knowledge with the help of the language in the educational activities of people.
The function of the message itself is realized in unilateral or bilateral acts of information transfer (lecture, examination).
informative (or accumulative function) - the transfer of information and its storage (chronicles, dictionaries, diaries);
regulatory and planning - the ability to regulate the behavior of people. With the help of plans, orders, instructions;
emotive- the ability of a language-speech to express feelings and emotions using different language means: interjections, emotive vocabulary, phraseology;
metalinguistic - the use of languages. as a means of research and description of the language itself.
phatic (or contact-establishing) - the ability of a language to inform communicants about their socio-psychological status and thereby determine the establishment or termination of contacts between them. This function is realized primarily when using the norms of speech etiquette;
4. Language- this is a naturally occurring and naturally developing system of objectively existing and socially fixed signs that correlate the conceptual content and typical sound.
Language is an open, dynamic system. The system of a language is the internal organization of its units and parts. Each language unit enters the system as a part of the whole, it is connected with other units and parts of the language system directly or indirectly through language categories.
The language system is complex and multifaceted, this applies to both its structure and functioning, i.e. use and development. The language system determines the ways of its development, but not the specific form, because in any language, its norm, one can find systemic (structural) and asystemic (destructive) facts. This arises both as a result of the unrealization of all the possibilities of the system, and as a result of the influence of other languages and social factors.
For example, nouns in the Russian language potentially have a 12-element declension paradigm, but not every noun has the entire set of word forms, and there are nouns that have a large number of word forms [cf .: about the forest and in the forest, when the prepositional case splits into explanatory and local];
In modern systems theories, various types and types of systems are analyzed. For linguistics, systems that have the property of optimality and openness are important. The sign of openness and dynamism is characteristic of language as a system. The dynamism of the system is manifested in the opposite of its linguistic tradition, fixed in the literary language, the stereotype of speech activity. Potentiality as a manifestation of the dynamism and openness of the language system does not oppose it to the language with its categories and specific units.
5. One-level and multi-level language units can enter into two types of systemic relations - paradigmatic and syntagmatic.
Paradigm. (gr.-example) rel. - the relationship between units of this and different levels, grouped in the human brain on the basis of various associations. For example, similarity or closeness, adjacency of lexical meanings serves as the basis of synonymy. The similarity of form reveals itself in such categories as homonomy, paronymy, polysemy. The opposite of meanings forms antonymy, etc.
Syntagmatic (gr.-together built, connected) rel.-rel. (postfix, stem root, inflection).
Eg. Turkic postfixes with the meaning plural –lar/-ler in the position on the left is the stem root, in the position on the right are postfixes with different grammars. values. Rus. potfix -nick in the position on the left has a root (tea-nick), in the position on the right - diff. Flexions (tea-nik-i),
6. Speech is a form of communication that has developed historically in the process of the material transforming activity of people and is mediated by language.
In psychology, there are two main type of speech: external and internal.
External speech includes oral (dialogical and monologue) and written. Dialogue is a direct communication between two or more people. Dialogic speech- this speech is supported; the interlocutor puts clarifying questions during her, giving remarks, can help complete the thought (or reorient it). A kind of dialogic communication is a conversation, in which the dialogue has a thematic focus.
monologue speech- a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of thoughts, knowledge by one person. This type of speech also develops in the process of communication, but the nature of communication here is different: the monologue is uninterrupted, therefore, the speaker has an active, gestural effect.
monologue speech- connected, contextual. The monologue does not tolerate incorrect construction of phrases. He makes a number of demands on the tempo and sound of this type of speech.
Written speech is a type of monologue. It is more developed than oral monologue speech. This is due to the fact that written speech implies a lack of feedback from the interlocutor. In addition, this type of speech does not have any additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the words themselves, their order and the punctuation marks organizing the sentence.
7. inner speech is a special kind of speech activity. It acts as a planning phase in practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, for inner speech, on the one hand, is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation. On the other hand, misunderstandings in the perception of the situation are excluded here. That's why inner speech extremely situational, in this it is close to dialogic. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.
Any thought, regardless of whether a person wants or does not want to express it, is formed with the help of inner speech with the participation of movements of the speech apparatus. It goes through the stage of internal pronunciation, internal processing. Speech movements are invisible to the eye, but they can be recorded using special devices. The translation of external speech into internal (internalization) is accompanied by a reduction (contraction) of the structure of external speech, and the transition from internal speech to external (exteriorization), on the contrary, requires the deployment of the structure of internal speech, building it in accordance not only with logical rules, but also with grammatical ones.
Inner speech has the following features:
a) contraction (curtailment). It omits most of the members of the sentence and only one of the main ones remains: the subject or predicate;
b) the absence of vocalization (its soundlessness) as a result of inhibited and disinhibited articulation.
c) inner speech exists as a kinesthetic, auditory or visual image of a word.
8. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, a branch of linguistics that studies language primarily as a phenomenon of the psyche. From the point of view of psycholinguistics, language exists to the extent that the inner world of the speaker and listener, writer and reader exists.
This is a complex science, which belongs to the linguistic disciplines, since it studies the language, and to the psychological disciplines, since it studies it in a certain aspect - as a mental phenomenon. And since language is a sign system that serves society, psycholinguistics is also included in the circle of disciplines that study social communications, including the design and transfer of knowledge.
A person is born endowed with the possibility of complete mastery of the language. However, this opportunity has yet to be realized. To understand exactly how this happens, psycholinguistics studies the development of a child's speech.
Psycholinguistics also investigates the reasons why the development of speech and its functioning deviate from the norm. Psycholinguistics studies the speech defects of children and adults. These are defects that arose in the early stages of life - in the process of mastering speech, as well as defects that were the result of later anomalies - such as brain injuries, hearing loss, mental illness.
NEUROLINGUISTICS is a branch of science that is borderline for psychology, neurology and linguistics, studying the brain mechanisms of speech activity and changes in speech processes that occur with local lesions of the brain.
The formation of neurolinguistics as a scientific discipline is associated with the development of neuropsychology, as well as linguistics and psycholinguistics. According to the concepts of modern neuropsychology, neurolinguistics considers speech as a systemic function, and aphasia as a systemic disorder of already formed speech.
9. Speech activity - interconnected speech actions aimed at achieving one goal. Speech activity is divided into writing, reading, speaking, translation, etc.
The process of speech involves, on the one hand, the formation and formulation of thoughts by linguistic means, and on the other hand, the perception of linguistic structures and their understanding.
Thus, speech is a psycholinguistic process, a form of existence of human language.
The physiological basis of speech is the conditioned reflex activity of the cerebral cortex. As an irritant, the word has three forms of expression: the word heard, the word seen, the word spoken
1) lungs, bronchi, trachea;
2) larynx;
3) pharynx, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, uvula, palate, tongue, teeth and lips
The concept of speech activity. Contrasting speech with language, speech is called both speech skills, and a speech act, and the result of speech - a text, and even speech activity itself - language ability and speech behavior.
The speech activity of the speaker has a social and psychophysiological side. The social nature of speech activity lies in the fact that it is part of a person's social activity, and that both the speech act and the speech situation involve public speakers who know a single language of communication, a common culture, a common theme.
A speech act as a psychophysical process is a connection between the speaker and the listener, which involves 3 components - speaking, perception and understanding of speech. A speech act as a dialogue presupposes the establishment of a connection between the interlocutors. In general, a speech act is a unity of message transmission and joint thinking.
10. The generation of speech occurs in the process of speech activity aimed at the verbalization of thought. This is the path from thought to word.
The path from thought to word consists mainly in the preparation of a speech statement. The well-known psycholinguist A.R. Luria identifies 4 stages on this path. It begins with a motive and a general idea (stage 1). Then it goes through the stage of inner speech, followed by the stage of formation of the syntactic structure (stage 3). The production of speech ends with the deployment of an external speech statement (stage 4).
There are two phases of speech generation:
1) preverbal stage of speech; it is connected with the appearance of the speaker's intention;
2) the verbal stage, when personal meanings acquire verbal expression.
These stages affect, respectively, the work of the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex in their close interaction.
The interaction of the right and left hemispheres in the process of speech production is subject to one main goal: the translation of thought into speech. The transformation of thought into speech is associated with the transformation of a multidimensional mental image into a one-dimensional, linear statement.
Speech perception- one of the complex processes of speech activity. It includes the perception of the sound composition of the word, grammatical forms, intonation and other means of language that express a certain content of thought.
Speech understanding- the process is no less complicated than the perception of it. To understand the speech of a speaking person, one must first of all clearly hear and understand every word. But the meaning of a word is often clarified only as part of a phrase, sentence.
11. Language levels are arranged in relation to each other according to the principle of ascending or descending complexity of language units. The idea of levels implies the hierarchical structure of the language system, the dominance of some units over others and, conversely, the subordination of some units to others.
The level structure of the language becomes apparent with the stepwise linear articulation of the utterance. First, sentences are singled out, in which words are distinguished as their constituent words, which, in turn, break up into morphemes. Morphemes are divided into phonemes. Units of a lower level are included in units of higher levels: phoneme-morpheme-lexeme-s.combination. and offer.
Grammatical units- grammatically designed language formations, each of which is characterized by its own distinctive features:
Morpheme;
Word (word form);
Phrase;
Sentence.
Morpheme- the minimum significant part of a word or word form; word building material. Morphemes are distinguished by a special morphemic analysis.
Word- one of the main grammatical units, which is a unity of form (sound shell) and content (lexical and grammatical meanings).
phrase- a syntactic construction that consists of two or more significant words interconnected by a subordinate relationship - agreement, control, adjacency, or in some languages - juxtaposition.
Sentence- a syntactic construction representing a grammatically organized compound of words (or a word), which has a certain semantic and intonational completeness, phrases, forming different types of simple sentences;
Sema- an elementary component of the meaning, implemented inside the seme, that is, the seme is the minimum piece of meaning, indecomposable into parts. Words and different meanings of a word differ in a set of such components.
Sema - the value component reflects the attribute of the object. Since these signs may also have the most general specific character, the following types of semes are distinguished: classmes(thematic; the most generalized features corresponding to the meaning of parts of speech), archisemes(features that define a group of words within a part of speech), differential(features by which words are opposed, grouped according to one archiseme and by which one seme can be distinguished from another).
12. Linguistic meanings can be divided into two types according to their relation to language units. In the first case, we are talking about the semantics of the linguistic units themselves, their content - these are structural linguistic meanings. In the second case, we are talking about the concept and other categories and transmitted information, about the semantic purpose of units of language and context - these are informative language meanings. Language meanings as the content of language units are divided into lexical and grammatical meanings.
Lexical meaning - the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and fixing in it the idea of \u200b\u200bthe object, property, process, phenomenon, etc. L. z. - a product of human mental activity, it is of a generalized nature. Usually L. h. associated with the concept.
The lexical meaning reveals the features by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that distinguish this object, action, phenomenon.
A word can have one lexical meaning ( unambiguous words): syntax, tangent, whatman,secret etc. Words that have two, three or more lexical meanings are called ambiguous:
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content. In the field of morphology, for example, these are the grammatical meanings of parts of speech, cases, gender, tense, etc.
For example, words smoke and house have different lexical meanings, and the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
13. Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality (the so-called conceptual core). The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the features by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that distinguish this object, action, phenomenon.
For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs”, that is, those signs that distinguish a giraffe from other animals are listed.
The structure of the lexical meaning of a word also includes a stylistic meaning, or connotation, - this is an assessment that is given to an object, a phenomenon by a person as a result of his cognitive activity.
14. The lexical meanings of words can be considered from different angles.
Value types are classified according to the following criteria:
1) according to the method of nomination, i.e. by the nature of the connection between the meaning of the word and the subject of non-linguistic reality;
2) according to the degree of semantic motivation;
3) if possible, lexical compatibility;
4) according to syntactic behavior;
5) by the nature of the nomination.
1. By the method of nomination
There are two types: direct and figurative.
direct- this is the meaning in which the word directly indicates the object, action, sign and directly correlates with the concept. This is the main meaning, the stable name of the subject.
Figurative meaning- this is the result of the transfer of the direct designation of the subject to a new subject. This value appears on the basis of comparisons, associations that unite one subject with another.
There are several types of figurative meanings of words: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
2. According to the degree of semantic motivation
Allocate values motivated and unmotivated.
Unmotivated Meaning- this is a non-derivative meaning that words have in their direct meaning with a non-derivative stem. For example, deciduous forest, residential building.
Motivated Meaning- this is a derived meaning that words in a figurative sense and derivative words have. The figurative meaning is explained through the direct meaning, and the word is derivative in terms of meaning. For example, a snub nose is a direct meaning, a ship's bow is figurative.
The meanings of derived words arise on the basis of generating bases, i.e. the word is derivative in the word-formation relation. For example, a nose is a nose.
3. By lexical compatibility
Allocate lexically free and phraseologically related.
Lexically free: in terms of lexical compatibility, such words have a relatively wide compatibility with other words. For example, a tall house, a tall person, high ceilings (large in length). But there may be restrictions on compatibility with other words. Compatibility can be limited by logic, subject-logical relations. This is due to non-linguistic reasons. For example, you can not say "high borscht".
Compatibility can also be limited by linguistic relations proper. These words have non-free meanings or phraseologically related meanings.
Phraseologically related- these are meanings that are realized only under the conditions of certain combinations of a given word with a limited stable circle of lexical units. For example, logically, adjectives denoting color could be combined with any words that can be determined by these features: brown - brown - brown. But the language norm does not allow combining the adjective "brown" with the word coat, table, door, in contrast to the adjective "brown". The adjectives "brown" and "brown" are combined with a narrow range of nouns. "Brown" is a lexically free type of meaning, this word has a relatively wide compatibility.
Sometimes, especially in poetic works, these restrictions are lifted and the possibilities of combining words with other words increase. For example, to cry sobbingly - to write about February sobbingly (by Pasternak), a flock of comrades (from a joke).
4. By syntactic behavior
Allocate syntactically free, syntactically determined and constructively limited meanings.
Syntactically free values- these are the meanings that the word of a certain part of speech has in its usual syntactic function.
Syntactically conditional values- these are the meanings that appear when the word performs a syntactic function unusual for it.
For example, a crow and a raven are different birds. A crow is a bird with gray plumage, a raven is a useful bird. Crow is a syntactically free word. Your sister is such a crow (figurative meaning "absent-minded person"); syntactically determined. As a rule, this word is not used as a subject in a figurative sense. Perhaps only in combination with a demonstrative pronoun: this crow always forgets everything.
Structurally limited values are values that are implemented only under the conditions of a certain syntactic construction.
Mirage is an optical phenomenon. The mirage of love is a deceptive sign, an illusion. This is the figurative meaning that the word "mirage" acquires in the construction "mirage + noun in the genitive case". It often occurs in poetic speech.
5. By the nature of the nomination
There are nominative and non-nominative.
Nominative meanings are meanings that are used to name objects, actions, signs and do not contain their assessment, characteristics. There are no additional evaluative semes in the structure of the lexical meaning of such words.
Non-nominative meanings are the meanings of words that are not only named, but also characterized. Meaning also includes additional emotional and evaluative features.
