Annotation: Polarization of the post-war world and the Cold War. - Restoration of the national economy of the country. - Toughening of political and ideological measures. A new wave of repressions. - The struggle for the Stalinist legacy. - The 20th Congress of the CPSU and the liberalization of the regime. - Foreign policy.
The polarization of the post-war world and the Cold War. The Second World War led to fundamental changes in the world and international relations. Fascist Germany and Italy, militaristic Japan were defeated, war criminals were punished, an international organization was created - United Nations (UN). All this demonstrated the relative unity of the victorious powers.
With its contribution to the victory over Nazi Germany, the USSR aroused the sympathy of the population of Western countries, and the dissolution of the Comintern in 1943 contributed to the growth of the authority of the Communist Parties. During the war years, the number of their members increased by almost 3 times, and the communists in 1945-1947. were members of the governments of 13 countries in Europe, Asia and Latin America.
The war led to drastic changes on the world map. First of all, the United States has grown enormously in economic, military and political terms. This country owned the vast majority of world industrial production and gold and foreign exchange reserves. The United States had a first-class army, turned into the leader of the Western world. Germany and Japan were defeated and left the ranks of the leading countries, other European countries were weakened by the war.
The military and political influence of the USSR increased significantly. However, its international position was paradoxical: the country that won at the cost of heavy losses was ruined, but, despite this, it had a legitimate right to claim a prominent role in the life of the world community. The economic ruin was offset by military and political advantages.
On the whole, the position of the USSR changed dramatically: it emerged from international isolation and became a recognized great power. The number of countries with which the USSR had diplomatic relations increased from 26 to 52 compared to the pre-war period.
However, with the disappearance of the fascist threat, more and more contradictions began to appear between the former allies. Clash them geopolitical interests soon led to the collapse of the coalition and the creation of hostile blocs. Allied relations persisted until approximately 1947. However, already in 1945, serious contradictions were revealed, which were expressed in the struggle for the division of spheres of influence in Europe. Against the backdrop of heightened disagreements, Churchill ordered Field Marshal Montgomery to collect German weapons to arm the prisoners in the event that the Russians continued their advance into the West.
On March 5, 1946, in the city of Fulton (USA), in the presence of President Truman, Churchill for the first time openly accused the USSR of having fenced off Eastern Europe "iron curtain", called for organizing pressure on Russia in order to obtain from it both foreign policy concessions and changes in domestic policy. It was a call for an open and tough confrontation with the Soviet Union.
The main attention of the Soviet leadership was focused on knocking together in Europe socialist bloc, and these countries were dependent on the USSR, under its control they carried out their foreign and domestic policies (with the exception of Yugoslavia).
The formation of the Soviet bloc went in parallel with the strengthening confrontations with the West. The turning point was 1947, when the Soviet leadership refused to participate in Marshall Plan and forced other Eastern European countries to do the same.
To tighten control over his allies, Stalin in September 1947 established the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties - Kominform (Comintern he dissolved in 1943, hoping that this would contribute to the opening of a second front). The Cominform included the Eastern European Communist Parties and, from the Western ones, the Italian and French. In 1949, the socialist countries, as an alternative to the Marshall Plan, formed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). However, the closeness, the absence of a real market, the free flow of capital did not allow the CMEA countries to achieve economic closeness and integration, as was the case in the West.
The formed socialist bloc of countries led by the USSR was opposed by the union of the countries of Western Europe and North America led by the United States, which, with the creation in 1949 NATO finalized. The tough confrontation between the West and the East contributed to the "correction" of the domestic policy of the leading powers. In 1947, under the influence of the US ruling circles, the communists were removed from the governments of Italy and France. In the United States itself, a test of the loyalty of civil servants began, lists of "subversive organizations" were drawn up, whose members were expelled from work. Communists and people of leftist views were especially persecuted. In June 1947, the US Congress approved the Taft-Hartley Act, which restricted strike and trade union movements.
The division of Europe ended in the West. Now the center of confrontation has moved to Asia. In 1949, the Chinese Revolution won, and even earlier, the communist regime had established itself in North Korea. At the end of the 1940s, world socialism covered more than 1/4 of the entire earth's land mass and 1/3 of the world's population. Based on this circumstance, and also taking into account the presence of the communist movement in the countries of the West, the leaders of the Soviet bloc and China, apparently, were inclined to the opinion that it was possible to change the balance of power that had developed in the world in their favor. In February 1950, the leaders of the USSR and China signed an agreement on mutual assistance for a period of 30 years.
Restoration of the national economy of the country. The victory over fascism went to the Soviet Union at a high price. The human and material losses inflicted by the war were very heavy. The total irretrievable human losses are estimated at about 27 million people, which was one sixth of the country's active population. Most of the industrial centers in the European part of the country and all the main granaries - Ukraine, the North Caucasus, a significant part of the Volga region - were destroyed. The amount of direct losses caused by the war was 5.5 times the national income of the USSR in 1940.
It was necessary to transfer the national economy to a peaceful track, to demobilize and employ millions of servicemen. The difficulties of recovery were exacerbated by a severe drought in 1946. About 1 million died of starvation and disease that year, and in 1946-1948. - one and a half million people [13.3, c.13,20,29,170].
According to the five-year plan (1946-1950), agricultural production was supposed to exceed the pre-war level by 27%, but it did not even reach the level of 1940. There was an unwillingness to go for reforms similar to the NEP, stimulating the development of production. The Stalinist leadership limited itself to the use of non-economic, coercive methods of management, which preserved the chronic difficulties of the countryside associated with the collective farm system.
The economy remained militarized. Many factories had both a civilian and a military profile. In other words, the economy was peaceful in name and military in essence, returning to the pre-war model. Further development was military-industrial complex (MIC). Enormous funds were directed to the implementation nuclear project. Work on the creation of an atomic bomb has been carried out in the USSR since 1942. After the war, they were headed by Beria, and Academician I. V. Kurchatov was the scientific director of the project. The secrets of atomic weapons were obtained from the Americans by Soviet intelligence, which created a wide intelligence network in the United States.
At the same time, the technical re-equipment of the army was going on, saturating it with the latest models of small arms, artillery, and tanks. Enormous funds were allocated for the creation of jet aircraft and missile systems for all branches of the armed forces. This shift in favor of the military industries created an imbalance in the development of the economy. The militarized economy was a heavy burden on society, sharply limiting the possibilities for improving the material well-being of the people.
Tightening of political and ideological measures. New wave of repression. In order to preserve the Soviet regime, to fight the richest power in the world - the United States, the dictator recreated an atmosphere that allows him to keep the people in fear, isolated him with an "iron curtain" from the rest of the world. All this was done to the accompaniment of the communist, anti-American propaganda. Russia was proclaimed the birthplace of almost all inventions and discoveries, and modern discoveries in Western countries were proclaimed false. Was declared reactionary pseudoscience cybernetics, genetics, quantum physics and the theory of relativity have been criticized.
In 1946, the authorities launched a broad campaign against any manifestation of intellectual creativity, which revealed the so-called "foreign influence", "Western decadence", "petty-bourgeois individualism", "art for art's sake", cosmopolitanism, kowtowing before the West. The ideological leadership of this campaign was carried out personally by Zhdanov, so it was dubbed "Zhdanovism". The Central Committee of the CPSU criticized primarily the magazines Leningrad and Zvezda, accused of carrying out an alien ideology, especially after the publication of the works of the poet A. Akhmatova and the satirist M. Zoshchenko, who were expelled from the Writers' Union.
By another resolution, the Central Committee criticized "unprincipled" films - "Big Life", "Admiral Nakhimov" and "Ivan the Terrible". In 1948, the same tendencies were "discovered" in music. A. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturian, V. Muradeli and others were named representatives of the formalist trend in music.
Soon followed by a ban on contacts and marriage of Soviet citizens with foreigners. Criticism of cosmopolitanism quickly acquired an increasingly overt anti-Semitic character.
In January 1953, it was announced that a "terrorist group of doctors", employees of the Kremlin hospital, had been exposed. 9 high-ranking doctors were arrested, most of them Jews, including Stalin's personal doctor, Academician V. N. Vinogradov. He paid the price for advising the already aged leader to retire. They were accused of killing the leaders of the party and the state by deliberately improper treatment, acting on instructions from the American and British intelligence services.
Stalin, organizing a new great terror, pursued the following goals: intimidation of the people, suppression of any, even potential opposition, and psychological preparation for war. In the activities of the media, state propaganda, the dominant direction was the formation of the image of the enemy, the creation of works on an anti-American theme.
The struggle for the Stalinist legacy. It was officially believed that the so-called collective leadership from Stalin's inner circle came to power - G. M. Malenkov, V. M. Molotov, L. P. Beria, N. S. Khrushchev, L. M. Kaganovich, A.I. Mikoyan, N.A. Bulganin, K.E. Voroshilov. Three key figures were identified - Malenkov, Beria, Khrushchev. The first place in the new hierarchy was taken by Malenkov, who received the post of chairman of the Council of Ministers and became the head of the Secretariat of the Central Committee; Beria, a close associate of Malenkov, headed the reunited MVD and MGB; Khrushchev held no public office, but held second place in the Secretariat of the Central Committee. Both Malenkov and Khrushchev, fearing and hating Beria, united for the removal and arrest of the latter.
Arising "the case of Beria" still remains poorly understood. There is no consensus on Beria's personal position. It is believed that Beria was plotting to establish a personal dictatorship. There is a version about Beria the reformer that he was punished by the nomenklatura for attempting large-scale transformations. He could show radicalism, wanting to somehow get rid of the bloody image.
With the elimination of Beria, Malenkov lost a dangerous, powerful ally. The position of Malenkov weakened, his political rival Khrushchev strengthened. Malenkov could no longer rely on the bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs-MGB, since they were placed under the control of the party. In addition, in the autumn of 1953, Khrushchev became the first secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, significantly expanding his powers. Willy-nilly, the heirs of the leader were forced to take the path of transforming the regime of personal power, moving away from the leader's model.
Nevertheless, the so-called "new course". Already on March 10, 1953, at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee, Malenkov announced the need to end the "policy of the personality cult."
The turn in politics was also manifested in the economic and social fields. Collective farms associate the name of Malenkov with a rather significant reduction in agricultural tax (by 2.5 times by 1954), and an increase in the size of household plots. In April 1953, the largest reduction in the prices of food and consumer goods in the post-war period took place. In August 1953, at a session of the Supreme Soviet, Malenkov formulated a new economic course that provided for the priority development of light industry and the production of consumer goods. It was about the first course in Soviet history on social reorientation economy.
Meanwhile, the situation in the country itself required decisive action. The sources of social tension were the zone of forced labor in the GULAG system and the ruined collective farm village. After the death of Stalin and the arrest of Beria, the prisoners of the Gulag awakened hopes for amnesty and rehabilitation, which caused a powerful wave of uprisings and riots in the camps in 1953-1954. It seemed that hopes were confirmed: in September 1953, the Special Conference under the Ministry of Internal Affairs and other extrajudicial bodies (“troikas”, “fives”) were liquidated, in April 1954 the “Leningrad case” was reviewed and convicted party and economic leaders were rehabilitated. A year later began rehabilitation on the political processes of the 30s - early 50s. For 1954-1956 7679 people were rehabilitated, many posthumously. Tens of thousands of people left prisons and camps before the 20th Congress.
The new leadership was greatly concerned about the problem of bringing agriculture out of a protracted crisis and increasing food production. received by the peasants workdays averaged only 20.3% of family income. The peasants were fed mainly at the expense of a personal farmstead, which they were engaged in after work in the collective farm. In 1950, 22.4% of the collective farms were not issued at all for workdays. Beginning in September 1953, at the initiative of Khrushchev, a series of effective measures were taken: capital investments were significantly increased, state purchase prices for collective farm products were increased, sown areas were expanded, development began virgin and fallow lands in Kazakhstan, Siberia and the Volga region. The measures taken justified themselves: in 1954-1958. the average annual growth rate of agricultural production amounted to 8% (in 1950-1953 it was 1.6%), the cash income of collective farms - more than 3 times.
At the January Plenum of the Central Committee in 1955, Khrushchev accused Malenkov of insufficient maturity, striving for "cheap popularity" among the people, of making an erroneous statement in favor of accelerating the growth rate of production of group "B", etc. The session of the Supreme Council in February 1955 accepted the resignation Malenkov, N. A. Bulganin replaced him as chairman of the Council of Ministers.
XX Congress of the CPSU. regime liberalization. The change in the political course of the new leadership, its break with numerous Stalinist postulates and traditions were confirmed XX Congress of the CPSU, held on February 14-25, 1956. Analyzing the new international situation, the congress put forward a number of theoretical provisions on the problems of world development: on the peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems, on the possibility of preventing a world war in modern conditions, and on the diversity of forms of countries' transition to socialism.
In domestic policy, the congress spoke in favor of restoring and strengthening the Leninist principle of collective leadership and the democratization of the country's social and political life. Before the end of the congress, Khrushchev delivered a report at a closed session. "About the cult of personality and its consequences". From the secret report, the congress participants learned about Lenin's "testament", the existence of which until then was denied by the party leadership. For the first time, it was said about the retreat from the principles of democracy, about the gross violations of socialist legality, mass repressions, major miscalculations and vicious methods of leadership, committed at the will of Stalin.
The beginning criticism of the cult of personality and liberalization of society were accompanied by the awakening of society, a mass movement in the form of meetings, the appearance of disputes, discussions, and informal discussions. All this, as well as the return of those rehabilitated from the camps, aggravated the situation in the country. The Hungarian crisis of 1956 also played a negative role, causing the Soviet leadership to fear a repetition of a similar attempt at radical renewal in the USSR. The entry of Soviet troops into Hungary also caused a mixed reaction among the population.
The liquidation of the most obvious products of Stalinism began soon after the death of the dictator. This process acquired a more or less consistent character after the 20th Congress of the CPSU (of course, within the limited framework of the existing socialist system and values). Democratization, albeit limited, touched almost all institutions of the political system of society.
In January 1957, the Central Committee of the CPSU adopted a resolution "On improving the activities of the Soviets of Working People's Deputies and strengthening their ties with the masses," which provides for some expansion of the powers of the Soviets and the involvement of the public in their work. It was decided to increase the number of workers and collective farmers in the deputies. In 1957-1958. they accounted for about 60% in the local Soviets and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. However, the real power remained in the hands of the party bodies, the Soviets functioned under their tutelage.
Khrushchev made an attempt to awaken public organizations from the bureaucratic stupor. The rights of trade unions were somewhat expanded, sanatoriums and rest homes were transferred to their jurisdiction, they began to participate in the hiring and dismissal of workers, the distribution of housing, etc. The growth of public activity also affected the Komsomol. About 350 thousand young men and women went to develop virgin and fallow lands, 300 thousand went to the largest construction sites. International contacts expanded: in 1957, the VI World Festival of Youth and Students was held in Moscow, which became an unprecedented event for a closed country.
The 20th Party Congress brought rehabilitation not only to prisoners of camps and prisons, but also the restoration of the rights of entire peoples who suffered during Stalin's time. In February 1957, the national autonomy of the Balkar, Chechen, Ingush, Kalmyk and Karachai peoples was restored. However, the Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, and Meskhetian Turks were not affected.
As a reaction to the exposure of Stalin and the growth of the personal influence of the first person in the leadership arose anti-Khrushchev opposition("anti-party group"). But she was destroyed.
In March 1958, Khrushchev, having removed Bulganin, took over as head of government. Now he combined the highest party and state positions.
The transformation of Khrushchev into the sole leader had contradictory consequences for the destinies "thaw". Deprived of the opposition, Khrushchev increasingly began to show voluntarism, carry out numerous reorganizations and campaigns. In 1959, the XXI Congress of the CPSU concluded that socialism in the USSR had won a complete and final victory, the country had entered a period of extensive construction of communism. In 1961, the XXII Congress of the CPSU adopted a new, third party program - a program for the construction communism. The task was set to create the material and technical base of communism by 1980, a sharp increase in the well-being of the population, and a broad democratization of society were outlined. The voluntaristic policy, despite its utopianism, caused new illusions among the masses, restored faith in "bright ideals", gave rise to social activity. A movement for a communist attitude to work began. The enthusiasm of the masses, as in all periods of Soviet history, to a certain extent stimulated the development of the economy, compensated for the vices of the administrative management system.
In 1955-1959. measures were taken to improve the standard of living of the population. In April 1956, the anti-labor law of 1940, which attached workers to enterprises, was repealed. The minimum wage in the public sector was increased by about 35%, pensions almost doubled, and the retirement age was lowered to 60 for men and 55 for women. Consumption of industrial and food products by the population has increased significantly. For 1950-1958 the real incomes of workers and employees increased by 60%, and those of collective farmers by 90%. In 1956-1960. completed the transfer of workers and employees to a 7-hour day, and in underground work - to a 6-hour working day. The working week was shortened from 48 to 46 hours. Compulsory government loans were abolished.
Finally, for the first time in the country's history, mass housing construction. City housing stock in 1955-1964 increased by 80%. Despite this, it was not possible to overcome the housing crisis. In general, the second half of the 1950s remained in the collective memory of society as a time when the material situation, especially the situation with housing, began to improve.
Foreign policy. Beginning with the 20th Congress of the CPSU, foreign policy began to be carried out taking into account the new realities of our time, which led to some easing of international tension. According to Khrushchev, in the course of peaceful coexistence, socialism had to demonstrate to the world its advantages as a system, and the movement of mankind towards socialism would become irreversible. This policy skillfully alternated between pressure and compromises, which made it possible to avoid a military clash between the opposing blocs.
Some improvement in relations with the Western powers was achieved. In 1965, a peace treaty was concluded with Austria, which ensured the neutrality of this country. In 1956, a declaration was signed with Japan, providing for an end to the state of war and the restoration of diplomatic relations in exchange for the transfer of the two South Kuril Islands to Japan. Under an agreement with the United States in 1958, cooperation in the field of culture, economics, and the exchange of various delegations developed. 1959 was marked by an unprecedented event - Khrushchev's visit to the United States, which was of great importance, strengthened the international prestige of the USSR, which the United States should have treated almost as an equal partner. Relations with Yugoslavia were also normalized.
However, the development of events was contradictory, alternating with serious complications. During these years, relations with China and Albania sharply complicated, it came to open confrontation.
Some thaw in relations with the West alternated with acute crises, often initiated by the actions of our side.
In the fall of 1962, perhaps the most dangerous crisis erupted - the Caribbean, which brought mankind to the brink of nuclear war. It was initiated by the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba. This was done under the pressure of Fidel Castro as a deterrent to the United States. On October 22, in response, President Kennedy established a naval and air blockade of Cuba, alerted the troops, and demanded that the USSR dismantle and withdraw missiles. The world was teetering on the brink of war. The two leaders showed wisdom, reached a compromise and avoided disaster: the USSR withdrew its nuclear missiles from Cuba, and the US refused to seize Cuba and station its missiles in Turkey. Although the prestige of the USSR was severely undermined, the peace won was worth it. A "hot" communication line was established between the White House and the Kremlin. In 1963, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons Tests in Three Environments was signed in Moscow: in the atmosphere, space and under water. This was the first agreement on limitation of strategic weapons.
The post-war collapse of the colonial system created favorable conditions for the intensification of Soviet foreign policy in "third world" in 1957-1964 Moscow has exchanged visits with more than 30 developing countries and signed over 20 different cooperation agreements. Wishing to strengthen its international positions, the USSR sought to draw into its orbit more and more countries that declared themselves to be following, if not along the socialist, then along the non-capitalist path.
In general, by the mid-1960s, a certain stabilization of international relations. The USSR and the USA emerged from dangerous conflicts and gained important experience in interaction in the face of confrontation between military-political blocs.
During this period, the USSR achieved notable successes in the field of science and technology. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, he became a world leader in rocket technology and a pioneer in space exploration. In 1957, for the first time in the world, a multi-stage intercontinental ballistic missile was launched. On October 4, 1957, the first Soviet satellite launched into space orbit. April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin made the first manned flight into space.
Thus, in the post-war world, the political and military influence of the USSR increased significantly. However, due to serious contradictions, the anti-Hitler coalition broke up into hostile blocs. The "cold war" and the arms race began, which led to the confrontation of the two systems. The Cold War and the militarization of the economy led to economic difficulties, a tightening of the regime, and a new wave of repressions. The transformations carried out in the social, political and spiritual life of society in 1953-1964 were very significant. They gave impetus to the spiritual renewal of the people, the gradual overcoming of the Stalinist legacy, undermined the totalitarian regime.
Essay topics
- USSR and the creation of a socialist bloc of states.
- Alternatives of the post-war development of the USSR.
- "Cold War" of the USSR and the USA: origins and course.
- Post-war repressions - features and scales.
- The fate of German prisoners of war in the USSR.
- The historical significance of the XX Congress of the CPSU.
- Post-war political processes.
- Historical portraits: Molotov, Khrushchev, Kaganovich, Mikoyan, Malenkov.
- Beria case.
- Creation of the nuclear missile shield of the USSR.
- Development of virgin and fallow lands.
- Caribbean crisis of 1962 and the threat of a third world war.
- Housing construction in the USSR.
- The first flight of a Soviet man into space.
With the end of World War II, the United States, along with the USSR, became one of the two world superpowers. The states helped raise Europe from ruins, experienced an economic and population boom. The country began the process of abandoning segregation and racial discrimination. At the same time, an anti-communist propaganda campaign by supporters of Senator McCarthy unfolded in American society. Nevertheless, despite all the internal and external trials, the country managed to maintain and consolidate its status as the main democracy in the Western world.
New superpower
When a bloody war began in Europe in 1939, the US authorities tried to stay away from the large-scale conflict. However, the longer the confrontation lasted, the fewer opportunities remained for pursuing an isolationist policy. Finally, in 1941, there was an attack on Pearl Harbor. The perfidious Japanese attack forced Washington to reconsider its plans. Thus, the role of the United States after the Second World War was predetermined. American society rallied in the "crusade" of the 20th century, the purpose of which was to defeat the Nazis and their allies.
The Third Reich was defeated, leaving Europe in ruins. The paramount economic and political importance of the Old World (primarily Great Britain and France) was shaken. The USA after the Second World War occupied a vacant niche. In all respects, the country, relatively weakly affected by the horrors of recent years, has deservedly begun to be considered a superpower.
"Marshall Plan"
In 1948, US Secretary of State George Marshall launched the European Recovery Program, also called the Marshall Plan. Its goal was economic assistance to the countries of destroyed Europe. Through this program, the United States after World War II not only supported its allies, but also consolidated its dominant status in the Western world.
Money for the restoration of industry and other important infrastructure was allocated to 17 countries. The Americans offered their assistance to the socialist states of Eastern Europe, but under pressure from the Soviet Union, they refused to participate in the program. In a special manner, money was provided to West Germany. American funds entered this country along with the collection of indemnity for the former crimes of the Nazi regime.
Growing contradictions with the USSR
In the USSR, the "Marshall Plan" was treated negatively, believing that with the help of it, the United States after the Second World War put pressure on the Soviet Union. This point of view was also widespread in the West. It was followed, among other things, by the former US Vice President Henry Wallace, who criticized the aid program for Europe.
Every year the growing confrontation between the USSR and the USA became more and more acute. The powers that stood on the same side of the barricades in the struggle against the Nazi threat now began to openly feud themselves. There were contradictions between communist and democratic ideologies. Western Europe and the United States after the Second World War created a NATO military alliance, and Eastern Europe and the USSR - the Warsaw Pact.
Internal problems
The internal development of the United States after the Second World War was accompanied by contradictions. The fight against Nazi evil rallied society for several years and made it forget about its own problems. However, almost immediately after the victory, these difficulties reappeared. First of all, they were in relation to ethnic minorities.
The social policy of the United States after the Second World War changed the former way of life of the Indians. In 1949, the authorities abandoned the former Self-Determination Act. Reservations are in the past. Accelerated assimilation with the society of the native inhabitants of America. Often the Indians moved to the cities under pressure. Many of them did not want to give up the way of life of their ancestors, but they had to give up their principles because of a radically changed country.
The fight against segregation
The problem of relations between the white majority and the black minority remained acute. segregation persisted. In 1948 it was abolished by the Air Force. During World War II, many African Americans served in the air force and became famous for their amazing feats. Now they could repay their debt to the Motherland under the same conditions as the whites.
1954 brought another major public victory for the United States. Thanks to a long-overdue Supreme Court ruling, US history after World War II was marked by the abolition of segregation based on race. Then Congress officially confirmed the status of citizens for blacks. Gradually, the United States embarked on a path leading to the complete rejection of segregation and discrimination. This process ended in the 1960s.
Economy
The accelerated economic development of the United States after World War II led to an unprecedented economic boom, sometimes called the "golden age of capitalism." It was caused by several reasons, such as the crisis in Europe. Period 1945-1952 also considered the era of Keynes (John Keynes - the author of the famous economic theory, according to the precepts of which the United States lived in those years).
Through the efforts of the United States, the Bretton Woods system was created. Its institutions facilitated international trade and enabled the implementation of the Marshall Plan (the emergence of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, etc.). The economic boom in the United States led to a baby boom - a population explosion, as a result of which the population of the entire country began to grow rapidly.
Start of the Cold War
In 1946, while on a private visit to the United States, the already former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made a famous speech in which he called the USSR and communism threats to the Western world. Today, historians consider this event the beginning of the Cold War. In the United States at that time, Harry Truman became president. He, like Churchill, believed that it was necessary to adhere to a hard line of behavior with the USSR. During his presidency (1946-1953), the division of the world between two opposing political systems was finally consolidated.
Truman became the author of the "Truman Doctrine", according to which, the Cold War was a confrontation between the democratic American and the totalitarian Soviet systems. The first real bone of contention for the two superpowers was Germany. By decision of the United States, it was included in the Marshall Plan. The USSR in response to this staged a blockade of the city. The crisis continued until 1949. As a result, the GDR was created in eastern Germany.
At the same time, a new round of the arms race began. After that, there were no more attempts to use nuclear warheads in wars - they stopped after the first one. World War II was enough for the United States to realize the lethality of new missiles. However, the arms race has already begun. In 1949, the USSR tested a nuclear bomb, and a little later, a hydrogen bomb. The Americans lost their arms monopoly.
McCarthyism
With the deterioration of relations in both the USSR and the United States, propaganda campaigns were launched to create the image of a new enemy. The Red Scare has become the order of the day for millions of Americans. The most ardent anti-communist was Senator Joseph McCarthy. He accused many high-ranking politicians and public figures of being sympathetic to the Soviet Union. McCarthy's paranoid rhetoric was quickly picked up by the media.
The United States after the Second World War, in short, experienced an anti-communist hysteria, the victims of which were people who were very far from left-wing views. McCarthyists blamed traitors for all the troubles of American society. Trade unions and supporters of negotiations with the socialist bloc were subjected to their attacks. Although Truman was a critic of the USSR, he differed from McCarthy in more liberal views. A Republican who won the next presidential election in 1952 approached the scandalous senator.
Many figures of science and culture became victims of the McCarthyists: composer Leonard Bernstein, physicist David Bohm, actress Lee Grant, etc. The communist spouses Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for espionage. The propaganda campaign to search for internal enemies, however, soon bogged down. At the end of 1954, McCarthy was sent into disgraceful retirement.
Caribbean crisis
France, Great Britain, the USA after the Second World War, together with others, created a military. Soon these countries came out in support of South Korea in its struggle against the communists. The latter, in turn, were assisted by the USSR and China. The Korean War continued from 1950-1953. It was the first armed peak of confrontation between the two world political systems.
In 1959, a revolution took place in Cuba, neighboring the United States. The communists led by Fidel Castro came to power on the island. Cuba enjoyed the economic support of the USSR. Moreover, Soviet nuclear weapons were stationed on the island. Its appearance in the vicinity of the United States led to the Caribbean crisis - the apogee of the Cold War, when the world was on the verge of new nuclear bombings. Then, in 1962, the American president and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev managed to reach an agreement and not aggravate the situation. The fork has been passed. A policy of gradual detente began.
The post-war state of the German economy
After World War II, Germany was divided into two independent states: the FRG and the GDR. The difficult state of the German economy, in addition to military devastation, was influenced by the dismantling of equipment from industrial enterprises, adopted by the decision of the Potsdam Conference of the Heads of Government of the powers that won the war on August 2, 1945. as compensation for damages, and the division of the country. In 1948, with the direct participation of L. Erhard, the architect of the policy of economic revival of West Germany, an economist and statesman (first the Minister of Economics, and then the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany), monetary and economic reform was carried out.
Carefully prepared economic reform was carried out simultaneously with the monetary reform, price reform, restructuring of centralized administration. The old system was destroyed immediately, not gradually. The rise in prices stopped after about six months. The success of the reform was determined both by a timely adjustment (for example, a revision of the exchange rate of the national currency) and the presence of a strong and authoritative government. Erhard is considered to be a neoliberal, but he was not a “pure” neoliberal and widely used state levers to switch to the principles of liberalism. Following the monetary reform, the administrative distribution of resources and control over them were abolished.
Industry
In the historically established unified pre-war German economy, the territory of the present GDR was an underdeveloped industrial area, which was largely dependent on its western part. Before the war, the eastern part exported 45% of all industrial and agricultural products from the western part. The raw material base, metallurgical, energy and heavy industry were located mainly in the western regions of Germany. In addition, as a result of the war, 45% of the equipment of an already underdeveloped industry, 70% of energy capacities and 40% of agricultural machinery were disabled. Compared with 1936, the volume of industrial production in the territory of the present GDR was only 42%. The entire existing economic base consisted of little more than a single blast furnace, the traditional textile industry, including textile engineering, precision mechanics and optics. Due to the split of Germany through the fault of the Western powers, which formed a separate West German state, the GDR found itself cut off from the traditional centers of heavy industry, metallurgy and energy. In 1949, the year the GDR was founded, the young state lacked entire industries, and those that did exist were very underdeveloped. At the cost of incredible efforts, the working people managed to overcome the most pernicious disproportions during the first years of construction.
With the help of the Soviet Union, entire industries were recreated, including the energy base, metallurgy, machine tool building, and a significant part of light industry. The referendum of June 30, 1946 on the gratuitous expropriation of 3,843 enterprises of active Nazis and war criminals, as well as large landowners, served as a democratic basis for the transformation of numerous enterprises into public property. At the same time, this expropriation and democratic land reform marked the beginning of the process of the transfer of economic power into the hands of the working class, in alliance with the peasantry and all other sections of the working people. In the following years, with the help of the Soviet Union, the workers created numerous new enterprises. These were very difficult years of industrial construction. They demanded from all the working people an enormous effort and cost them great hardships. The imperialist circles, hostile to socialism, tried to hold back the new development, hinder it and even frustrate it.
They maliciously used the state border between the GDR and West Berlin, which was open until 1961, undermining the GDR's currency regime, luring highly qualified specialists from there and exporting a large amount of vital consumer goods to West Berlin. According to official data, due to the existence of the open border of the GDR until 1961, material damage was inflicted in the amount of more than 100 billion marks. After the implementation of measures to ensure the security of the state border of the GDR in 1961, there was a significant economic recovery. After almost all the peasants, who had previously been individual farmers, united in agricultural production cooperatives, socialist property became a solid economic basis for the GDR. After the VI Congress of the SED, which took place in 1963 and decided on the full-scale construction of socialism, great efforts were made to develop, test and put into practice effective ways and methods of managing and planning industry and all other areas of the national economy.
Political reform
The principle of the democratic state made it possible to express the will of the citizens. The focus of the basic law is a person, because the state should serve the people, and not dominate them. The political system of Germany is determined by 4 principles of the state: democratic; federal; legal; social.
The Marshall Plan On June 5, 1947, George Marshall, then US Secretary of State, proclaimed the European Recovery Program. A year later, the American Congress passed this plan, which provided for billions in loans. It included not only financial resources, but also supplies of equipment and gifts. Until 1952, the United States sent from the funds of the program
Germany after World War II. Basic Law of Germany 1949 Berlin Crisis. Division of the country
The Second World War ended for Germany with the defeat and collapse of the fascist regime in the country.
This created the conditions for building a new, democratic German state.
Germany again, like 27 years ago ( after World War I), had to start almost from scratch.
However, the situation is now complicated by two more factors:
1. The difficult economic situation of the country caused by the consequences of the war;
2. Contradictions between allies ( more precisely - between the USSR and the allies) on the further development of the country. At the same time, each side sought to make Germany its sphere of influence;
The consequences of the war for Germany were more severe than for many other European states.
Losses amounted to 13.5 million, cities were destroyed, industry was destroyed or dismantled ( allies - that's freaks!
Real marauders! The USSR exported everything from Germany - from ships to buttons). The country's economy experienced a shortage of workers (the male population died in the war). There is general speculation in the country, the “black market” is flourishing. Not enough housing. The financial system of the country is destroyed - no money has a price. Most of the population is starving.
The formation of the new German state had to take place in extremely difficult conditions.
The following made things even more difficult:
Such starting conditions did not bode well - and it turned out - the future justified the worst fears (everything happened, except third world war…).
With the end of hostilities, the territory of Germany was divided into occupation zones(4 - USA, UK, France, USSR).
This was necessary for a coordinated solution of priority problems, after which, by agreement between the allies, power was to be transferred to the new German authorities.
A special body was created to govern the country, which included all the allies - Control Council(commanders of four armies who became military governors).
It was them that the Control Council carried out. The main place in them was occupied by a policy called " four D»:
| Demilitarization | The elimination of the country's military industry. Transfer of the economy to peaceful construction. The elimination of the monopolies that led the country to war. Dissolution of the Reichswehr (German army). |
| Denazification | Prohibition and dissolution of all fascist organizations ( NSDAP, SS, and others). Prohibition of any paramilitary formations. Removal of Nazis from the state apparatus and prosecution of fascist criminals. |
| Democratization | Restoration of all political (and other) rights and freedoms. Creation of a democratic party system, holding democratic elections. |
| Decentralization | Restoration of the federal structure of the country and local self-government. Formation of local authorities. |
Initially, the Allied policy towards Germany was carried out in one direction.
The implementation of the most important measures listed above did not cause doubts and special disagreements.
However, when determining the ways of further development of the country, such disagreements appeared very quickly. And that's why:
After the implementation of the plan four D”, the next stage was to be the creation of German state bodies and the transfer of power to them.
However, by this time, the territory of Germany was becoming more and more clearly an arena of confrontation between communism and capitalism (USSR and USA). No one wanted to give in - as it turned out very soon, the policy in different zones varied quite significantly.
Soon a line of confrontation emerged - the USSR on the one hand, the allies (USA, Great Britain, France) on the other. The activities aimed at creating a German state, carried out in the eastern and western zones, were diametrically opposed, and actually aimed at building different models of the state.
This very quickly led to a political crisis.
Events unfolded like this:
| The split of Germany and the formation of the FRG and the GDR | |
| "Two-Headed Politics" | The main difference existed, a clear fuck, between western zones and the USSR zone. In fact, two different states were built on these territories. In the eastern lands, transformations began according to the Soviet model ( building a totalitarian state), while in the West, the Allies carried out liberal transformations according to their own model. Such differences could not but lead to serious disagreements about the future of the country. They were not long in coming - Paris session of the Ministerial Council ( May 1946) failed to resolve any of the issues. |
| "Economic glitch" | Different economic policies in the occupation zones led to the creation of a special situation:
This situation did not please the USSR at all - as a result, a regime was introduced between the zones to control the movement of goods and people. |
| "Bison" | In the summer of 1946, the situation escalated even more. After the announcement of the US State Department about the unification of the American and British zones, such a merger was carried out in December 1946. The combined zone was called " bison". Its main feature was that it was not occupational, but already German authorities- became the main Economic Council(head L. Erhard). Thus, "Bizonia" became the prototype of the future Germany. |
| Wasted Effort | Despite the difficulties, attempts to find a common solution for Germany still continued. However, the negotiations were doomed to failure even before they began. This was confirmed by the Ministerial Council session in March 1947. Like the previous one, it did not solve a single problem, but created many new ones. The next one (November 1947) ended with the same "result". After its completion, the parties did not even agree on the next one. This was a bad sign. |
| "Trizonia" | In February 1948, the French zone of occupation also became part of the "Bison" - formed " Trizonia».
Now all the Western sectors formed a single economic and political space, almost coinciding with the territory of the future FRG. The power in this territory again belonged to the German authorities. |
| "Trick with ears" | The first action taken by the German administration was monetary reform. She had to solve two main problems:
On the territory of Trizonia, their own brand was introduced, which did not have circulation in the Soviet occupation zone. Now Trizonia has become completely independent financially. The monetary reform led to two main results:
The USSR regarded the reform as an attempt to proclaim an independent German state and reacted extremely negatively to it. This event predetermined the subsequent development of Germany. |
| "Berlin Crisis" | Monetary reform (which the USSR called " separate”) did not like the Soviet administration. As a response, they chose, however, primitive tactics " hitting the head with a sledgehammer”(True, as it turned out - in its own way ...). On June 24, 1948, Soviet troops completely interrupted communication between West Berlin and the rest of the world, organizing its blockade. The USSR hoped that this would force the allies to make concessions in the negotiations. However, the number did not pass - the United States organized the delivery of the necessary goods to the blockaded city by air ("air bridge") - within 11 months everything needed was delivered to the city. The USSR did not have the audacity to shoot down American planes (that would mean war). The blockade had to be ended. The incident became known as the "Berlin Crisis". He finally determined the split of Germany. The positions of the USSR were undermined - after an attempt at forceful pressure, the Germans no longer believed in " good intentions» of this country. The flow of refugees from east to west increased. |
| "Yoshkin cat" | After unsuccessful attempts to reach an agreement, West Germany had no choice but to start developing its own constitution, and postpone the issue of unification for the future. By 1949, the development of their own constitutions began in both German states - in fact, the split of the country into two parts became a reality. |
Despite the failure of the London Conference (cf.
chapter " Wasted Effort”), she nevertheless gave certain results. The most important of these was the achievement of agreement between the Western states (USA, Great Britain, France) on the creation of a separate West German state. The formation of such a state was to be enshrined in a new constitution. At the same time, German politicians were asked to convene a Constituent Assembly ( for its adoption) no later than September 1, 1948.
Such a proposal, although it was quite obvious to the Germans themselves, did not arouse much enthusiasm - it was a clear step towards the split of the country.
At the same time, it was also impossible to leave the situation unchanged.
This issue had to be resolved at a meeting of the prime ministers of the German lands (in the lands there were already Landtags and governments).
In the end, a compromise solution was reached:
The decisions of the heads of the lands were approved by the allies ( let at least such a constitution than none).
The main goal of the formation of the Western European state- the creation of a kind of "core", which would then be joined by the eastern lands. So the West Germans tried to find at least some solution to the existing problems. There were probably no other options.
Parliamentary Council ( 65 members elected by the Landtags, thus a body formed by indirect elections) began work on September 1, 1948.
(Bonn). K. Adenauer (SPD) became chairman. The bill did not cause much debate - it was assumed that it would soon be replaced by the "real" Constitution ( fuck you replace it- because of the USSR, the country was divided for half a century!).
On May 8, 1949, the Basic Law (OZ) was adopted by a majority vote. Landtags quickly ratified it (approved). Problems arose only with Bavaria ( Well, she always had her own opinion...) who considered the OZ "too centralist" ( limiting its "precious" powers in favor of the center).
However, she also pledged to abide by his norms.
On May 23, 1949, the OZ entered into force. This was the birth date of the new German state. It got the name Federal Republic of Germany.
| Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany 1949 | |
| general characteristics | Adopted following the results of the Second World War, the elimination of the fascist regime in Germany, and the post-war conditions in the country. It is the most democratic constitution in the history of Germany, and is sustained in line with most post-war European constitutions ( France, Italy, etc.). He took in himself the best features of the Constitution of 1919, adding new ones to them. Main feature - the basic law was seen as temporary, before the unification of the country ( This, however, was only possible after 50 years ...). Adopted by the Parliamentary Council, consisting of representatives of the states, entered into force on May 23, 1949. |
| Basic principles |
|
| Structure | It is generally traditional - a preamble, 11 sections, 146 articles. No other acts are included in the constitution, the preamble does not contain legal norms and has no legal force. |
| Legal status of the individual | The main advantage of the new constitution. The section containing the norms on the rights and freedoms of citizens is in an "honorable" place, starting the constitution ( first section). |
| Form of government | Parliamentary republic in its purest form. The head of state (president) and the chief executive (federal chancellor) are separated, the government is formed by parliamentary means and is responsible to parliament. Significant powers are concentrated in the personal federal chancellor (the Federal Republic of Germany is sometimes called " chancellor republic») |
| Order of change | Constitution rigid type(although not especially) - a qualified majority of votes of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat is required for the change. Ratification of the amendments by the Länder is not required ( this is not the USA for you - you will change the hell there ...). |
The formation of the West German state and the adoption of the Basic Law, essentially meant the final division of the country.
At the same time, in the eastern lands, the formation of a socialist German state - the GDR.
In many ways, the processes that took place during 1949 could still be regarded as temporary, and the hope for the unification of the country still remained. As noted above, the German constitution was of the nature temporal- it was assumed that the eastern lands would soon be included in the unified German state.
However, in the next few years, the last illusions were dispelled - both German states became the arena of political confrontation between the socialist and capitalist worlds.
Under such conditions, the unification had to be forgotten for a long time - it seemed forever.
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State and political development of Germany after World War II
World War II (1939-1945) ended in complete military and political defeat for Germany. After the military surrender (May 8, 1945), the former German state both nominally and practically ceased to exist. Power in the country and all management functions were transferred to the military administration of the powers that occupied Germany.
21.1.1 The Potsdam agreements and the creation of a military control office in occupied Germany.
The principles of the post-war structure of Germany were determined by the decisions of the Crimean (January 1945) and, most importantly, Potsdam conferences (July-August 1945) of the allied states (USSR, USA and Great Britain).
They were supported by France and a number of other countries that were at war with Germany. According to these decisions, the totalitarian state in Germany was to be completely destroyed: the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it were banned, most of the punitive institutions of the Reich (including the SA, SS and SD services) were declared criminal, the army was disbanded, racial laws and acts of political significance were abolished .
The country should have been consistently carried out decartelization, denazification, demilitarization and democratization. The further solution of the "German question", including the preparation of a peace treaty, was placed in the hands of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Allied States.
June 5, 1945 the Allied states promulgated the Declaration on the defeat of Germany and on the organization of a new order of government.
The country was divided into 4 occupation zones, which were given under the administration of Great Britain (the largest zone in terms of territory), the USA, the USSR and France; the capital, Berlin, was subject to joint administration. To resolve common issues, an allied Control Council was formed from the commanders-in-chief of the four occupying armies, decisions in which would be made on the principle of unanimity. Each zone created its own administration similar to a military governorate.
The governors were entrusted with all issues of restoring civilian life, implementing the policy of denazification and demilitarization, as well as the prosecution of Nazi criminals, the return of previously forcibly displaced persons and prisoners of war of all nationalities.
After the establishment of military administration in all zones, activities were allowed political parties democratic direction. The new parties were to play a major role in the restoration of state structures and in the political organization of the population (albeit for different purposes from the positions of the USSR and the Western powers).
In the eastern zone of occupation (USSR), the resurgent Social Democratic and Communist parties became the dominant political force. Under pressure from the Soviet administration and under the leadership of leaders who were in the USSR during the war years, they merged into Socialist Unity Party of Germany(April 1946), which set the goal of establishing a socialist state in the country in the spirit of revolutionary Marxism and with a complete social reorganization of the country according to the Soviet model.
In the occupation zones of the Western powers, the newly formed party - Christian Democratic Union(June 1945); in Bavaria, the association became similar in direction Christian Social Union(January 1946). These parties stood on the platform of democratic republicanism, the creation of a social market economy society based on private property.
At the same time, the Social Democratic Party of Germany was revived in the western zones (June 1946). In the autumn of 1946, in an atmosphere of political pluralism, the first elections were held for local bodies and Landtags.
The divergence of political courses of the parties of the eastern and western zones led to a civil confrontation in the country, which was exacerbated by a sharp divergence of the military-political goals of the USSR and the USA in Europe, their positions on the fate of Germany (the USA assumed the political fragmentation of the country into several independent lands, the USSR - the creation of a single states of "people's democracy").
Therefore, the situation predetermined the state division of Germany
21.1.2 The course towards the creation of a West German "welfare state". The role of the state in regulating the economy.
The allied management of the German economy at first was reduced to the introduction of a system of strict control over production and distribution in order to provide the Germans with essential products and reparation supplies to compensate for damage to countries affected by the war.
The first step towards the democratization of Germany was to be decartelization.
According to the Potsdam agreements, a plan was developed "for reparations and the level of the post-war German economy", which provides for the dismantling of industrial enterprises and the introduction of restrictions and bans on the production of many types of products.
The production of any type of weapons was completely prohibited. However, the Allied Control Council was never able to develop general criteria for the concept of "monopolistic association". In this regard, decartelization began to be carried out according to the principle of denazification.
This was facilitated by the fact that a significant part of the major German industrialists were arrested for complicity in the crimes of the Reich, and their property was sequestered. With the exception of that part of it that went to reparation supplies, it was transferred to the disposal of the lands.
The destruction of a large economic potential in the course of decartelization in the Anglo-American zone ended by 1950, in the Soviet zone even earlier.
It also had certain positive consequences, expressed not only in the structural restructuring of industry, in the renewal of production technology, but also in the fundamental change in the entire state economic policy, directed from now on not to militarization, but to the restoration and growth of industrial production in peaceful purposes.
With the beginning of the Cold War in 1946-1947.
in the western zones, the policy of reviving the German economy began to be pursued more and more actively in the name of ensuring "security together with the Germans." The Germans themselves had to restore the economy and determine the strategic direction of its future development.
A series of reforms were carried out aimed at restoring the ruined financial system of the country (currency reform, tax reform, etc.)
The state resolutely refused to finance industrial development.
Only the fuel and energy, mining industry, ferrous metallurgy in 1948-1951. subsidized by the state. Direct state subsidies were subsequently limited to three areas: the introduction of scientific achievements, social assistance for the retraining of personnel, and the development of transport infrastructure.
In January 1948
the central bank was also recreated, called the Bank of German Lands (BNZ), which, according to the law, was supposed to pursue an independent monetary policy, not obeying the instructions of any party, public and state (except for the judiciary) bodies. Moreover, his activities, according to Art. 4 of the Law, was equated with the governing bodies of the united western economic zone.
In April 1948, the "Marshall Plan" came into effect. Billions of dollars were poured into the German economy.
The new currency was recognized by the population.
In the course of the referendum held back in 1945 on the question of property in both the Soviet and American zones, preference was given to public forms of property. In the American zone, this decision was not implemented. In the British zone, the "socialization" of property was vetoed by the occupation authorities. The majority of Germans were determined to choose some kind of centrist "third course", the creation of a "social market economy" and a "welfare state".
The discussions in the Parliamentary Council revolved around two models.
Bourgeois parties of a Christian persuasion proposed the creation of "social capitalism". The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) is the creation of "democratic socialism". There were many common points of contact between them.
In the elections of August 14, 1949, the Germans voted for the CDU/CSU, which, together with the small bourgeois parties, won a majority in the Reichstag. They thereby voted for the creation of a "social market economy", a "welfare state" in Germany.
Creation and maintenance of market competitive orders were defined as a strategic direction.
The state pursued a policy of deconcentration of production, introduced control over the activities of monopolies, over pricing, in every possible way encouraging the creation of new, primarily medium and small firms. To this end, the legal forms of their registration upon obtaining the status of a legal entity were simplified, preferential loans were provided, etc.
The implementation of the policy of a social market economy led to rapid economic growth, which was called the "economic miracle" in the West German press. The level of pre-war development was reached in West Germany as a whole by the end of 1950.
Division of Germany.
During 1945 - 1948.
the western zones consolidated. They carried out administrative reforms. In 1945, the division into historical lands was restored, and under the control of the military authorities, local representative bodies - Landtags and land governments - were revived. The unification of the British and American zones of occupation (in the so-called Bizonia) in December 1946 led to the formation of a unified body of power and administration.
This was the Economic Council (May 1947), elected by the Landtags and empowered to make general financial and economic decisions. In connection with the extension of the American "Marshall Plan" (providing for financial and economic assistance to devastated Europe) to Germany, these decisions acquired an ever more unifying significance for the western zones.
(And at the same time, the implementation of the "Marshall Plan" contributed to the separation of the eastern zone, since the government of the USSR rejected it). The Council of Lands took shape in Bizony - a kind of second government chamber, as well as the Supreme Court; in fact, the functions of the central administration were performed by the Administrative Council, controlled by the Economic Council and the Council of the Lands.
Further differences between the Western allies and the USSR regarding the post-war structure of Germany, the difference between the first economic reforms in the East and West of Germany predetermined the course of the Western allies towards the state isolation of the western zones.
In February-March and April-June 1948, at the London conferences of 6 allied countries (USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg), a political decision was made to create a special West German state.
In 1948, the French zone of occupation was attached to Bizony (the so-called "Trizonia" was formed). In June 1948
in the West German lands, their own monetary reform was carried out. On July 1, 1948, the military governors of the Western powers proclaimed the conditions for the formation of the West German state (according to special instructions to the group for the preparation of the constitution, which began work in August 1948, the Western state was to become federal).
In May 1949, the process of discussing and approving the developed West German constitution was completed. At the next session of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the victorious states (May-June 1949), the split became, as it were, officially recognized.
Germany joined NATO. Relevant agreements were signed in Paris, ratified by the Bundestag on February 27, 1955, and entered into force at the beginning of May 1955. The Paris Agreements determined the sovereignty of Germany, on the basis of which the country received the right to create a half-million army (12 divisions), and in NATO headquarters Bundeswehr officers began to work.
In October 1949
In response to the creation of the Basic Law of the FRG (the Bonn Constitution), the GDR adopted a socialist Constitution. It had a certain resemblance to the Bonn Constitution.
However, the course towards the construction of socialism, taken by the leadership of the GDR from the beginning of the 50s. 20th century was accompanied by non-observance of many democratic principles. In 1952
the federal political and territorial structure became unitary: instead of five lands as subjects of the East German federation, 16 districts were formed. On August 19, 1961, the government of the GDR built a barrier along the entire border of West Berlin, and then a well-known wall.
In the GDR, a referendum was held on the adoption of a new constitution. Over 94% of the citizens of the GDR voted "for" the socialist norms and principles of the Constitution, in particular for the planned economy.
All this contributed to the further disunity of the German lands.
1949 German constitution
The development of the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany was carried out by a special government commission on behalf of the conference of prime ministers of the lands of the western zones in August 1948.
One of the most important tasks was the revival of state federalism in full measure, as well as the creation of legal guarantees against presidential usurpation of power in comparison with what was established in the Weimar constitution. These internal political and legal tasks predetermined much in the content of the basic law of the restored republic. To adopt the constitution, a special Parliamentary Council was formed - consisting of 65 councilors elected from 11 landtags on the basis of party representation (as well as another 5 delegates from Berlin).
As a result, all the main political parties of the then Germany were represented in the Parliamentary Council: the Christian Democratic Union, the Christian Social Union (Bavaria), the SPD, the Free Democratic Party, the KPD, etc. May 8, 1949 by a majority of votes (53:12) Council adopted the German constitution. Then it was approved by the landtags of the lands (except for Bavaria), the western military governors, and on May 23, 1949.
The German constitution came into force.
The German Basic Law of 1949 originally consisted of a preamble and 172 articles. Despite the “rigid” nature of the document (for the introduction of constitutional amendments, the consent of 2/3 of both houses of parliament is required), since 1951, changes have been made to it almost annually.
As a result, the Basic Law was enlarged: by now, 42 additional articles have been included in it (and only 5 have been excluded). Now it consists of 11 chapters and 146 articles. The basic law is preceded by a meaningful preamble.
The constitution proclaims the Federal Republic of Germany a democratic, legal and social state.
A significant place in it is given to the rights and freedoms of citizens (freedom of the individual, equality before the law, freedom of religion, freedom of opinion, press, assembly, etc.). Freedom and inviolability of property were guaranteed.
But at the same time, it was declared that “property obliges, and the use of it should serve the common good” with the consolidation of the advantages of public property. It proclaimed party pluralism; the primacy of norms of international law over intranational norms was established.
The main state bodies of Germany are: the Bundestag, the Bundesrat, the federal president, the federal government headed by the chancellor, the federal constitutional court.
The Bundestag is the lower house of parliament, elected for 4 years by universal, direct and secret suffrage, according to a mixed electoral system.
The existing 5% barrier makes it possible to weed out the most radical groups of both the right and the left. The Bundestag is the main legislative body.
The Bundesrat (upper house of parliament) is formed from representatives of the lands, its consent is necessary for the adoption of laws that change the constitution, the boundaries and territory of the lands, the structure of the land authorities, etc.
The federal president is elected for 5 years by the federal assembly.
It has limited powers: it represents the head of government for approval, appoints and dismisses federal judges and officials, and represents the country in the international arena.
The real leadership of the executive power is exercised by the federal government headed by the chancellor. The chancellor presides over the government; has the right to form this government; selects candidates for ministers and puts forward a proposal binding on the federal president regarding their appointment and dismissal.
Has the right of legislative initiative. The Federal Chancellor is, moreover, the only government official elected by the Bundestag on the proposal of the Federal President. The president always proposes for the post of chancellor the candidate who is the leader of the coalition party bloc - and this means that the head of the German government combines party and state-political power.
Thus, in the Federal Republic of Germany there was a "regime of chancellor democracy."
In the system of separation of powers, the executive branch comes to the fore.
Introduction
After the Second World War, Germany ceased to exist as an independent state, it was occupied. Part of its territory is taken away. It was a country where, as one contemporary wrote, "amid hunger and cold, hope died."
At that time, Germany faced the urgent task of restoring the economy, reviving industrial production, agriculture, trade, the financial and banking system, returning the life of the people to a peaceful way of life and a new development of the state administration system.
The purpose of the work: To identify the state of the German economy in the second half of the 20th century.
Based on the purpose of the work, we define the tasks:
- Consider the economic situation in Germany in the first post-war years.
- Consider Marshall's plan.
- Consider L. Erhard's reforms. "Economic miracle"
The economic situation in Germany in the first post-war years.
If after World War I the territory of Germany practically did not suffer from hostilities, then after World War II the country lay practically in ruins. Industrial production was at the level of a third of the pre-war level, the housing problem was acute, most of the housing stock was violated during the war, at the same time, more than 9 million Germans were deported to Germany from East Prussia and the lands along the Oder and Neisse.
The standard of living fell by 1/3. Money depreciated, the money supply did not have a commodity cover, barter trade was spreading. According to the then calculations of the occupying authorities, the average German's income allowed him to buy a pair of shoes every twelve years, and a suit once every fifty years.
Moreover, the occupation authorities began dismantling and exporting industrial equipment at the expense of reparations. Among the objectives declared by the Potsdam Conference for the occupation of Germany, which had primary economic consequences, were: the complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany, including the elimination or control of all its war industries, as well as the right of the peoples affected by German aggression to receive reparations, in particular, the dismantling of industrial enterprises and the division of the entire German fleet between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain.
The Soviet occupation command considered, first of all, the possibility of obtaining maximum compensation to the Soviet Union for the losses incurred during the war. The share of surviving industrial enterprises dismantled and exported to the USSR amounted to 45% in the Soviet zone (in the zones of other victorious states it did not reach 10%).
At the same time, the USSR supported political transformations aimed at orienting Germany towards the communist (socialist) path of development. The original plan of the US administration was to weaken Germany as much as possible economically while maintaining it as an agricultural country. Thus, by 1948, Germany was politically divided and economically bankrupt. Goods, the supply of which was already scarce, mostly ended up in warehouses and only a small part of them made it to the market.
Incredibly swollen (by a factor of 5) money supply - a consequence mainly of unbridled financing of military projects - did not give any opportunity to pursue a reasonable monetary and financial policy.
Although total rationing, freezing prices and wages somehow managed to maintain external order, all attempts to curb inflation (600% of the pre-war level) with frozen prices were doomed to failure and the economy fell into a primitive state of barter. The black market and barter exchange flourished. The deterioration of the economic situation was facilitated by the influx of refugees into the western zones of occupation from the eastern zone and countries of Eastern Europe.1
Marshall Plan.
As part of the emerging Western orientation towards the restoration of the German economy, a plan was developed, which George Catlett Marshall, then US Secretary of State, announced on June 5, 1947. The program for the restoration of Europe, later called the Marshall Plan, was adopted by the US Congress in 1948.
This plan provided for assistance to European countries affected by the war in the form of loans, equipment and technology. The plan was designed for 4 years, the total amount of appropriations allocated in the framework of economic assistance to European countries amounted to about 12.4 billion rubles from April 1948 to December 1951.
dollars, of which the main part fell on the UK (2.8 billion dollars), France (2.5 billion dollars), Spain (1.3 billion dollars), West Germany (1.3 billion dollars), Holland (1.0 billion . dollars).
It should be noted that the implementation of the Marshall Plan faced some opposition in the United States. Even a year after the Program began, Marshall criticized his staff for being too slow and not even getting started.
In order to get the Marshall Plan through Congress, the government had to do a tremendous amount of work. Many deputies, like the people, were against financial aid to Europe. Marshall's employees gave lectures, showed films about the destruction in Europe.
Arranged a kind of excursion overseas for congressmen from among the doubters. Curiously, one of these deputies was Richard Nixon. After a trip to Europe, he turned 180 degrees and became an ardent supporter of Marshall's idea.
Although the Marshall Plan was not the only driving force behind the post-war reconstruction, it nevertheless provided an important incentive to accomplish what at first seemed impossible.
Only a few years passed, and the production of agricultural and industrial products exceeded the pre-war level.
An important feature of the Marshall Plan was a fundamentally new scheme for calculating loans, which led to a multiple increase in the funds involved.
For example, a German factory ordered some parts from the USA. However, the American manufacturer of these parts received dollars for them not from the customer, but from the government's Marshall Plan fund. The customer, on the other hand, contributed the equivalent in German marks to a specially created European fund.
In turn, this fund financed long-term concessional loans to enterprises for new investments. Ultimately, as enterprises repaid their debts, the fund's funds allowed European states to pay off the United States as well.
The Marshall Plan had three main goals: first, it encouraged European countries to resume political and economic cooperation and strengthened their integration into the world economy. Second, he allowed them to purchase raw materials and equipment from countries with hard currencies.
Thirdly, this plan was also a program of state support for the economy of the United States itself, since it stimulated American exports. Germany officially became one of the countries participating in the Marshall Plan on December 15, 1949, that is, shortly after its founding, and its participation continued until the end of the plan.
George Marshall's contribution to the economic recovery of Europe after the Second World War was the basis for his Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.2
3. Reforms L. Erhard. "Economic miracle".
Ludwig Erhard (1897-1977) was the most important figure traditionally associated with the economic side of the success of the post-war reconstruction of Germany.
The main elements of the development model proposed by Erhard for the "social market economy" were:
- the target setting is a high level of well-being of all segments of the population;
- the way to achieve the goal is free market competition and private enterprise;
- the key condition for achieving the goal is the active participation of the state in ensuring the prerequisites and conditions for competition.
At the end of 1949, the first, most dangerous phase in the development of the economic situation ended, which was characterized by tension between the volume of goods and the volume of the money supply and manifested itself in an almost chaotic rise in prices.
In the first half of 1950, the volume of German production grew monthly by 3-5 percent, setting an absolute record - 114% compared to 1936, in foreign trade even a doubling of exports was achieved in six months, mechanical engineering, optics, and electricity production developed at an accelerated pace. In the same 1950, the card system was abolished in Germany. By the mid-1950s, after some slowdown in economic growth, a new upsurge began, caused by an influx of capital, a significant renewal of technical production, and government measures to revive heavy industry.
In 1953-56, the annual increase in industrial output was 10-15%. In terms of industrial production, Germany ranked third in the world after the United States and Great Britain, and surpassed Great Britain in some types of production. At the same time, small and medium-sized businesses formed the basis of the rapidly growing economy: in 1953, enterprises with fewer than 500 employees provided more than half of all jobs in the economy, and unemployment had a steady downward trend (from 10.3% in 1950 to 1.2% in 1960).
By the early 1960s, Germany was second only to the United States in terms of production and exports. The rapid development of the German economy in the fifties and sixties was called the "economic miracle".
Among the factors that contributed to the development of the economy, it should be noted the renewal of fixed capital, the intensification of labor, the high level of investment, including foreign ones.
Also of great importance was the direction of budgetary funds for the development of civilian industries by reducing military spending, as well as an increase in taxes on corporate profits.
A special mention deserves the agrarian reform, which betrayed the main part of the land to small average owners. Developing in an intensive way, German agriculture was characterized by the rapid introduction of the latest achievements of agricultural science into practice, which ensured an increase in agricultural productivity and productivity.
As production intensified, small-scale farming yielded to larger farming. The post-war reconstruction of Germany laid the foundation for the "economic miracle" - the rapid growth of the German economy in the fifties and sixties, secured the position of Germany in the European economy throughout the second half of the twentieth century, and became the economic basis for the unification of Germany at the end of the twentieth century.3
Conclusion
Thus, the history of the economic revival of Germany after the Second World War is one of the examples of the successful implementation of the ideas of economic liberalization with a balanced participation of the state in the economic life of the country and ensuring the social nature of economic transformations.
The necessary conditions for the success of the post-war reconstruction of Germany were external (Marshall Plan) and internal (political stability, political support for reforms, monetary reform, price and trade liberalization, including external, directed and limited state intervention in economic life) factors.
Determine to which country the characteristic of its development in the second half of the 19th century belongs.
1. Capitalist development begins after the revolution of 1868 (the introduction of a monetary unit, the abolition of internal customs, monetary compensation to feudal lords)
2. Gradual loss of leadership in the world economy while maintaining the role of the "world driver" active export of capital to the colonies.
Parcel private ownership of land, the outflow of capital from their industry to the credit and banking sector.
4. Slow solution of the agrarian issue in the 60-70s. gg. 19th century restrained economic development, a sharp rise in the 90s; significant role of foreign capital; high concentration of production
Increasing the pace of development after the unification in 1871, the predominant growth of heavy industry and the latest science-intensive industries; a significant role of the state in stimulating the development of heavy industry and the military-industrial complex.
A. Germany.
B. Japan.
V. England.
G. Russia.
D. France.
Answer:
A. Germany. - 5
B. Japan. - one
V. England. -2
G. Russia. - 3
France. - four
Bibliography
- History of the world economy. Textbook for universities / Ed. Polyaka G.B., Markova A.N. – M.: UNITI, 2004.- 727 p.
- Bor M.Z. / History of the world economy, 2nd ed., M., -2000. – 496 p.
- Russian history. Textbook manual for universities / Markova A.N., Skvortsova E.M.
- Erhard L. Welfare for all: Per. with him. - M .: Beginnings-press, 1991
- History of the economy.
Textbook for universities / Konotopov M.V., Smetanin S.I., - M., 2007 - p.352
General History in Questions and Answers Tkachenko Irina Valerievna
16. What were the results of World War II? What changes took place in Europe and the world after World War II?
The Second World War left a seal on the entire history of the world in the second half of the 20th century.
During the war, 60 million lives were lost in Europe, and many millions of people who died in the Pacific direction should be added to this.
During the war years, millions of people left their former places of residence. Huge material losses during the war. On the European continent, thousands of cities and villages were turned into ruins, factories, factories, bridges, roads were destroyed, a significant part of the vehicles were lost. Agriculture was particularly hard hit by the war. Huge areas of agricultural land were abandoned, and the number of livestock was reduced by more than half. Famine was added to the hardships of the war in the post-war period. Many experts believed then that Europe could not recover in the shortest possible time, it would take more than one decade.
After the war, the problems of post-war settlement came to the fore.
The victory of the anti-fascist coalition in World War II led to a new balance of power in the world. As a result of the defeat of fascism, the prestige of the Soviet Union increased, and the influence of democratic forces increased. The balance of forces within the capitalist system has changed. Defeated Germany, Italy and Japan dropped out of the ranks of the great powers for a while. Weakened the position of France. Even Great Britain - one of the three great powers of the anti-fascist coalition - has lost its former influence. But the power of the United States has increased enormously. Possessing a monopoly on atomic weapons and the largest army, far surpassing other countries in the field of economy, science, technology, the United States has become the hegemon of the capitalist world.
The main directions of the post-war peace settlement were outlined during the war by the leading powers of the anti-fascist coalition. At the conferences of the leaders of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain in Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam, as well as at the meeting of the leaders of the USA, Great Britain and China in Cairo, the main questions were agreed: on territorial changes, on the attitude towards the defeated fascist states and the punishment of war criminals, on the creation of a special international organization to maintain international peace and security. The allied powers decided to occupy fascist Germany and militaristic Japan in order to eradicate militarism and fascism.
The territorial seizures of Germany, Italy and Japan were cancelled. The USSR, the USA and England declared that it was necessary to restore the independence of Austria and Czechoslovakia, to return Northern Transylvania to Romania.
The Allies agreed to draw the border between Germany and Poland along the line of the Oder and Neisse rivers. The eastern border of Poland was to run along the Curzon Line. The city of Koenigsberg and the surrounding areas were transferred to the Soviet Union. Germany and its allies had to pay reparations to the countries that became victims of fascist aggression.
It was supposed to release from the power of Japan all the territories that it seized during the war years. Korea was promised independence. Northeast China (Manchuria), the island of Taiwan and other Chinese islands captured by Japan were supposed to be returned to China. South Sakhalin was returned to the Soviet Union and the Kuril Islands, which once belonged to Russia, were transferred.
The full implementation of the principles of a peaceful settlement agreed between the allies presupposed the continuation of cooperation between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain. However, after the end of the war, the contradictions between the main states of the anti-fascist coalition escalated.
Two superpowers appeared in the world - the USA and the USSR, two poles of power, to which all other countries began to orient themselves and which to a decisive extent determined the dynamics of world development. The United States has become the guarantor of Western civilization. Their main adversary was the Soviet Union, which now has allies. The discrepancy between the value systems that they represented predetermined their rivalry, and it was precisely this rivalry until the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. became the core of the development of the entire system of international relations.
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Victims
World War II changed the political map of the world.
As a result of the defeat, Germany survived as a nation-state, though suffering territorial losses. The USSR received the largest territorial increments: 500,000 km2 with a population of 20 million. Japan has lost everything that it has captured since the end of the 19th century: Taiwan (Formosa), returned to China, Sakhalin, which was ceded to the USSR, and Korea, which was divided into two parts - North and South.
The war was fought to a victorious end, which was expressed in the demand for unconditional surrender. In World War II, especially on the Eastern Front, not only armies fought, but also peoples. The justified wrath of the peoples who found themselves under the rule of the Nazis was opposed by the unjustified cruelty of the Nazis: the killing of people on a national basis acquired a mass character and became a disgusting principle of the Second World War.
The war was finally ended by the Nuremberg Trials (November 20, 1945 - October 1, 1946) over the main Nazi criminals and the Tokyo Tribunal (May 3, 1946 - November 12, 1948) over Japanese war criminals.
The Nuremberg and Tokyo trials were essential for the approval of the principles and norms of modern international law, which consider aggression as the gravest crime.
During the Nuremberg trials, the Soviet side vetoed the discussion of the following issues: 1. The attitude of the USSR to the Treaty of Versailles. 3. Soviet non-aggression pact with Germany. 4. Socio-political system in the USSR. 5. Baltic republics. 6. Straits. 7. Balkans. 8. Poland. material from the site
Questions of the post-war structure of the world were discussed at the Tehran, Moscow, Yalta and Potsdam conferences of the heads of government of the allied powers in 1943-1945.
At the conferences of the allies, a completely new geopolitical order was formed, which manifested itself in a decades-long “
