Land allotments of the peasants under the reform of 1861.

In Russian history, one of the saddest pages is the section on "serfdom", which equated most of the population of the empire with the lowest grade. The peasant reform of 1861 freed dependent people from bondage, which became impetus for reorganization the whole state into a democratic free state.

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Basic concepts

Before talking about the process of abolition, we should briefly understand the definition of this term and understand what role it played in the history of the Russian state. In this article you will get answers to the questions: who abolished serfdom and when serfdom was abolished.

Serfdom - these are legal norms that prohibit the dependent population, that is, the peasants, from leaving certain land plots to which they were assigned.

Talking about this topic briefly will not work, because many historians equate this form of dependence with slavery, although there are many differences between them.

Not a single peasant with his family could leave a certain plot of land without the permission of an aristocrat who owned land. If the slave was attached directly to his master, then the serf was attached to the land, and since the owner had the right to manage the allotment, then the peasants, respectively, too.

People who fled were put on the wanted list, and the relevant authorities had to bring them back. In most cases, some of the fugitives were defiantly killed as an example for others.

Important! Similar forms of dependence were also common during the New Age in England, the Commonwealth, Spain, Hungary and other states.

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom

The predominant part of the male and able-bodied population concentrated in the villages, where they worked for the landowners. The entire crop harvested by the serfs was sold abroad and brought huge incomes to the landowners. The economy in the country did not develop, which is why the Russian Empire was at a much lagging stage of development than the countries of Western Europe.

Historians agree that the following causes and conditions were dominant, as they most sharply demonstrated the problems of the Russian Empire:

This form of dependence hindered the development of the capitalist system - because of this, the level of the economy in the empire was at a very low level.
The industry was going through far from its best times - due to the lack of workers in the cities, the full functioning of factories, mines and factories was impossible.
When agriculture in the countries of Western Europe developed according to the principle of introducing new types of equipment, fertilizers, methods of cultivating the land, then in the Russian Empire it developed according to an extensive principle - due to increase in the area of crops.
The peasants did not participate in the economic and political life of the empire, and yet they constituted the predominant part of the entire population of the country.
Since in Western Europe this type of dependence was considered a kind of slavery, the authority of the empire suffered greatly among the monarchs of the Western world.
The peasantry was dissatisfied with this state of affairs, and therefore uprisings and riots constantly took place in the country. Dependency on the landlord also encouraged people to go to the Cossacks.
The progressive layer of the intelligentsia constantly put pressure on the king and insisted on profound changes in.

Preparations for the abolition of serfdom

The so-called peasant reform was prepared long before its implementation. As early as the beginning of the 19th century, the first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were laid.

Cancellation preparation serfdom began during the reign, but it did not go beyond projects. Under Emperor Alexander II in 1857 Editorial Commissions were created to develop a project for liberation from dependence.

The body faced a difficult task: a peasant reform should be carried out according to such a principle that the changes would not cause a wave of discontent among the landowners.

The commission created several reform projects, reviewing various options. Numerous peasant revolts pushed its members towards more radical changes.

Reform of 1861 and its contents

The manifesto on the abolition of serfdom was signed by Tsar Alexander II March 3, 1861 This document contained 17 points that considered the main points of the transition of peasants from a dependent to a relatively free class society.

It is important to highlight main provisions of the manifesto about the liberation of people from serfdom:

the peasants were no longer the dependent class of society;
now people could own real estate and other types of property;
to become free, the peasants had to initially buy the land from the landowners, taking a large loan;
for the use of the land allotment they also had to pay dues;
the creation of rural communities with an elected head was allowed;
the size of allotments that can be redeemed were clearly regulated by the state.

The reform of 1861 to abolish serfdom followed the abolition of serfdom in the lands subject to the Austrian Empire. The territory of Western Ukraine was in the possession of the Austrian monarch. The elimination of serfdom in the West happened in 1849. This process has only accelerated this process in the East. They had practically the same reasons for the abolition of serfdom as in the Russian Empire.

The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861: briefly

The manifesto has been released throughout the country from March 7 to mid-April of the same year. Due to the fact that the peasants were not just freed, but forced to buy their freedom, they protested.

The government, in turn, took all security measures, redeploying troops to the most hot spots.

Information about such a path of liberation only outraged the peasantry. The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 led to an increase in the number of uprisings compared to the previous year.

The uprisings and riots almost tripled in scope and number. The government was forced to subdue them by force, which caused thousands to die.

Within two years from the moment the manifesto was published, 6/10 of all the peasants in the country signed the advising letters "on liberation". Buying the land for most people stretched over more than a decade. Approximately a third of them had not yet paid their debts in the late 1880s.

The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 was considered by many representatives of the estate of landlords. the end of Russian statehood. They assumed that now the peasants would rule the country and said that it was necessary to choose a new king among the mob, thereby criticizing the actions of Alexander II.

Results of the reform

The peasant reform of 1861 led to the following transformations in the Russian Empire:

the peasants now became a free cell of society, but they had to redeem the allotment for a very large sum;
the landlords were guaranteed to give the peasant a small allotment, or sell the land, at the same time they were deprived of labor and income;
"rural communities" were created, which further controlled the life of the peasant, all questions about obtaining a passport or moving to another place were again decided on the council of the community;
conditions for obtaining freedom caused discontent, which increased the number and scope of the uprisings.

And although the liberation of the peasants from serfdom was more profitable for the landowners than for the dependent class, it was progressive step in development Russian Empire. It was from the moment when serfdom was abolished that the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society began.

Attention! The transition to freedom in Russia was quite peaceful, while due to the abolition of slavery in the country, the Civil War began, which became the bloodiest conflict in the history of the country.

The reform of 1861 did not completely solve the actual problems of society. The poor still remained far from government and were only an instrument of tsarism.

It was the unresolved problems of the peasant reform that came to the fore at the beginning of the next century.

In 1905, another revolution began in the country, which was brutally suppressed. Twelve years later, it exploded with renewed vigor, which led to and drastic changes in society.

For many years, serfdom kept the Russian Empire at the agrarian level of development of society, while in the West it had long since become industrial. Economic backwardness and peasant unrest led to the abolition of serfdom and the liberation of the dependent stratum of the population. These were the reasons for the abolition of serfdom.

1861 was a turning point in the development of the Russian Empire, since it was then that a huge step was taken, which later allowed the country to get rid of the vestiges that hindered its development.

Prerequisites for the Peasant Reform of 1861

The abolition of serfdom, a historical overview

Conclusion

In the spring of 1861, the great All-Powerful Alexander II signs a manifesto on the liberation of the peasants. The conditions for obtaining freedom were taken very negatively by the lower class. And yet, twenty years later, most of the once dependent population became free and had their own land allotment, house and other property.

PEASANT REFORM of 1861 - a system of legislative acts, as a result of which serfdom was abolished in the Russian Empire and peasant self-government was introduced.

The Kestyan reform is the key link in the so-called. Ve-li-kih reforms of the 1860-1870s. So-qi-al-no-eco-no-mic and general-st-ven-but-po-ly-tic pre-re-forms, as well as awareness-on- not-about-ho-di-mo-sti of its pro-ve-de-niya warehouses-dy-va-lied in a degree-pen-but (in is-that-rio-graphics with-nya to consider that not-in-the-medium-st-vein-in-house to the pro-ve-de-tion of the Kestyansky reform became-lo-ra-zhe-of Russia in the Crimean war- not 1853-1856). The idea of \u200b\u200bfrom-me-we-cre-by-st-no-go-great-va once-a-slave-you-va-las in the Secret-nyh-ko-mi-te-tah (first uch-re-zh- den in 1826), two of which (in 1846 and 1848) were led by Grand Duke Alexander Ni-kolae-vich (the future emperor Alexander II).

Under-go-to-re-form-we.

For the first time, Emperor Alexander II openly declared about not-about-ho-di-mo-sti ag-rar-nyh pre-ob-ra-zo-va-ny in his re- chi before the pre-sta-vite-la-mi of the nobility-st-va of the Mo-s-kov-province 30.3 (11.4).1856. According to him, “it’s better to start destroying the cre-po-st-right right from above, isn’t it possible to wait for the time when it start-no self-destruct-to-reap-sya from below. In 1857, Alexander II headed the last Secret Committee on the cross-st-yan-sky de-lu [ob-ra-zo-van 3 (15) January; pre-ob-ra-zo-van by the imperial decree of 21.2 (5.3). in the day-st-vie im-pe-ra-to-ra headed by A.F. Or-lo-vym, from September 25 (October 7). 1860 - Grand Duke Kon-stan-tin-n Ni-ko-lae-vi-chem]. When under-go-tov-ke and pro-ve-de-nii of the Kestian reform, Emperor Alexander II relied on the group of “li-be-ral bureau-ro-kra-tov”, someone -rym in-cro-vi-tel-st-vo-va-li Grand Duke Kon-stan-tin Ni-ko-lae-vich and Grand Duchess Yele-na Pav-lov-na, pre-dos-ta-viv -shay im-pe-ra-to-ru in October 1856, the project of os-in-bo-zh-de-niya kre-st-yan in her estate Kar-lov-ka in Pol-tavskaya provinces, special-ci-al-but raz-ra-bo-tan-ny N.A. Mi-lu-ti-nym.

In October 1857, he-pe-ra-to-rum received all-under-given-her-she address from the nobility of the 3 northwestern provinces (Vi - Lena, Grod-nen-sky and Ko-vien-sky) with a request from me-thread cre-on-st-prav-in under the condition of preserving all ze-mel-noy own-st-ven-no-sti for me-schi-ka-mi. In response, you-so-tea-shiy re-sk-ript dated 11/20 (2/12/1857) was sent in the name of vi-len-sko-go, co-ven-sko-go and grd-nen -go-general-gu-ber-na-to-ra V.I. Na-zi-mo-va (active-no-go side-ron-no-ka of the Kestian reform), in some-rum from la-ha-las the first right-wing program -ma re-form-we - personal OS-in-bo-g-de-nie kre-st-yan, their right to use the earth for wine-no-sti . Re-script-ript but-strong lo-kal-ny char-ter, however-on-ko its content was immediately-lo ofi-qi-al-but pre-yes- but the voice-no-sti: the text is ra-zo-slan to all the gu-ber-na-to-ram and the gu-bern pre-vo-di-te-lyam of the nobility-ryan-st-va for the lake-na- com-le-nia and pub-li-ko-van in the newspaper "Le Nord" (Brussel), spe-tsi-al-but created-dan-noy on the ini-tsia-ti-ve of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and in " Zhur-on-le Mi-ni-ster-st-va of internal affairs. Ana-logic-ny re-sk-ript to the right-len St. Petersburg general-gu-ber-na-to-ru P.N. Ig-nat-e-woo. After this, the pra-vi-tel-st-vom ini-tsi-ro-va-ny ad-re-sa from the nobility of the os-tal-nyh European provinces Russia, in response to them, we give re-sk-rip-you governor-on-to-ram (according to the re-sk-rip-tov Na-zi-mo-vu and Ig -nat-e-woo). To the ob-su-zh-de-niyu in-pro-of-owls of the governmental in-li-ti-ki for the first time would have attracted wide circles of two ryan-st-va: opening of 46 gu-bern-sky ko-mi-te-tov on the cross-st-yan-sko-mu de-lu (1858-1859) and two general ko- missions for the northwestern and southwestern provinces, someone should have developed their own projects of reform. In the gu-Bern-sky ko-mi-te-takh, two pro-ti-east-yav-shih la-ge-rya-me-shchi-kov formed: con-ser-va-tiv-noe pain- shin-st-vo (I.V. Ga-ga-rin, D.N. Shid-lov-sky, P.P. Shu-va-lov and others; -me-shchi-kov on the earth and here is the rank of power) and the li-be-ral-noe less-shin-st-vo (A.I. Ko-she-lev, A.M. Un- kovsky, V.A. Cher-kassky, A. G. Shre-ter and others; kup kre-st-I-on-mi on del-noy zem-whether in own-st-ven-ness).

Raz-ra-bot-ka re-form-we.

Emperor Alek-san-drom II on 18 (30). 10. 1858, would we have given “ru-ko-vo-dya-os-no-you” for the development of the re-form-we - for-shchi-ta in-te-re-owls in-me-shchi-kov with no-conditional "improvement-of-that kre-st-yan" and save-non-nii not-quiver-le-mo-sti of power. It helped whether-be-ral-no-mu less-shin-st-woo in the gu-bern-sky ko-mi-te-tah to gain the upper hand. On 4 (16) .12.1858, the Main Committee adopted a new government program from me-cre-by-st-no-go right, which then-heaven pre-du-smat-ri-va-la you-kup on-del-noy earth-whether cre-st-I-on-mi in own-st-ven-ness, whether-to-vi-yes -tion of the rank of authority in-me-shchi-kov and the creation of the organ-ga-nov of the kre-st-jan-go-go public self-management. For consideration of the projects of the Gu-Bern ko-mi-te-tov 4 (16) . -noe uch-re-g-de-nie - Re-dak-tsi-on-nye co-missions from the pre-hundred-vi-te-lei byu-ro-kra-tii and public deeds -ley (chairman - Ya.I. Ros-tov-tsev, since 1860 - V.N. Pa-nin), more-shin-st-in-something was-la-lis-ron-ni -ka-mi-li-be-ral-nyh projects of re-form-we. Their common-recognized li-de-rum was N.A. Mi-lu-ting, name-but his project is os-bo-zh-de-niya kre-st-yan with the earth for you-kup you-dvi-nut in ka-che-st-ve edi-no-th pre-lo-zhe-niya pre-hundred-vi-te-la-mi li-be-ral-noy byu-ro-kra-tii. He served as the basis of the official mo-de-li for the general-Russian-si-so-for-ko-no-da-tel-st-va. In the ob-su-zh-de-nii of the project-ta re-form-we in the Re-dak-tsi-on-nyh ko-miss-si-yah teaching-st-vova-whether pre-hundred-vi- te-whether Gu-Bern ko-mi-te-tov (2 each from ka-zh-to-go ko-mi-te-ta). They subjected the cree-ti-ke to the raz-ra-bo-tan-ny Editorial commission-miss-s-mi project, but its main na-cha-la os-ta-lis without me-not-ny. By September 1859, the draft of the Editorial Commissions was under preparation. He was accepted by the Main Committee on the cross-st-yan-sko-mu de-lu and on 28.1 (9.2). 1861 was transferred to the State Council, where he was approved under the -mom of Emperor Alek-san-dr II and Grand Duke Kon-stan-ti-na Ni-ko-lae-vi-cha.

Pro-ve-de-re-form-we.

Emperor Alexander II 19.2 (3.3.) 1861, on the day of the 6th year of his pre-be-va-tion on the pre-hundred-le, under-pi-sal Ma-ni -fest about from-me-not cre-by-st-no-go right-va [“About all-mi-lo-sti-ve-shem yes-ro-va-nii cre-post-people are right state of the free rural customs-va-te-lei "; about-on-ro-do-van 5 (17) .3.1861], “The general situation about the cross noy for-vi-si-mo-sti ”and 17 additional do-ku-men-tov. According to them, in-me-whose cross-st-I-not (an eye-lo-lo-vin-we of the entire Russian cross-st-yan-st-va) in-lu- cha-whether personal freedom and the right to race-by-rya-to reap with their own imu-shche-st-vom. In-me-shchi-ki-ke-save-y-whether the property is for all the land that belongs to them, but would it be obligatory for us to pre-dos- ta-twit kre-st-I-us-estate-bu for you-kup (see you-kup-naya opera-ra-tion), as well as on the left-howl on-deeds in a hundred-yan- noe use (from-for-the-th-cre-st-I-didn’t have rights in those 9 years). For the use of the earth, the fortress-st-I-wouldn’t-be-wa-whether bar-schi-well or pla-ti-whether ob-rock. Size-measures in-le-go-on-de-la and in wine-no-stay should-we-whether fik-si-ro-va-sya in the chartered graphs tah, for compiling someone from-in-dil-sya two-year term. Compilation of charter charters in-ru-cha-moose in-me-shchi-kam, their verification - in the world-ro-you in the middle of the world. For-st-I-didn't-have-the-right-to-drink-to-left-howl on-cases on request in-me-shchi-ka or by agreement with him. K-st-I-not, you-ku-drinking your lands, na-zy-wa-lis-kre-st-I-on-mi-own-st-ven-no-ka-mi, not ne-re-went-shie to you-kup, - time-but-obligation-zan-us-mi kre-st-I-na-mi. Kre-st-I-couldn’t-re-re-tee to the gift-st-vein-ny on-del (1/4 from lo-women-no-go, but without you-ku-pa), in this case, they were called-zy-va-lis-cre-st-I-on-mi-dar-st-ven-ni-ka-mi. Many fortresses-I-not so and in-stu-pa-li, because the cost-bridge of the earth-whether according to you-ku-pu fak-ti-che-ski pre-you-sha-la its dey -statutory price. Kre-st-yan-sky ob-shchi-on preserved. On-del-land-la-re-da-wa-wa-cre-st-I-us on the rights of the communities-no-go-pol-zo-va-nia, and after you-ku -pa - common sob-st-ven-no-sti.

In 4 “Me-st-nyh in the same-lo-no-yah” op-re-de-la-li-li-mea-ry land-on-de-fishing and wine-no-stays for their use in 44 provinces of European Russia. “Me-st-noe-lo-same about the land-of-the-ground device-swarm-st-ve kre-st-yan ... in gu-ber-ni-yah: Ve-li-ko -Russian-Sian, But-in-Russian-Sian and Be-lo-Russian "races-pro-country-elk on 29 Ve-li-Ko-Russian gu-ber-nies , 3 but-in-Russian-si-sky (Eka-te-ri-no-slav-sky, Tav-ri-che-sky, Kherson-sky), 2 be-lo-Russian (Mo- gi-lev-skuyu, part of Vi-teb-skaya) gu-ber-nii and part of the Kharkov province. Time-measures of the soul-she-in-go on-de-la op-re-de-la-fox in-for-vi-si-mo-sti from the los (not-black-but-earth-noy , black-but-earth-noy, steppe-noy). In the non-black-but-earth-noy in the lo-se, the highest size of the soul-she-in-go on-de-la was from 3 to 7 tithes (from 3.3 to 7 .6 ha), the lowest - 1/3 of the highest. In the black-and-earth in the lo-se: the highest - from 23/4 to 6 acres (from 2.5 to 6.5 ha), the lowest - less than 1 acre (1.1 ha). In the steppe in the lo-se: in the Ve-li-ko-Russian gu-ber-ni-yah - from 6 to 12 acres (from 6.5 to 13.1 ha), in the UK-ra- in-sky - from 3 to 6.5 acres (from 3.3 to 7.1 ha). If it was more than the highest, because of the shek it could be from-re-zan, if it was less than the lower norm, then the maker must -zan was to-re-zat not-to-do-thaw-ing-whether-honor-of-the-earth. Ob-rock us-ta-nav-li-val-sya from 3 to 12 rubles a year for the soul-she-howl on-cases. Bar-shchi-on for the highest soul-she-howl on-deeds with becoming-la-la 40 male and 30 female working days a year. The rest of the "Me-st-nye in-lo-zhe" is basically in the second place "Me-st-noe-lo-same-tion about the land of the mouth -roy-st-ve kre-st-yan ... in the gu-ber-ni-yah: Ve-li-ko-Russian-si-sky, But-in-Russian-si-sky and Be-lo-Russian-sky ”, but taking into account the special-qi-fi-ki of the ka-zh-do-go district. So, "Me-st-noe-lo-same" for Cher-ni-gov-skaya, Pol-tav-skaya and part of Kharkov-gu-ber-niy, in some ryh from-day-st-in-va-lo communal earth-le-vla-de-nie, pre-du-smat-ri-va-lo on de-le-nie kre-st-yan earth-lei on the basis-no-ve on-the-trace-st-ven-no-se-mei-no-go prin-tsi-pa. Ka-zh-daya gu-ber-niya sub-raz-de-la-slid into several places, for some mustaches-ta-nav-li-va-las the highest hole -ma du-she-vo-go-on-de-la: from 23/4 to 41/2 acres (from 2.5 to 4.9 ha). The lower-shay norm-ma with-la-la 1/2 higher-sheers. In wine-no-sti on Le-in-be-rezh-noy Uk-rai-wouldn’t it be less than in Ve-li-ko-Russian gu-ber-ni-yah (ob-rock - from 1 ruble 40 kopecks to 2 rubles 80 kopecks for 1 tithe; bar-schi-na - from 12 to 21 male working days for 1 tithe). "Me-st-noe-lo-zhe-nie" for 3 gu-ber-ny Pra-in-be-rezh-noy Uk-rai-ny (Ky-ev-skaya, Vo-lyn-skaya, Po- Dol-sky) for-kre-p-la-lo for the cross-st-I-on-mi the whole earth, for some reason they used-zo-va-lied along the In-ven-tar-ny right -wee-lam 1847-1848. In terms of wine-no-sti, there would be no less than in Le-in-be-rezh-noy Uk-rai-ne. According to “Me-st-no-mu in the same way” for Vi-len-skaya, Grod-nen-skaya, Ro-vien-skaya, Minsk and part of the Vi-teb-skaya gu- taking for the cross-st-I-on-mi for-cre-p-la-the whole earth-la, which they used before the Kestian reform. According to wine-no-sti, op-re-de-la-lied in a slightly reduced size compared to those who were whether for-fik-si-ro-va-ny in the in-ven-ta-ri-yah of the estates. Under the influence of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864, did it get out of me in the conditions of the Kestyansky reform in the western provinces-ber-ni- yakh and on the right-in-be-rezh-noy Uk-rai-not. Here you entered the obligatory you-kup, you-kup-nye payments decreased by 20%, the size of the cross was re-reviewed -yan-sko-go-on-de-la (cre-st-I-not, ut-ra-tiv-shie part of his land-le-vla-de-niya in 1857-1861, in-lu- chi-whether your on-de-ly ob-rath-but full-on-stu, de-earthed-len-ny earlier - hour-tych-but). On-de-ly kre-st-yan in comparison with the number of earth-whether, for-fic-si-ro-van-nym in the charter of gra-mo -tah, mean-chi-tel-but increased-li-chi-lis.

The real-is-for-tion of the Kestian reform began with the compilation of charters. This process was basically completed by the middle of 1863. All-go-to-become-le-but about 113 thousand grams (in general, from the cre-by-st-noy for-vi-si-mo-sti os-in-bo-zh-de -but 22.5 million in-me-shchich-their kre-st-yan both in la).

“Po-s-zhe-nie about the device-swarm-st-ve of two-ro-of people” dated 19.2 (3.3). 1861 pre-du-smat-ri-va-lo os-vo-bo- w-de-nie without land, but in those 2 years, two-ro-ve people were left in full za-vis-si-mo-sti from the authorities del-tsev. Especially-ben-no-sti of the Kestyansky reform for individual ka-te-go-ry kre-st-yan and special-ci-fi-che-sky districts op-re-de-la-lis 8 to-pol- ni-tel-ny-mi pra-vi-la-mi dated 19.2 (3.3). yah small-to-in-local-owner-del-tsev, and about the co-bearing of these vlad-del-tsam”, “On the pri-pi-san-nyh to private mountains nym for-in-ladies people-dyah ve-dom-st-va Mi-ni-ster-st-va fi-nan-ovs ”, etc.).

The Kestian reform also swayed the same specific kre-st-yan, some of them, by decree of 26.6 (8.7). -st-yan-sob-st-ven-ni-kov way obya-for-tel-no-go you-ku-pa on the con-lo-vi-yah -niya ... ". Za-ko-nom dated 11/24 (12/6). would be personal but free). Behind them, the lands were kept, which were in their use. According to-to-well dated 12 (24) .6.1886, state cre-st-I-wouldn’t-we-re-ve-de-us for you-kup.

Cre-by-st-right right was from-me-not-but also on the national outskirts of the Russian Empire: on the Caucasus, in the Za-kav-ka -zee, in Bes-sa-ra-bee. The conditions for re-forms in these places would be more tya-zhe-ly-mi (the whole earth-la was-ta-va-las for-me-schi-ka-mi, you -kup not only in a la-go-to-de-la, but also to sit down for-vis-sat from their will).

The Kestyanskaya reform of 1861 in lo-ji-la na-cha-lo se-rii of reforms - su-deb-noy re-for-me of 1864, zemstvo re-for-me of 1864, in-en -ny re-forms of the 1860s-1870s, in a better way, the name “Ve-li-kie re-forms”. They are oz-on-cha-whether re-building the state system-te-we as a whole, how-to-st-in-wa-whether to develop-vi-tyu ka-pi-ta-liz- ma and pro-cesses of mod-der-ni-za-tion in Russia, creating pre-po-sy-lok for re-re-ho-yes from sos-lov-no-go to civil society. Vos-pri-ni-ma-lis-pain-shin-st-vom co-time-men-ni-kov as a mouth-to-mouth point of Russian history, and Emperor Alexander II entered in is-to-ryu as “king-os-vo-bo-di-tel”. At the same time, the Kestyansky reform of 1861 was subject to-well-ta kri-ti-ke revolutionary de-mo-kra-ta-mi for not-to-with-that-accurate , in their opinion, the size of the lands on the de-catch, in the lu-chen-ny kre-st-I-on-mi.

The peasant reform of 1861 is a bourgeois reform that abolished serfdom and contributed to the development of capitalism in Russia.

It was caused by a number of objective socio-economic prerequisites - serfdom prevented the industrial modernization of the country, necessary for its economic development. Subjective political prerequisites determined the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856, as well as the moral readiness of Emperor Alexander II to become one of the initiators of the reform as the first person in the state.

The preparation of the reform began in January 1857 in the traditional for Russia Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs, but its slowness and, most importantly, the dissatisfaction of the nobility, concerned about unverified rumors about the reform program, necessitated its implementation in conditions of greater publicity.

On November 20, 1857, in a rescript to the Vilna governor V.I. Nazimov, the nobility was recommended to create local provincial committees to develop their reform projects and outlined the government's plan: the destruction of the personal dependence of the peasants; the preservation of landlord ownership of the land and the obligation of the peasants to perform corvée or pay dues for the land given to them; granting the peasant the right to buy out his estate (residential house and outbuildings). The rescript marked the beginning of the open preparation of the reform entrusted to the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, created in February 1858. The Committee was instructed to work out a general reform program, which was to satisfy the interests of the nobility to the maximum and ensure peace in the state.

The main subject of disputes in the provincial committees between conservative and liberal landlords (the peasants were excluded from discussion) was the question of the size of the allotments provided to the peasants and the volume of their duties. As a result, two variants of projects were developed, in which the solution of controversial issues depended on the fertility of the soil: in the black earth regions, the landlords sought to minimize peasant allotments, while increasing the value of each tithe of land; in the non-chernozem zone, the nobles were ready to increase peasant allotments, but for a large ransom.

During the years of the famous peasant reform in Russia in the middle of the nineteenth century, in different regions of the country, the value of land - as a result of the reforms begun - changed in different ways. In some it went up in price, in others, on the contrary, it went down in price. The houses of the peasants were different: on the lands of Central Russia, the houses were log houses, in the southern latitudes, especially in Little Russia, they were huts. In our time, the choice of materials for building a house has expanded incomparably. But still, preference is usually given today to budget options. So, the cost of a house made of foam blocks favorably distinguishes it from many others. This is an innovative building material. Large bricks are cut from a hardened special concrete mixture. The size and weight of this material also determine the higher speed of building a house.

Both versions of the draft reform were submitted to the Editorial Commissions (chaired by Ya. I. Rostovtsev), established in March 1859 under the Main Committee to summarize all proposals. During their discussion, in order to please the conservatives, the size of the peasants' allotments was cut, and their duties were increased. On October 10, 1860, the draft reform was submitted to the Main Committee, on January 28 - to the State Council, which approved the draft on February 16, 1861.

On February 19, 1961, Alexander II signed two legislative documents that marked the beginning of the reform: the Manifesto "On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants and on the organization of their life" and "Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom."

On the same day, the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs was replaced by the Main Committee “On the Arrangement of the Rural Condition” (preceded by Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich). Its task is to exercise supreme supervision over the introduction of the “Regulations” on February 19, consider draft laws that supplement and develop the main provisions of this document, change the legal and land status of appanage and state peasants, and also make decisions on contentious and administrative cases. On the ground, provincial presences for peasant affairs were established.

The promulgation of the Manifesto and the "Regulations" on February 19 in St. Petersburg and Moscow took place on March 5, in the provinces it dragged on until April 2.

The Manifesto and the "Regulations" addressed three main issues: the personal liberation of the peasants, the allocation of land to them, and the procedure for making a redemption transaction between the landowner and the "rural society" (community).

The manifesto hypocritically emphasized the "voluntariness" and "sacrifice" of the nobility, on whose initiative the tsar granted the peasants personal freedom and general civil rights. A peasant could own movable and immovable property, independently enter into transactions, act as a legal entity, defend his rights in court, enter the service and educational institutions, marry at his choice, change his place of residence, move into the class of philistines and merchants. Having freed the peasants, the government began to create elected bodies of their local self-government in the countryside.

At the same time, the rights of peasants were limited, since communal land use, redistribution of allotments, and mutual responsibility (especially in paying taxes and performing state duties) were preserved. The peasants remained the only class that paid the poll tax, carried the recruiting duty and could be subjected to corporal punishment. In addition, the complete release of the peasants was postponed for two years - they were obliged to fulfill their previous duties until February 19, 1863.

"Regulations" regulated the process of allocating land to peasants and the size of allotments. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three zones: black earth, non-black earth and steppe. In each, the "higher" and "lower" sizes of the peasant field allotment were established. Within these limits, a voluntary deal was concluded between the peasant community and the landowner. Their land relations and the volume of duties were fixed by a charter for each estate. To resolve disputes between the landowner and the peasant community, mediators were involved (they also checked the correctness of the charter).

When solving the land issue, peasant allotments were significantly reduced. If before the reform the peasant used an allotment that exceeded the highest norm in the strip, then this "surplus" was alienated in favor of the landowner. In the country as a whole, the peasants received 20% less land than they used to cultivate. This is how the "segments" were formed, selected by the landowners from the peasants.

The liberation of the peasants and their receipt of allotment (communal) land was closely linked to the payment of its cost, that is, in fact, the peasants paid not only for the land, but also for personal liberation. The exception was the so-called donation allotments received free of charge and amounting to! / 4 of the highest norm of allotment. Receiving a deed of gift exempted from redemption payments, but the peasant could go "on a gift" only with the permission of the landowner, from whose power he was immediately freed. Most of the donors who received "beggarly" (or "orphan") allotments found themselves in an extremely distressed situation and subsequently repeatedly turned to the zemstvos for help.

The redemption transaction was carried out between the landowner and the entire community. On the eve of the reform, the cost of land was overestimated by 1.5 times compared to the previous market price. The peasants did not have the money needed to pay the entire cost of the land. In order for the landlords to receive the redemption sums at a time, a scheme was developed that was beneficial to both the landowners and the state. According to it, the peasants themselves had to pay the owner of the land 20% of its value (in money or labor), and for the payment of the remaining 80% they received a loan from the government, which they had to return annually for 49 years in the form of redemption payments with an accrual of 6% per annum. By 1906, when the peasants stubbornly achieved the abolition of redemption payments, they paid the state 1.54 billion rubles, 3 times the real market value of the land in 1861.

Before paying the landlord 20% of the value of the land, the peasants were called temporarily liable - they had to pay dues and perform corvée. Since the landowners were in no hurry to lose the gratuitous labor of the peasantry, they in many cases hindered the redemption transaction. Therefore, in a number of areas, the transfer of peasants for ransom lasted for 20 years. Only on December 28, 1881, the “Regulations” were issued, providing for the mandatory transfer of peasants for redemption and the termination of their temporary state.

The reform of 1861 was of great importance: it brought freedom to 23 million serfs; cleared the way for the socio-economic evolution of Russia along the capitalist path and the modernization of the economy; created an impetus for carrying out liberal socio-political reforms and improving the system of public administration. Contemporaries rightly called the Great Reform.

At the same time, the reform had a half-hearted character: the severity of the redemption payments doomed the peasants to poverty; they actually received no land and remained economically dependent on the landowners, who retained their main property. Consequently, the reform did not remove the agrarian issue in Russia, which remained acute until the beginning of the 20th century.

Orlov A.S., Georgiev N.G., Georgiev V.A. Historical dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 2012, p. 254-257.

On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the Manifesto and the “Regulations on the peasants who emerged from serfdom”. The peasant reform of 1861 was then put into practice.

Peasant question. Reasons for reform.

Even the great-grandmother of Alexander, Catherine II knew that it was better to abolish serfdom. But she did not cancel, because "the best is the enemy of the good." Alexander II understood the benefits of the abolition of serfdom in terms of economics, but was worried, realizing that the damage would be inflicted in terms of political.

The main reasons for the peasant reform of 1861:

One of the reasons for the abolition of serfdom can be called the Crimean War. This war opened the eyes of many people to the rotten system of autocracy. Because of serfdom, the military-technical backwardness of Russia from the leading powers of Western Europe became obvious.
Serfdom did not show signs of its collapse, it is not known how long it could exist further. The agricultural economy continued to stand still.
The work of a serf, as well as the work of an assigned worker, differed several times from the work of a free wage worker working for piecework. The serfs worked very badly, as their labor was forced.
The government of Alexander II feared peasant unrest. After the end of the Crimean War, spontaneous uprisings of peasants swept through the southern provinces.
Serfdom was a relic of the Middle Ages and resembled slavery, which in itself was immoral.

Alexander II, knowing the causes of serfdom and how to eliminate them, did not know how to proceed with them.

Of particular importance was the “Note on the Liberation of the Peasants” by K. D. Kavelin. It was this “Note” that served as the initial plan for reforms when it fell into the hands of the tsar. Kavelin, in his project, insisted that the peasant should be released only together with the land, which should be given to him for a small ransom. "Note" aroused the ardent hatred of the nobles. They set Alexander II against Kavelin. As a result, Kavelin was dismissed from St. Petersburg University and lost his place as Tsarevich.

Rice. 1. Photograph by K. D. Kavelin.

Manifesto preparation. The beginning of transformation

The preparation of reforms was carried out at first very secretly. In 1858, noble committees were nominated from all Russian provinces to draw up a general draft of reforms. The struggle between the nobles unfolded mainly because of the issue of granting plots of land to the peasants after their liberation from serfdom.

The main legal provisions of the Peasant Reform of 1861

From the day the Manifesto was signed, the peasants ceased to be considered the property of the landlords. The peasants of each landowner's estate were united in rural societies.

The bill drew a line between non-chernozem and chernozem provinces. In the non-chernozem provinces, the peasant was left with almost as much land as he had in use when he was a serf.
In the chernozem provinces, the landlords went to all sorts of tricks - the peasants were given cut-down allotments, and the best land remained with the landowner, and the peasants got marshy and stony soils.
Fearing that the peasants would simply scatter so as not to pay a ransom for the cut plots, the government obliged each peasant to pay a ransom. The peasant could leave the permanent area of \u200b\u200bhis residence only with the permission of the rural society. The general gathering usually resisted the desire of the peasants to leave, since usually all labor duties had to be divided equally for each peasant. Thus, the peasants were bound by mutual responsibility.
The landowner could “give” the peasants a quarter of their allotment, which was given by the state. However, at the same time, the landowner took all the best land for himself. Peasants who fell for such “gifts” quickly went bankrupt, since the “granted” lands were usually unsuitable for growing crops.

Rice. 3. Peasant on one leg. Caricature of the reform of 1861.

Needless to say, the peasants were waiting for a completely different reform ...

The consequences of the peasant reform of 1861 and its significance

From the table below, you can see the main pros and cons, as well as the results of the 1861 reform:

*Positive consequences of the reform of 1861*	*Negative Consequences of the 1861 Reform*
Peasants became a free class.	The reform was of a predatory nature - the peasant had to pay almost all his life for the allotment of land allocated to him.
The abolition of serfdom led to an increase in production.	The landowners retained the best land for themselves, which forced the peasants, especially those with little land, to rent land from the landowners.
Entrepreneurship has intensified.	The community still remained in the village.
Two new social strata of the population appeared - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat.	The privileges of the nobility remained intact, since the reforms did not affect this social stratum.
The reform was the first step towards civil equality, since medieval serfdom was finally abolished.	The main part of the peasants went bankrupt after the reforms. This forced them to look for work in the city, joining the ranks of hired workers or urban beggars.
The peasants for the first time had the right to land.	The peasant was still not considered. The peasantry had no influence on the political life of the country.
Peasant unrest was prevented, although minor uprisings took place.	The peasants overpaid almost three times for the allotments allocated to them.

The significance of the Peasant Reform of 1861, first of all, was the entry of the Russian Empire into the international market of capitalist relations. The country gradually began to turn into a powerful power with a developed industry. At the same time, the consequences of the reform had a negative impact primarily on the peasantry.

After the "liberation" the peasants began to go bankrupt much more. The total value of the land that the peasants had to buy out was 551 million rubles. The peasants had to pay the state 891 million rubles.

What have we learned?

The reform of 1861, studied in the 8th grade, was of great importance for the country and progressive society. This article tells about all the negative and positive results of this reform, as well as about its main bills and provisions.

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Reform preparation

January 3, 1857 a new Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs was established, consisting of 11 people (former chief of gendarmes A. F. Orlov, M. N. Muravyov, P. P. Gagarin, etc.) on July 26 by the Minister of Internal Affairs and a member of the committee S. S. Lansky presented an official draft of the reform. It was proposed to create noble committees in each province with the right to make their own amendments to the draft.

In 1858 to prepare peasant reforms, provincial committees were formed, within which a struggle began for measures and forms of concessions between liberal and reactionary landlords. The committees were subordinate to the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs (transformed from the Secret Committee). The fear of an all-Russian peasant revolt forced the government to change the government program of the peasant reform, the projects of which were repeatedly changed in connection with the rise or fall of the peasant movement.

The new program of the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs was approved by the tsar April 21, 1858. The program was based on the principles of the rescript to Nazimov. The program provided for the mitigation of serfdom, but not its elimination. At the same time, peasant unrest became more frequent. The peasants, not without reason, were worried about landless liberation, arguing that "the will alone will not feed bread."

December 4, 1858 a new program of peasant reform was adopted: giving the peasants the opportunity to buy out land allotments and the creation of peasant public administration bodies. Unlike the previous one, this program was more radical, and numerous peasant unrest (along with pressure from the opposition) largely pushed the government to adopt it. This program was developed by Ya. I. Rostovtsev. The main provisions of the new program were as follows:

* getting peasants personal freedom

* providing peasants with plots of land (for permanent use) with the right to purchase (specially for this, the government allocates a special loan to peasants)

* approval of a transitional ("urgently obligated") state

At the end of August 1859 deputies from 21 provincial committees were called. In February of the following year, deputies from 24 provincial committees were called. The more liberal project aroused dissatisfaction among the local nobility, and in 1860 allotments were somewhat reduced and duties were increased in the project. This direction in changing the project was preserved during its consideration in the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs in October 1860, and during its discussion in the State Council from the end of January 1861.

February 19 (March 3), 1861 Petersburg, Emperor Alexander II signed the Manifesto "On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants" and the Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom, which consisted of 17 legislative acts.

The manifesto was published in Moscow March 5 (OS), 1861, on Forgiveness Sunday in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin after the liturgy; at the same time it was published in St. Petersburg and some other cities; in other places - during March of the same year.

The Manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the status of free rural inhabitants” dated February 19, 1861 was accompanied by a number of legislative acts (22 documents in total) relating to the issues of the liberation of peasants, the conditions for their redemption of landowners' land and the size of redeemed allotments in certain regions of Russia.

The main provisions of the reform

main act- "General provision on peasants who have emerged from serfdom" - contained the main conditions for the peasant reform:

* Peasants ceased to be considered serfs and began to be considered "temporarily liable"; peasants received the rights of "free rural inhabitants", that is, full civil legal capacity in everything that did not relate to their special estate rights and obligations - membership in a rural society and ownership of allotment land.

* Peasant houses, buildings, all movable property of the peasants were recognized as their personal property.

* The peasants received elective self-government, the lowest (economic) unit of self-government was the rural society, the highest (administrative) unit was the volost.

* The landowners retained ownership of all the lands they owned, but they were obliged to provide the peasants with a "manor settlement" (adjoining plot) and a field allotment for use; the lands of the field allotment were not provided personally to the peasants, but for the collective use of rural communities, which could distribute them among the peasant farms at their discretion. The minimum size of a peasant allotment for each locality was established by law.

* For the use of allotment land, the peasants had to serve a corvée or pay dues and did not have the right to refuse it for 9 years.

* The size of the field allotment and duties had to be fixed in charter letters, which were drawn up by the landowners for each estate and checked by peace mediators;

* Rural societies were given the right to buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the field plot, after which all obligations of the peasants to the landowner ceased; the peasants who redeemed the allotment were called "peasant-owners". Peasants could also refuse the right to redeem and receive from the landlord free of charge an allotment in the amount of a quarter of the allotment that they had the right to redeem; when endowing a free allotment, the temporarily obligated state also ceased.

* The state, on preferential terms, provided the landowners with financial guarantees for receiving redemption payments (redemption operation), accepting their payment; peasants, respectively, had to pay redemption payments to the state.

Allotment size

According to the reform, the maximum and minimum sizes of peasant allotments were established. Allotments could be reduced by special agreements between peasants and landlords, as well as upon receipt of a donation. If the peasants had smaller allotments in use, the landowner was obliged either to cut the missing land from the minimum size (the so-called "cuts"), or to reduce duties. Pruning took place only if the landowner was left with at least a third (in the steppe zones - half) of the land. For the highest shower allotment, a quitrent was set from 8 to 12 rubles. per year or corvee - 40 male and 30 female working days per year. If the allotment was larger than the highest, then the landowner cut off the “extra” land in his favor. If the allotment was less than the highest, then the duties decreased, but not proportionally.

As a result, the average size of the peasant allotment of the post-reform period was 3.3 acres per capita, which was less than before the reform. In the black earth provinces, the landowners cut off a fifth of their land from the peasants. The peasants of the Volga region suffered the greatest losses. In addition to the cuts, other tools for infringing on the rights of peasants were resettlement to barren lands, deprivation of pastures, forests, reservoirs, paddocks and other lands necessary for every peasant. Difficulties for the peasants were also represented by the striped land, forcing the peasants to rent land from the landowners, which went like wedges into the peasant allotments.

Duties of temporarily liable peasants

The peasants were in a temporarily obligated state until the conclusion of a redemption deal. At first, the period of this state was not indicated. December 28, 1881 it was eventually installed. According to the decree, all temporarily liable peasants were transferred for redemption since January 1, 1883. A similar situation took place only in the central regions of the empire. On the outskirts, the temporarily obligated state of the peasants remained until 1912-1913.

During the temporarily obligated state, the peasants were obliged to pay dues for the use of land and work on corvee. The amount of dues for a full allotment was 8-12 rubles a year. The profitability of the allotment and the size of the quitrent were in no way connected. The highest dues (12 rubles a year) were paid by the peasants of the St. Petersburg province, whose lands were extremely infertile. On the contrary, in the chernozem provinces the amount of dues was much lower.

All men aged 18 to 55 and all women aged 17 to 50 were required to serve corvee. Unlike the former corvée, the post-reform corvee was more limited and orderly. For a full allotment, a peasant was supposed to work on corvée no more than 40 men's and 30 women's days.

Liberation of the yard peasants

The “Regulations on the arrangement of courtyard people” provided for their release without land and estates, but for 2 years they remained completely dependent on the landowner. Domestic servants at that time accounted for 6.5% of the serfs. Thus, a huge number of peasants found themselves practically without a livelihood.

Redemption payments

The regulation “On the redemption by peasants who have emerged from serfdom of their estate settlement and on the government’s assistance in acquiring field land by these peasants” determined the procedure for the redemption of land by peasants from landowners, the organization of the redemption operation, the rights and obligations of peasant owners. The redemption of the field allotment depended on an agreement with the landowner, who could oblige the peasants to redeem the land at their request. The price of land was determined by quitrent, capitalized from 6% per annum. In the event of a ransom under a voluntary agreement, the peasants had to make an additional payment to the landowner. The landowner received the main amount from the state.

The peasant was obliged to immediately pay the landowner 20% of the redemption amount, and the remaining 80% was paid by the state. The peasants had to repay it for 49 years annually in equal redemption payments. The annual payment was 6% of the redemption amount. Thus, the peasants in total paid 294% of the redemption loan. In modern terms, the buyout loan was a loan with annuity payments for a period of 49 years at 5.6% per annum. The payment of ransom payments was discontinued in 1906 under the conditions of the First Russian Revolution. By 1906, the peasants paid 1 billion 571 million rubles in ransom for land worth 544 million rubles. Thus, the peasants actually (taking into account the interest on the loan) paid a triple amount. The loan rate of 5.6% per annum, taking into account the non-mortgage nature of the loan (for non-payment of redemption fees, it was possible to seize the personal, non-productive property of peasants, but not the land itself) and the manifested unreliability of borrowers, was balanced and consistent with the prevailing lending rates for all other types of borrowers at the time.

The "Manifesto" and "Regulations" were promulgated from March 7 to April 10 (in St. Petersburg and Moscow - March 5). Fearing dissatisfaction of the peasants with the terms of the reform, the government took a number of precautionary measures (redeployment of troops, secondment of the imperial retinue to the places, appeal of the Synod, etc.). The peasantry, dissatisfied with the enslaving conditions of the reform, responded to it with mass unrest. The largest of them were the Bezdnensky performance of 1861 and the Kandeev performance of 1861.

In total, during 1861 alone, 1176 peasant uprisings were recorded, while in 6 years from 1855 to 1860. there were only 474 of them. Thus, the number of peasant uprisings in 1861 was 15 times higher than the previous "record" of the second half of the 1850s. The uprisings did not subside even in 1862, and were suppressed very cruelly. In the two years since the announcement of the reform, the government had to use military force in 2,115 villages.

The implementation of the Peasant Reform began with the drafting of charters, which was basically completed by the middle of 1863. Charters were concluded not with each peasant individually, but with the “world” as a whole. "Mir" was a society of peasants who were owned by an individual landowner. On January 1, 1863, the peasants refused to sign about 60% of the letters.

The price of land for redemption significantly exceeded its market value at that time, in the non-chernozem zone by an average of 2-2.5 times (in 1854-1855 the price of all peasant lands was 544 million rubles, while the redemption amounted to 867 million) . As a result, in a number of districts the peasants sought to receive allotments, and in some provinces (Saratov, Samara, Yekaterinoslav, Voronezh, and others) a significant number of peasants-gifts appeared.

The transition of peasants to ransom lasted for several decades. By 1881, 15% remained in temporary relations. But in a number of provinces there were still many of them (Kursk 160 thousand, 44%; Nizhny Novgorod 119 thousand, 35%; Tula 114 thousand, 31%; Kostroma 87 thousand, 31%). The transition to redemption was faster in the black-earth provinces, where voluntary transactions prevailed over mandatory redemption. Landowners who had large debts, more often than others, sought to speed up the redemption and conclude voluntary deals.

The transition from "temporarily liable" to "redeemed" did not give the peasants the right to leave their plot (that is, the promised freedom), but significantly increased the burden of payments. The redemption of land under the terms of the reform of 1861 for the vast majority of peasants dragged on for 45 years and represented real bondage for them, since they were not able to pay such amounts. So, by 1902, the total amount of arrears in peasant redemption payments amounted to 420% of the amount of annual payments, and in a number of provinces exceeded 500%. Only in 1906, after the peasants had burnt down about 15% of the landowners' estates in the country during 1905, the redemption payments and accumulated arrears were canceled, and the "redemption" peasants finally received the freedom promised to them 45 years ago.

law November 24, 1866 year began the reform of the state peasants. They retained all the lands that were in their use. According to the law of June 12, 1886, the state peasants were transferred for redemption. At his own request, the peasant could either continue to pay dues to the state, or conclude a redemption deal with him. The average size of the allotment of a state peasant was 5.9 acres.

The peasant reform of 1861 marked the beginning of the process of rapid impoverishment of the peasants. The average peasant allotment in Russia in the period from 1860 to 1880 decreased from 4.8 to 3.5 acres (almost 30%), a lot of ruined peasants, rural proletarians who lived by odd jobs appeared - a phenomenon that practically disappeared in the middle 19th century

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