5.4.1. The Second World War as an outstanding milestone in the history of mankind.

The Second World War (1939-1945) is the largest war in the history of mankind. It was attended by 72 states, over 80% of the world's population, hostilities covered the territory of 40 states in Europe, Asia, Africa and Oceania. This war was also the most destructive of all wars. In the countries participating in the Second World War, about 1 million people were mobilized. Up to 62 million people died in the war, and, according to some estimates, taking into account all the updated data on the losses of the USSR, - ...
even 65-67 million, with about half of all the dead being civilians who fell victim to bombings, mass executions, deportations, etc., which testifies to the particular cruelty of the war. In its course, huge material values ​​\u200b\u200bare destroyed, many cultural monuments were destroyed.

Assessing the Second World War, Russian historian Professor A. A. Kreder emphasizes that it "was the result of the purposeful activities of a small group of states -

aggressors which the world community was unable to stop. What did these countries and their leaders bring to the peoples? Elimination of democracy, racial and national oppression, approval; the rights of the strong in international relations.

Whatever the world was like in the 1920s and 1930s, however far from perfection it was, their victory would open the way for the social, political and cultural degradation of humanity. And so all those who fought against them fought fair, regardless of what the motives of this struggle were for each of its participants. Of course, it must be borne in mind that among the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition there was also a totalitarian state - the USSR. For the Soviet people, the anti-fascist war of liberation did not become a path to democracy. Rather, on the contrary, paradoxically, this war contributed to the strengthening of Soviet totalitarianism in it. But this in no way diminishes the contribution of the USSR to the defeat of fascism.

Without dwelling in this manual on a detailed description of the course of the Second World War, we will consider the most important political and geographical events and the territorial changes associated with them in 1939-1945.

5.4.2. Treaties and agreements between the USSR and Germany

1939 and their implications for the political geography of Europe

The development of Soviet-German relations in the period immediately preceding the outbreak of the war and its first month deserves paramount attention, since it was precisely these relations that led to the actual division of Europe.

Recall that on August 23, 1939, a Soviet-German agreement was concluded in Moscow. non-aggression pact on which the parties pledged to refrain directly or indirectly from aggressive actions against each other, to hold mutual consultations, etc.

On September 28 of the same year, when Germany, having attacked Poland on September 1, had actually already defeated her, was signed Soviet-German Treaty "On Friendship and Border", which testified to the aspirations of both sides to develop closer relations.

Secret protocols were attached to these treaties, and the protocol attached to the treaty was of particular importance.

ru August 23. The fact is that he actually delimited the spheres of interests of the contracting states in Europe: Latvia, Estonia, Finland, the eastern part of Poland, inhabited mainly by Ukrainians and Belarusians, Bessarabia fell into the Soviet sphere. Germany F e actually received free

Du action west of the line of demarcation of spheres of influence. And under the September 28 treaty, Lithuania was also included in the sphere of interests of the Soviet Union (moreover, the Soviet government undertook to pay Germany 7.5 million dollars in gold for this concession). At the same time, in a joint Soviet-German communique, it was stated that the Polish question was "finally settled": the Polish state was once again divided in its territory and ceased to exist (Fig. 5.3). At the bottom right of the map, the date is clearly visible - September 28, 1939, when the Soviet-German treaty of friendship and border was signed: the western border of the USSR was established along the Bug and Narev rivers (source: Ekho planet. 1989. No. 35. P. 20 ).

On September 17, 1939, the Red Army crossed the Polish border under the pretext of providing "assistance to Ukrainian and Belarusian blood brothers", and thus the Soviet Union actually entered the Second World War as an ally of Germany. A part of Poland with an area of ​​about 200 thousand square meters passed to the USSR. km with a population of 13 million people. (including 7 million Ukrainians, 3 million Belarusians, 2 million Poles and 1 million Jews) 11 .

Most of Poland, whose population before the start of the war was 35 million people, went to Germany, while some areas were directly included in the Reich, while others formed a general government under the control of the German authorities, who established a brutal occupation regime here. The Vilnius region, which at one time was captured by Poland, was transferred to Lithuania. This is how the fourth partition of Poland took place.

This border basically coincided with the so-called. "Curzon Line", which was recommended in December 1919 by the Supreme Council of the Entente as the eastern border of Poland (named after the British Foreign Minister J. Curzon).

5.4.3. Territorial expansion of the USSR in 1940

After these events, the foreign policy activity of the Soviet Union continued to develop in line with the above-mentioned Soviet-German secret protocols on the division of spheres of influence.

This was confirmed by the demand of the USSR to Finland to transfer the Soviet-Finnish border, which took place in

5.4. The most important changes in the political map of the world after World War I

32 km from Leningrad, another 79 km deep into the territory of Finland, the liquidation of naval bases on the Hanko Peninsula and the Aland Islands under the pretext of ensuring the security of Leningrad (in exchange for territories in North Karelia).

Finland refused to do so, and on November 30, 1939, the Red Army crossed the Soviet-Finnish border. Thus began a difficult "winter" war for her, ending with a peace treaty on March 12, 1940, according to which Finland had to give the Soviet Union the entire Karelian Isthmus with Vyborg and some territories in Karelia, lease the Hanko Peninsula.

Soon (March 31 of the same year) a new union republic of the USSR was formed - Karelo-Finnish SSR, which lasted until August 1956. It united the Karelian ASSR, which was part of the RSFSR, and a significant part of the territories that went to the Soviet Union under a peace treaty with Finland.

Aggressive in nature, the war against this country significantly undermined the authority of the USSR in the eyes of the progressive public of the world, which led to the exclusion of the Soviet Union as an aggressor from the League of Nations (in December 1939).

However, this did not change the direction of Soviet foreign policy, the next goal of which was the three Baltic states, which, as was seen above, were included in the sphere of interests of the USSR (in accordance with the Soviet-German secret protocols).

As early as September-December 1939, treaties were concluded with these states, according to which Soviet military and naval bases were established on their territories and significant garrisons of the Red Army were stationed. On June 14 and 16, 1940, notes from the Soviet government were sent to Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, which contained demands for the urgent formation of new governments and the passage of additional Red Army contingents to these countries. Such demands were an undisguised violation of international law. Immediately after the presentation of the notes, units of the Red Army entered the territory of the Baltic countries, where, under the control of Soviet plenipotentiaries, the so-called. "people's governments", the restoration of Soviet power was proclaimed and decisions were made on their entry into the USSR.

In August 1940, the decisions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR were adopted on joining the USSR with the rights union republics of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. At the same time, several regions of Belarus were transferred to the Lithuanian SSR.

In June 1940, Romania gave in to the demands of the USSR and returned Bessarabia and also handed over to the Soviet Union northern Bukovina, which, by the way, was never part of the Russian Empire and was not mentioned in the secret protocol of August 23, 1939. Most of Bessarabia Moldavian SSR, a new union republic formed "on the basis" of the Moldavian ASSR (present-day Transnistria).

On the territory of Northern Bukovina, the Chernivtsi region of the Ukrainian SSR was organized. Three districts of Bessarabia also went to the latter. So, in early August 1940, the composition of the USSR increased to 16 union republics.

The military-strategic position of the Soviet Union in Europe has changed significantly. Its borders were pushed to the west by 150-250 km, the territory increased by almost 400 thousand km 2, and the population - by 23 million people, reaching 193 million in 1941. However, in the newly annexed regions, new political and economic structures , socialist ideology did not yet enjoy the support of a significant part of the population, and socialist reorganization in them was accompanied by violence. All this caused hidden forms of discontent among the population.

5.4.4. Aggression of Germany, Italy and Japan in Europe and other regions of the world

Having untied its hands in the east, Nazi Germany in the spring of 1940 went over to the offensive on the Western Front. Having completed the occupation of Denmark and Norway, she invaded Belgium, Holland and France. In May, the first two countries capitulated, and in June, France also stopped resisting: on June 22, 1940, the Franco-German truce was concluded, according to which the French army and navy were to be disarmed, and two-thirds of the country's territory, including Paris, was occupied by German troops. In the unoccupied zone and in the French colonial possessions, power was exercised by the government of Petain (residence - a small town of Vichy), which soon announced its cooperation with Germany.

Meanwhile, the allied relations of the aggressor states were strengthening: on September 27, 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, which in essence was an agreement on the division of the world. Members pledged to support

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each other by all means. After some time, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria joined the Tripartite Pact, on whose territory German troops were stationed.

Meanwhile, German aggression against European countries continued in the spring of 1941. On April 6, German troops suddenly attacked Greece and Yugoslavia and quickly broke the resistance of the armies of these countries. Thus, by the time of the attack on the Soviet Union, Germany had enormous economic and military-strategic advantages. Its territory, together with the areas under its control (the protectorate of the Czech Republic and Moravia, the Polish General Government, Alsace-Lorraine, torn away from France, and Luxembourg), amounted to almost 900 thousand square meters. km with a population of over 117 million people 12 . Germany could use the military-industrial potential of the countries occupied in 1940-early 1941 (France, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Yugoslavia, Greece), as well as the resources of its allies (Italy, Hungary, Romania, Finland). The number of the German Wehrmacht, which in 1939-1940. acquired experience in conducting large-scale military operations, has more than doubled.

As for Germany's main ally in Europe, Italy, then in the summer of 1940 she launched military operations against British possessions in East and North Africa, relying on her colony - Italian Somalia. Ultimately, in the spring of 1941, the British, with the support of Ethiopian partisans, managed to drive the Italians out of British Somalia and Ethiopia and occupy all of East Africa. In North Africa, they repulsed the Italian offensive and captured part of Libya.

The third member of the Tripartite Pact - Japan launched an offensive in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. On July 2, 1941, a meeting of the top leaders of this country with the participation of the emperor decided to consider the "advance to the south" as the primary task of Japanese expansion. It was decided to postpone the war against the Soviet Union and start it only after Germany captured Moscow and defeated the Armed Forces of the USSR.

Japan's first target was the US Pacific Fleet, whose main forces were based in the Hawaiian Islands, in Pearl Harbor Bay, where on December 7, 1941, a crushing blow was dealt to the American fleet. At the same time, Japanese troops launched offensives in Southeast Asia and Oceania.

5.4. The most important changes in the political map of the world after World War II

Ultimately, by the summer of 1942, under the rule of Japan (in addition to the territories of China and Korea occupied before the start of the Second World War), such large Asian countries as the Philippines, Thailand, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, where a total of about 150 million people lived. human. In the west, Japanese troops reached the borders of India, in the south they landed in New Guinea and reached the approaches to Australia.

5.4.5. Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union. Formation of the anti-Hitler coalition

Since the summer of 1940, the inevitable deterioration of relations between Germany and the Soviet Union began, and from allies in the division of Europe they turned into rivals. The USSR's distrust of German policy sharply intensified after the signing of the Tripartite Pact by Germany, Italy and Japan.

The desire to redistribute the world (and in particular - to seize land in the east of Europe), chauvinism, racism were originally laid down in the ideology of National Socialism. Here is what Hitler wrote back in 1924 in Mein Kampf: “We are stopping the centuries-old movement of the Germans to the south and west of Europe and turning our gaze to the lands in the east ... But if we are talking today about new lands and territories in Europe, we can think first of all, about Russia and the border states subordinate to it. The vast state in the East is ripe for destruction ... Only the sword will give land to the German plow "13.

Characteristically, three months after the conclusion of the non-aggression pact with the USSR, Hitler explained his position at a meeting of the leaders of the Wehrmacht: "... we have an agreement with Russia. However, the agreements are observed as long as they are expedient", and on July 31, 1940 he declared: "... Russia must be liquidated. The term is the spring of 1941 ... The goal is the destruction of the vital force of Russia" s.

Carrying out a plan of attack on the USSR ("Plan Barbarossa"), on June 22, 1941, German troops invaded the territory of the USSR without declaring war. This is how it started Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union. Together with Germany, Romania, Hungary, Finland, Italy, Slovakia and Croatia participated in the war against the USSR.

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From that moment until the end of World War II, the main forces of the fascist bloc fought on the Soviet-German front, which became the main front of the war, which achieved great success in the first stage of the war against the USSR: by the winter of 1941, German troops captured the Baltic states, Moldova , Ukraine, Belarus, a significant part of the RSFSR, surrounded and blockaded Leningrad and reached the outskirts of Moscow.

The attack of Germany and its allies on the USSR, and then the aggression of Japan against the USA and Great Britain contributed to the unification of all the forces that fought against the aggressors into a single anti-fascist coalition.

The most important program document of this association was the Atlantic Charter, signed by W. Churchill and F. Roosevelt in August 1941, which, in particular, stated that the United States and Great Britain "do not seek territorial or other acquisitions and respect the right of all peoples to elect the form of government they want to live under." The charter noted that after the establishment of peace, it is necessary to disarm the aggressors and create a reliable system of general security 15 . The USSR joined the Atlantic Charter. On June 12, 1941, an Anglo-Soviet agreement was signed on joint actions in the war against Germany. In May and June 1942, an Anglo-Soviet treaty "On an alliance in the war against Nazi Germany and its accomplices in Europe and on cooperation and mutual assistance after the war" (for a period of 20 years) and a Soviet-American agreement on mutual assistance were concluded. Thus, a military-political alliance of three great powers was formed: the USSR, Great Britain and the USA, the basis of which was the joint struggle against the aggressors.

Chronologically, there are three major periods in the history of the Second World War. First period(from September 1, 1939 to June 1942) is characterized by the expanding scale of the war while maintaining the superiority of the aggressor forces. Second period(June 1942 - January 1944) - this is the time of a turning point in the course of the war, when the initiative and superiority in forces pass into the hands of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition. Third period(January 1944 - September 2, 1945) - the final stage of the war, during which the superiority of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition was realized in the defeat of the enemy armies, when

There was a crisis of the ruling regimes of the aggressor states and their collapse came.

A special and extremely important place in the history of World War II is occupied by the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany (1941-1945). After the USSR entered the war, its character as a just and anti-fascist war was finally determined.

5.4.6. A radical change during the Second World War; its ending

Since the end of 1942, the forces of the anti-fascist coalition launched a counteroffensive, there was a turning point in the course of the war, which ended with the complete defeat of the aggressors.

The most important events of the second and third periods of the war were:

- the defeat of the German troops near Stalingrad; this victory
US President F. Roosevelt called the Soviet troops "a turning point
point in the war of the United Nations against the forces of aggression";

- the defeat inflicted by the Soviet troops of the army of Germ
research institutes in the famous Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943;

- the offensive of the armed forces of Great Britain and the United States in
North Africa (November 1942), possession of this region,
which gave the Allies control of the Mediterranean and
opened the way for the invasion of Italy, which took place in the summer
1943; On September 8 of the same year, Italy signed an armistice.
and withdrew from the war;

- the rise of the anti-fascist and national liberation movement
zheniya in many countries of Europe, Southeast and East Asia;

- opening in the summer of 1944 by the Allied troops of the second front
the one against Germany in Western Europe;

- liberation from fascism of the territory of the Soviet Union
and countries of Eastern and Southeastern Europe during 1944 -
the first months of 1945 thanks to successful offensive
operations of the Soviet Army;

- the final Berlin operation and the surrender of Germ
on May 8, 1945, which meant the end of the war in Europe.

During the Second World War, constant cooperation and coordination of military operations by the countries of the anti-fascist coalition was of great importance. In this regard, an important role

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played Crimean Conference- a meeting in Yalta in February 1945 of I. V. Stalin, F. Roosevelt and W. Churchill, at which the heads of the three great powers made decisions on the destruction of the German armed forces, the punishment of war criminals, the destruction of the Nazi Party, Nazi organizations, institutions and etc. To achieve these goals, the allies agreed to occupy Germany, while each of the three powers, as well as France, was provided with its own zone of occupation (Berlin was supposed to be divided into four sectors, respectively).

The issue of the eastern border of Poland was resolved, which would have to pass mainly along the "Curzon Line"; in addition, Poland will have to receive a significant increase in territory in the west and north.

A special place at the Crimean Conference was occupied by the secret agreement concluded by the heads of the three powers, according to which the Soviet Union promised to go to war with Japan 2-3 months after the end of the war in Europe - provided that the former position of the Mongolian People's Republic was preserved, South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands were transferred to the Soviet Union. islands, as well as the creation of a Soviet naval base in Port Arthur (Northeast China).

The conference discussed the creation of a universal international organization for the maintenance of peace and security, which later received the name of the United Nations (UN). The heads of the three great powers approved the draft UN Charter, which contained the most important provision: when resolving all major issues, the rule of unanimity of the great powers applies, that is, each of them has the right of veto.

April 25, 1945 in San Francisco (USA) opened founding conference of the United Nations, in which 42 states took part, which by that time had declared war on Germany. New York became the seat of the UN leadership.

The questions of the post-war peace settlement in Europe were finally decided on Berlin (Potsdam) Conference heads of the three powers, which took place on July 17 - August 2, 1945 in the suburbs of Berlin, Potsdam. Central to this conference was the "German question": its participants decided to disarm and demilitarize Germany, destroy the Nazi Party and ban fascist propaganda, collect reparations from Germany in favor of the countries that suffered from German aggression,

bring the main criminals to trial by the International Military Tribunal. It was decided to carry out the democratization of life in Germany, as well as decartelization (demonopolization), i.e., to destroy the excessive concentration of economic power represented in the form of syndicates, trusts, cartels and other German monopoly associations that played an active role in the preparation and conduct of the war.

The conference discussed the question of the boundaries and changes in the territory of Germany, the establishment of the Polish-German border along the line of the Oder-Neisse rivers, the transfer to the Soviet Union of part of East Prussia - the city of Konigsberg, with adjacent areas.

The final stage of the Second World War is characterized by major offensive operations on land and at sea by the armed forces of the United States, Great Britain and the USSR in the Pacific Ocean, in Southeast and East Asia, the purpose of which was to break the resistance of Japan, which at the time of Germany's surrender still retained control over Korea. , part of China, Malaya, Thailand, Indochina and almost all of Indonesia.

In August 1945, the Japanese occupation regime in these countries collapsed, and all the countries occupied by Japan were liberated. The colonial empire created by Japan collapsed.

On September 2, 1945, the Japanese Surrender Act was signed, marking the end of World War II.

5.4.7. Results and consequences of the Second World War, post-war settlement

The results and consequences of the Second World War are very diverse and ambiguous.

Obviously, the main outcome is a sharp change in the balance of power in the international arena. Germany, Italy and Japan, the defeated aggressor countries, dropped out of the ranks of the great powers. France and even Great Britain were significantly weakened. At the same time, the United States emerged from the war significantly strengthened, turning into a gigantic, leading economic "superpower" in the capitalist world.

Despite the heaviest (primarily human) losses suffered during the war, the Soviet Union became the second "super-

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Power", which was greatly facilitated by his victory in the war, the presence of a powerful army, the formation of a bloc of people's democratic states under the leadership of the USSR.

Soviet offensive in 1944-45. contributed to the defeat in such countries as Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and others. of the old state apparatus and the coming to power of the communist parties, which previously did not represent a major political force. Even during this period, democratic transformations of a revolutionary type began in the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, which were called people's democratic revolutions, and these countries began to be called countries of people's democracy.

The war contributed not only to the transformation of the Soviet Union into a "superpower", but also to the conservation of the totalitarian political and economic system that existed in the country. Stalin's personality cult reached its apogee.

started at the same time confrontation between two "superpowers" and the formation of a "bipolar world", which left a strong imprint on the entire post-war history. It is quite "natural" that both the USSR (with the "Eastern bloc") and the West had their own, far from coinciding interests and goals in relation to the division of the post-war geopolitical space.

The first stage of mutual confrontation began already in the summer of 1945 at a meeting of the heads of state and government of the USA, Great Britain and the USSR in Potsdam, where, in particular, the issue of "control" over the restored (within new borders) Polish state turned out to be controversial.

At the same time, the Soviet Union presented a demand to Turkey for the joint defense of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, accompanied by territorial claims of the Georgian and Armenian USSR. In northern Iran, under the auspices of the Soviet troops, Azerbaijani and Kurdish "democratic" autonomies, virtually independent of the central government of the country, were created.

All this made the leader of the British Conservatives, W. Churchill, state on March 5, 1946 in Fulton (USA) that an "Iron Curtain" had descended on the European continent. “Beyond this line,” Churchill noted, “everything is subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence, but also to a largely increasing control from Moscow ...

Czech governments prevail in almost all these countries, and at present, with the exception of Czechoslovakia, there is no real democracy in them.

Meanwhile, there was a complete suppression of the opposition in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary and Poland, pressure was exerted on Czechoslovakia in order to force it to abandon its original intention to approve the Marshall Plan, which, naturally, caused sharp discontent in the West.

This is how it started "cold war" which means the state of military-political confrontation of states and groups of states, meaning ideological and propaganda subversion, an arms race, during which economic pressure measures are applied (embargo, economic blockade, etc.), military-political blocs and alliances are organized , military-strategic bridgeheads and bases are being created. This confrontation was also manifested in local wars that took place in various regions of the world.

happened split the world into two systems, and the main "driving force" of this process was the polarity of the political course of the two great powers, which shared their ideological confrontation, which gave rise to an atmosphere of hostility on the world stage and in international relations.

This was clearly manifested in the arms race, which became the most important area of ​​confrontation and potential conflict between the US, the USSR and their allies.

Another important area of ​​"competition" of the great powers was creation of military-political blocs. The first of these was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) - a military-political alliance created at the initiative of the United States on the basis of the North Atlantic Treaty, signed on April 4, 1949 in Washington by the United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Portugal , Norway, Denmark, Iceland. Subsequently, they were joined by Greece and Turkey (1952), Germany (1955), Spain (1982).

Characteristically, initially NATO proclaimed the security of the Western powers from the possibility of the revival of militaristic Germany.

Under the leadership of the Soviet Union, a military-political union of socialist countries was created: on May 14, 1955 in Warsaw, Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, the USSR,

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Czechoslovakia and Albania signed the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance. The Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) opposing NATO emerged. (Albania withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in 1968.)

So the confrontation between the two great powers became the confrontation between the two military-political blocs.

The completion of the split of the world and Europe into two camps is associated with the formation of communist regimes in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe by the beginning of 1948, with the victory of the Chinese Revolution and the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. A "world socialist camp" was formed.

Now let's turn our attention to major territorial changes in Europe, which took place in accordance with the decisions of the Crimean, Berlin conventions and treaties concluded after the Second World War.

First of all, we note a significant (by 1/4) reduction in the territory of Germany (compared to 1938). East Prussia was liquidated as part of Germany: its northern part, with Koenigsberg, became part of the USSR (as the Kaliningrad region of the RSFSR), and a large, southern part became part of Poland, to which Pomorie, the Poznan region, Sile- zia (lands along the Oder), and the border between Poland and Germany passed along the line of the Oder (Odra) and Neisse rivers. In addition, the Soviet Union handed over to Poland the area of ​​Bialystok and a small area north of Transcarpathian Ukraine. Thus, both the size and the configuration of the state territory of Poland have undergone very large changes: in comparison with the pre-war situation, the Polish state, as it were, "moved" to the west, while receiving a more compact territory and a wide outlet to the Baltic Sea (see Fig. 5.4. ).

Important results of the Second World War were summed up in Paris Peace Conference July 29 - October 15, 1946, which considered the draft peace treaties of the states of the anti-Hitler coalition that won the Second World War with the former allies of Nazi Germany in Europe - Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and Finland. On February 10, 1947, peace treaties were signed with these countries. In accordance with them, Bulgaria and Hungary remained within the borders approved in 1919. Italy lost all its colonies. Romania transferred the USSR to Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.

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5.4. The most important changes in the political map of the world after World War II

The western borders of the USSR changed significantly: in addition to part of East Prussia, it included Transcarpathian Ukraine (part of the Ukrainian SSR) - under an agreement with Czechoslovakia dated June 29, 1945, the Pechenga (Petsamo) region, in the extreme north-west of the RSFSR, - under a peaceful agreement with Finland dated February 10, 1947 (as a result, Finland lost direct access to the Barents Sea).

Under the Treaty of Paris (February 10, 1947), some territories were ceded from Italy to Yugoslavia and Greece.

In accordance with the decisions of the Crimean and Berlin (Potsdam) conferences, the territory of Germany was divided into occupation zones: the eastern zone was controlled by the military administration of the Soviet Union, and the three western zones were controlled by the occupation authorities of the USA, Great Britain and France. Berlin, the capital of Germany, was also divided into four zones. It was assumed that the occupation authorities would create conditions for the implementation of the decisions of the above-mentioned conferences, for the peaceful and democratic development of Germany as a whole.

However, every year the split between the eastern and the three western occupation zones grew, and it was here that the border of the two opposing systems lay. Western countries began to seek the economic stabilization of Germany and the creation of a strong state based on the three Western zones of occupation. An important step in this direction was the implementation on June 20, 1948, of the monetary reform in these zones.

Ultimately, the victorious powers in the Second World War could not agree on a common course of action in relation to Germany, and in 1949 it split into two states: on September 20, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was formed within the boundaries of the occupation zones of the Western powers , and on October 7, within the boundaries of the Soviet zone of occupation, the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The Soviet sector of Berlin (East Berlin) became the capital of the GDR; the capital of Germany is a small city on the Rhine, Bonn.

Thus, a peace treaty with a united Germany was not concluded, and the border between the two German states turned into the main line of confrontation between the two world systems.

Not immediately after the war was the question of a peace treaty with Austria resolved. After the liberation of this country in 1945, its territory was also divided into four occupation zones -

Soviet, American, English and French. Only in May 1955 did the representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain, France and Austria sign in Vienna the State Treaty on the restoration of an independent and democratic Austria. In October of the same year, the Austrian parliament passed a constitutional law on the permanent neutrality of the country. Austria's obligations under the State Treaty and the status of permanent neutrality it accepted were taken as the basis of the foreign policy of this country.

An important part of the creation of a new post-war structure of international relations was the peaceful settlement in the Far East and, above all, the solution of the issue of the post-war structure of Japan, which, after the surrender on September 2, 1945, was occupied by American troops. The contradictions between the USSR and the USA on the "Japanese" question turned out to be very sharp. This was also manifested at the September 1951 conference in San Francisco to conclude a peace treaty with Japan. The organizers of the conference refused to take into account the amendments and additions made by the delegation of the Soviet Union and a number of other participants. As a result, 49 conference participants signed a peace treaty with Japan, while the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia refused to join it.

The question of a peace treaty between the USSR and Japan remained unresolved. Relations between the two countries were restored in October 1956 by the signing of the Joint Declaration of the USSR and Japan, which, in particular, provided for the transfer of the Habomai and Shikotan Islands by the Soviet Union to Japan after the conclusion of a peace treaty.

Running a little ahead, we note that before the collapse of the USSR, the Russian leadership officially announced its intention to solve the problem of a peace treaty with Japan, including the issue of territorial delimitation, on the basis of legality and justice, abandoning the approach to Japan as a state defeated in World War II, and this the position was met with approval in Japan.

After the Second World War there was increment of the territory of the USSR on its eastern borders - due to the fact that in September 1945, after the surrender of Japan, the Soviet Union received South Sakhalin, lost after the Russo-Japanese War

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1904-1905, as well as the Kuril Islands (which was provided for by the agreement of the three countries at the Crimean Conference). In addition, even during the war, on October 11, 1944, the Tuva People's Republic was admitted to the USSR as an autonomous region of the RSFSR (an autonomous republic since 1961).

Today marks exactly three years since the Crimean referendum on joining Russia. As we know, its results (96.77% voted for secession from Ukraine) were put into action. In Europe, the borders have once again changed, and this fact, frankly, frightened many. Some called it "an unprecedented event in post-war Europe" and recalled the principle of the territorial integrity of states.

In fact, there is nothing unusual or "unprecedented" about the secession of Crimea. Borders are constantly changing and changing. Even after World War II. Even in Europe. Let's remember how the map of the Old World was redrawn after 1945.

Let's start with the fact that immediately after the war, the winners (USA, USSR, and Great Britain) signed two important agreements - Yalta (dated February 13, 1945) and Potsdam (dated August 2, 1945). In these documents, the boundaries of the new, post-war Europe were laid.

Three decades later, in the 1970s, the principle of the inviolability of post-war borders was enshrined in the adoption of another multilateral document - the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in the system of principles of relations between the states participating in the Conference, in which the following was enshrined: "States Parties regard as inviolable all the frontiers of one another, as well as the frontiers of all states in Europe, and therefore they will refrain now and in the future from any encroachment on these frontiers They will accordingly refrain also from any demand or action aimed at seizing and usurping a part or throughout the territory of any State Party".

True, the provisions of the above agreements remained only on paper. In reality, politicians never paid any attention to them.

Already in 1957, they began to slowly change the borders: then the Saarland became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. After the Second World War, this small territory was given the status of a separate buffer state like Luxembourg, but it was ruled by France. The United States and Great Britain sought to give the Saar region completely under the authority of Paris, but the then President Charles de Gaulle was in no hurry to accept its composition as his republic. In the course of a heated public discussion and scandals, it was decided to give up this territory. But not France, but Germany.

In 1964 Malta withdrew from the UK. A new state appeared on the map of Europe.

In 1990, the GDR (East, socialist Germany) joined the FRG (Western, capitalist).

In 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist, disintegrating into 15 independent states. This was the largest redrawing of the map not only of Europe, but of the whole world in recent decades. Independent Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan appeared in the Old World. In Central Asia, a number of new states also emerged between Russia and Afghanistan - Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan.

In 1992, four new states appeared on the map of Europe: Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Macedonia. They seceded from Yugoslavia, in which only Serbia and Montenegro remained.

On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. Since then, two new states have appeared in Europe - the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

In 1994, South Ossetia and Abkhazia were separated from Georgia.

In 1999, NATO troops made every effort to ensure that the remnants of Yugoslavia were destroyed. With the help of their bombing, the regime of Slobodan Milosevic, who became one of the central figures of ethnic conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s, was removed. Historians and politicians are still arguing about its role. Someone criticizes and blames for all troubles, others consider him a hero of the Serbian people, a defender and a peacemaker.

Be that as it may, in 2000 he resigned, and a year later he was detained and secretly handed over to the International War Crimes Tribunal in the former Yugoslavia, which caused outrage among a significant part of the Serbian public and President Kostunica.

The above political crisis led to the fact that the remnants of Yugoslavia in 2002 began to be called the Republic of Serbia and Montenegro, and in 2006 they finally broke up into two new states - Serbia and Montenegro.

Just two years later, little Serbia was further divided, giving the Republic of Kosovo a chance for self-determination. Moreover, the Serbian leadership was categorically against this, but the Western states reminded Belgrade of the "right to self-determination", while Russia did not recognize the emergence of a new state.

Now Kosovo is a partially recognized state, de facto independent. But according to the Serbian Constitution, it is still obliged to obey Belgrade.

In 2014, Crimea withdrew from Ukraine and, following a referendum, became part of Russia.

As you can see, the illusion that border changes are a thing of the distant past is a myth. Even in our time, when international relations are regulated by many declarations and treaties, and politicians are increasingly talking about global projects and human brotherhood, the emergence of new states on the map of civilized Europe is a common thing. It's only the beginning...

Kirill Ozimko

10. German Democratic Republic (GDR), 1949-1990

Established after World War II in a sector controlled by the Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic was best known for its Wall and its tendency to shoot people who tried to get over it.

The wall was torn down with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. After its demolition, Germany united and again became a whole state. However, in the beginning, due to the fact that the German Democratic Republic was rather poor, unification with the rest of Germany almost ruined the country. At the moment, everything is fine in Germany.

9. Czechoslovakia, 1918-1992

Founded on the ruins of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire, during its existence Czechoslovakia was one of the most vibrant democracies in pre-World War II Europe. Betrayed by Britain and France in 1938 in Munich, she was completely occupied by Germany and disappeared from the world map by March 1939. Later, she was occupied by the Soviets, who made her one of the vassals of the USSR. It was part of the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union until its collapse in 1991. After the collapse, it again became a prosperous democratic state.

This story should have ended there, and, probably, the state would have been intact to this day if the ethnic Slovaks living in the eastern half of the country had not demanded secession into an independent state, dividing Czechoslovakia in two in 1992.

Today, Czechoslovakia no longer exists, in its place there is the Czech Republic in the west and Slovakia in the east. Although, given the fact that the Czech economy is booming, Slovakia, which is not doing so well, probably regrets secession.

8. Yugoslavia, 1918-1992

Just like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia was a product of the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire as a result of World War II. Consisting mainly of parts of Hungary and the original territory of Serbia, Yugoslavia, unfortunately, did not follow the more intelligent example of Czechoslovakia. Instead, it was something of an autocratic monarchy before the Nazis invaded the country in 1941. After that, it was under German occupation. After the defeat of the Nazis in 1945, Yugoslavia did not become part of the USSR, but became a communist country under the leadership of the socialist dictator, Marshal Josip Tito, leader of the partisan army during World War II. Yugoslavia remained a non-aligned authoritarian socialist republic until 1992, when internal conflicts and intransigent nationalism erupted into civil war. After it, the country broke up into six small states (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Macedonia and Montenegro), becoming a clear example of what can happen if cultural, ethnic and religious assimilation goes wrong.

7. Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1867-1918

While all the countries that found themselves on the losing side after the First World War found themselves in an unsightly economic and geographical position, none of them lost more than the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was gnawed like a roast turkey in a homeless shelter. From the collapse of the once huge empire, such modern countries as Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia emerged, and part of the lands of the empire went to Italy, Poland and Romania.

So why did it fall apart while its neighbor, Germany, remained intact? Yes, because it did not have a common language and self-determination, instead, various ethnic and religious groups lived in it, which, to put it mildly, did not get along with each other. In general, the Austro-Hungarian Empire endured what Yugoslavia endured, only on a much larger scale, when it was torn apart by ethnic hatred. The only difference was that the Austro-Hungarian Empire was torn apart by the victors, while the disintegration of Yugoslavia was internal and spontaneous.

6. Tibet, 1913-1951

Although the territory known as Tibet existed for over a thousand years, it did not become an independent state until 1913. However, under the peaceful tutelage of a number of Dalai Lamas, it eventually clashed with Communist China in 1951 and was occupied by Mao's forces, thus ending its brief existence as a sovereign state. In the 1950s, China occupied Tibet, which grew more and more unrest, until Tibet finally rebelled in 1959. This led China to annex the region and dissolve the Tibetan government. Thus, Tibet ceased to exist as a country and instead became a "region", instead of a country. Today, Tibet is a huge tourist attraction for the Chinese government, even though there is a feud between Beijing and Tibet, due to the fact that Tibet again demands to return its independence.

5. South Vietnam, 1955-1975

South Vietnam was created by forcibly expelling the French from Indochina in 1954. Someone decided that dividing Vietnam into two parts around the 17th parallel would be a good idea, leaving Communist Vietnam in the north and pseudo-democratic Vietnam in the south. As in the case of Korea, nothing good came of it. The situation led to a war between South and North Vietnam, which eventually involved the United States. This war became for the United States of America one of the most devastating and costly wars in which America has ever taken part. In the end, torn apart by internal divisions, America withdrew its troops from Vietnam and left it to itself in 1973. For two years, Vietnam, divided in two, fought until North Vietnam, backed by the Soviet Union, seized control of the country, eliminating South Vietnam forever. The capital of the former South Vietnam, Saigon, was renamed Ho Chi Minh City. Since then, Vietnam has been a socialist utopia.

4. United Arab Republic, 1958-1971

This is another failed attempt to unite the Arab world. The Egyptian president, an ardent socialist, Gamel Abdel Nasser, believed that unification with Egypt's distant neighbor, Syria, would lead to the fact that their common enemy, Israel, would be surrounded on all sides, and that the united country would become super- strength of the region. Thus, the short-lived United Arab Republic was created, an experiment that was doomed to fail from the start. Separated by several hundred kilometers, creating a centralized government seemed an impossible task, plus Syria and Egypt could never agree on what the national priorities were.

The problem would be solved if Syria and Egypt united and destroyed Israel. But their plans were thwarted by the inopportune Six Day War of 1967, which ruined their joint border plans and turned the United Arab Republic into a defeat of biblical proportions. After that, the days of the union were numbered, and, in the end, the UAR fell apart with the death of Nasser in 1970. Without a charismatic Egyptian president to maintain a fragile alliance, the UAR quickly disintegrated, re-establishing Egypt and Syria as separate states.

3. Ottoman Empire, 1299-1922

One of the greatest empires in the history of mankind, the Ottoman Empire collapsed in November 1922, after a fairly long existence of over 600 years. It once stretched from Morocco to the Persian Gulf and from Sudan to Hungary. Its disintegration was the result of a long process of disintegration over many centuries, by the beginning of the 20th century only a shadow of its former glory remained from it.

But even then it remained an influential force in the Middle East and North Africa, and most likely would have remained so today if it had not participated in the First World War on the losing side. After the First World War, it was disbanded, its largest part (Egypt, Sudan and Palestine) went to England. In 1922, it became useless and eventually collapsed completely when the Turks won their war of independence in 1922 and terrified the Sultanate, creating modern Turkey along the way. However, the Ottoman Empire deserves respect for its continued existence no matter what.

2. Sikkim, 8th century AD-1975

Have you never heard of this country? Where have you been all this time? Well, seriously, how could you not know about small, landlocked Sikkim, nestled safely in the Himalayas between India and Tibet...that is, China. The size of a hot dog stand, it was one of those unknown, forgotten monarchies that managed to hold out until the 20th century, when its citizens realized that they had no particular reason to remain an independent state, and decided to unite with modern India in 1975.

What was remarkable about this small state? Yes, despite its incredibly small size, it had eleven official languages, which probably created havoc when signing road signs - this is assuming that there were roads in Sikkim.

1. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union), 1922-1991

It is difficult to imagine the history of the world without the participation of the Soviet Union in it. One of the most powerful countries on the planet, which collapsed in 1991, for seven decades it has been a symbol of friendship between peoples. It was formed after the collapse of the Russian Empire after the First World War and flourished for many decades. The Soviet Union defeated the Nazis when the efforts of all other countries were insufficient to stop Hitler. The Soviet Union almost went to war with the United States in 1962, an event called the Caribbean Crisis.

After the Soviet Union collapsed after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, it split into fifteen sovereign states, thus creating the largest bloc of countries since the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. Now the main successor to the Soviet Union is democratic Russia.

|Stages of formation. The beginning of the formation of the modern political map of Europe was laid back in the late Middle Ages, when nation-states began to grow from fragmented feudal estates, which gave rise to many modern countries. Since then, the main states of Western Europe have come a long way of "gathering the lands", accompanied by dynastic marriages, wars and redrawing of borders.

Often, the desire to unite the surrounding territories grew into the claims of other countries for leadership in the entire region, then empires arose. So, from part of the possessions of the Habsburg dynasty, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was formed, which by the end of the 19th century. became the largest state of foreign Europe in terms of area and collapsed only in 1918. Napoleon's imperial aspirations at the beginning of the 19th century. for a short time they made almost all of Europe part of the French Empire. In the 30-40s. 20th century most European countries were occupied by Nazi Germany, which claimed to create a new world empire - the Third Reich. The modern political map of the region consists of dozens of independent states that preserve their own languages ​​and original culture. On the territory of Western Europe, where almost all countries are economically developed, there are several large centers of conflicts on ethnic and religious grounds. Vivid examples are the territory in the north of Spain, inhabited by the Basques, Northern Ireland and a number of others.

The Balkans and part of the Mediterranean for a long time were under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, which finally collapsed only after the First World War. The formation of the political map on these frontiers was accompanied by a special drama.

In the XX century. The territory of the region was divided by another important frontier - the border of the USSR. The confrontation between the USSR and the West also led to several redistributions of the political map, preparing a particularly troubled fate for the so-called buffer countries. Poland fully experienced the inconvenience of the geographical position between the two aggressive giants - Germany and the USSR, which restored the right to its historical territory only after the Second World War.

The modern political map of Europe was formed mainly in the 20th century. as a result of territorial changes after the First and Second World Wars.

In the 21st century The political situation in Europe has changed significantly. The main attention in the activities of European interstate organizations began to be given to the problems of ensuring peace, economic and political stability, preventing crises and jointly solving political problems, and creating a multilateral system of European security.

At the beginning of the XXI century. within the physical and geographical boundaries of Europe there were about 40 states, including the European parts of Russia and Turkey.

Forms of government and government. Most of the European states - Unitary state "> unitary republics. Federation"> Federative republics - Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia, Germany. According to the constitution, Confederation "> confederation, and, in fact, a federation, is Switzerland. The Kingdom of Belgium has a federal structure.

Constitutional Monarchy">monarchies: Andorra (Principality), Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, Spain, Liechtenstein (Principality), Luxembourg (Grand Duchy), Monaco (Principality), Netherlands, Norway, Sweden.

Theocratic monarchy - Vatican.

British colony - Gibraltar.

Independent states - members of the Commonwealth: Great Britain, Malta.

The main events of the XX - XXI centuries.

In 1912-1913. The First and Second Balkan Wars took place. In the first, Turkey opposed the union of the Balkan states - Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, in the second - Bulgaria against Greece, Serbia and Montenegro. The independence of Albania, which had previously been under Turkish rule, was proclaimed. As a result, Turkey lost its possessions in the Balkans, the territory of Serbia increased by 45%, Montenegro - by 36%, Romania - by 5%, Bulgaria - by 15%, Greece - by 44%.

Changes on the political map after the First World War and the revolution in the Russian Empire

In the First World War, the Entente countries (England, France and Russia) opposed the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), but in 1915 Italy withdrew from the Union and joined the Entente. The war was for changing state borders and redistributing colonies. 38 states participated in the war, including 34 on the side of the Entente.

1917- as a result of the revolution in Russia, the monarchy was liquidated. Finland gained independence.

1918- the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, formed: Czechoslovakia (it was given the Austrian "crown lands" - Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia), Austria and Hungary; South Tyrol passed to Italy, Bukovina - to Romania.

Formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Serbia, Montenegro and the former South Slavic territories of Austria-Hungary - Croatia, Slovenia, Dalmatia and part of Bosnia and Herzegovina are united).

The overthrow of the monarchy in Germany.

Poland gained independence.

By Treaty of Versailles the following territories departed from Germany: Alsace and Lorraine - to France; the administration of the Saar was transferred for 15 years to a commission of the League of Nations, which, in turn, transferred the Saar to France. The cities of Eupen and Malmedy went to Belgium, Northern Schleswig to Denmark; Poznan and part of East and West Prussia, as well as part of Silesia - to Poland; Gulchinsky region and other part of Silesia - to Czechoslovakia. Germany renounced the rights to the city of Memel (Klaipeda), which in 1923 was transferred to Lithuania; Danzig (Gdansk) was turned into a free city under the control of the League of Nations.

Germany lost its overseas possessions in Africa and Oceania with an area of ​​about 3 million km2, with a population of 13 million people. By Yurievsky treaty(between the RSFSR and Finland) Finland returned the Repol and Porosozersk volosts to Karelia in exchange for the area of ​​the city of Pechenga and part of the Rybachy Peninsula. Romania captured Bessarabia.

Iceland, which until 1918 was a colony of Denmark, was declared an independent state, and the Danish-Icelandic union was concluded.

1919- on the Neuilly Treaty Western Thrace was transferred to Greece, the cities of Kula, Tsaribrod, Bosilegrad, Strumica passed to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Lithuania and Estonia gained independence.

1920- the Svalbard archipelago came under the sovereignty of Norway. Latvia gained independence. By Trianon Treaty Transylvania and the southern part of the Banat region went to Romania; to Czechoslovakia - Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine; to Austria - Burgenland, Slovenian Carinthia.

The collapse of the Ottoman Empire: the islands of the Dodecanese (Southern Sporades) went to Italy, to Greece - East Thrace with Adrianople (now the city of Edirne in Turkey), the Gallipoli Peninsula and Smyrna (now the city of Izmir in Turkey).

By Treaty of Rapalla between Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Julian Krajina (the region of Friuli-Venice - Giulia), the Istrian peninsula with the cities of Trieste and Pula, the islands of Lošinj, Cres, Lastovo in the center of the Adriatic Sea passed to Italy; to Yugoslavia - Slovenia, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The port of Zara acquired the status of a free city under the sovereignty of Italy, Fiume (Rijeka) became a free city.

Poland seized Vilen from Lithuania.

1921- on Riga(Soviet-Polish) treaty Western Ukraine and Western Belarus passed to Poland.

By Anglo-Irish Treaty Southern Ireland is declared the Irish Free State (Dominion of the British Empire); Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

1922- the formation of the USSR as part of the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR.

Establishment of a fascist dictatorship in Italy.

1923- Occupation of the Ruhr (Germany) by Franco-Belgian troops.

Signing Treaty of Lausanne, along which the borders of Turkey in Europe and Asia Minor are established. The Entente powers abandoned their plans for the dismemberment of Turkey and recognized its independence. Left behind Turkey: Eastern Thrace (the border was drawn along the Maritsa River) and Smyrna (Izmir).

Occupation of the city of Fiume (Rijeka) by Italy; in 1924 passed to Italy.

1924- Proclamation of Greece as a republic.

1929- Creation of the sovereign Papal State of the Vatican in the city of Rome (Italy).

Accession to Norway of Jan Mayen Island (in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean).

Renaming the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

The overthrow of the monarchy in Spain.

1933- the rise of Nazism to power in Germany.

1935- Accession of the Saar to Germany. Monarchist coup in Greece.

1936- Beginning of the Spanish Civil War.

1937- Ireland, a former dominion of the British Empire, declared itself the independent state of Eire.

1938- Germany captured Austria, including it in the Third Reich under the name "Ostmark".

Munich Agreement: the division of Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland and other border regions went to Germany, the Teszyn region to Poland, part of Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine to Hungary).

1939- The occupation of Czechoslovakia by Germany, on the territory of which the Protectorate of the Czech Republic and Moravia and the puppet state of Slovakia were formed. Capture of Klaipeda and Klaipeda region by Germany.

The coming to power in Spain of General Franco, the establishment of a fascist dictatorship.

Albania is captured by Italy and declared a colony, included in the Italian Empire.

Changes on the political map of Europe during the Second World War (1939-1945)

1939-1940- the USSR included Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia (Moldavian SSR), the eastern part of Poland (with the cities of Vilna, Grodno, Pinsk), Eastern Galicia (with Lviv), Northern Bukovina (with the city of Kamenets-Podolsky)

Territories annexed to the USSR in 1939-1940

Attached to the USSR as a result of the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940: Karelian Isthmus (with Vyborg and Vyborg Bay); the western and northern shores of Lake Ladoga with the cities of Kekholm (now Priozersk), Sortavala, Muoyarvi; islands in the Gulf of Finland; territories east of Merkjärvi with the city of Kuolajärvi; part of the Rybachy and Sredny peninsulas. Finland leased the island of Hanko to the USSR.

Partition of Poland: Poznan, Pomerania, Upper Silesia went to Germany.

Germany occupied Denmark and Norway, invaded Belgium and the Netherlands. Northern Transylvania was transferred to Hungary (formerly the territory of Romania), Bulgaria - Southern Dobruja.

Caricature of the relations between the USSR and Germany in the late 1930s.

1941- division of Yugoslavia: Slovenia is annexed to Germany; Italy captured Dalmatia and Montenegro; part of Slovenia, Croatia and Vojvodina passed to Hungary; a puppet government has been set up in Serbia; Croatia became formally an independent state. The division of Greece into three zones of occupation: Bulgaria (Western Thrace, Eastern Macedonia with the islands of Thassos, Samothrace), Germany (Central Macedonia with the city of Thessaloniki, the islands of Lemnos, Lesvos, Chios), Italy (the rest of Greece, including Athens).

1944- Iceland proclaimed a republic, Danish-Icelandic union terminated.

Changes on the political map of Europe after World War II

The liberation of Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia by the Soviet army; the overthrow of fascist regimes in these countries.

1945- following the results of the Yalta (Crimean) conference, Germany was divided into four zones of occupation: the eastern one - the USSR, the northwestern one - Great Britain, the southwestern one - the USA, the western one - France.

The abolition of the monarchy in Yugoslavia, the proclamation of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (since 1963 - the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) as part of Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro.

Agreement between Yugoslavia, Great Britain and the USA on the occupation of the Julian Krajina: the city of Trieste and the surrounding territories are occupied by the Anglo-American troops, the neighboring regions - by the Yugoslav.

The western border of Poland with Germany was established along the Oder and Neisse rivers.

1944-1945- the district of the city of Pechenga (formerly the territory of Finland) was annexed to the USSR; Transcarpathian Ukraine; the coastal part of East Prussia with Koenigsberg (the rest of East Prussia with the city of Danzig (Gdansk) passed to Poland).

1946- Albania is declared a republic.

1947- Italy, Bulgaria, Romania are proclaimed republics. Under peace treaties between the states that won the Second World War and the former allies of Germany in Europe, the border of Italy was changed: the Istrian peninsula, part of the Julian Krajina, the cities of Fiume (Rijeka), Zara with adjacent islands, the islands of Palagruzha were transferred to Yugoslavia; the city of Trieste is declared the Free Territory of Trieste; Greece crossed the Dodecanese. Italy lost its colonial possessions in Africa, recognized the independence of Albania and Ethiopia.

Restored pre-war borders of Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland; Transylvania returned to Romania.

Spain was declared a monarchy (in fact, the monarchical form of government was established only in 1975 after the death of Franco).

A bloc of socialist countries was created in Eastern Europe, which included: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Yugoslavia (SFRY).

1948- granting internal autonomy to the Faroe Islands (as part of Denmark).

1949- the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany on the territory of the zones of occupation of France, the USA and Great Britain; GDR - on the territory of the zone of occupation of the USSR.

Creation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) - an economic organization of socialist countries, it included: Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, East Germany, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, USSR, Czechoslovakia.

Ireland is proclaimed an independent republic.

Hungary is proclaimed a republic.

Formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to collectively confront the threat of communism.

1951- an agreement between the USSR and Poland on the exchange of border areas of the territory: Poland was given a plot of 480 km 2 near the city of Drogobych, the USSR - 480 km 2 in the Lublin Voivodeship.

1953- According to the constitution, Greenland received the status of an overseas amt (province), an equal part of the Kingdom of Denmark.

1954- division of the Free Territory of Trieste between Italy and Yugoslavia. Transfer of the Crimean region of the RSFSR to Ukraine.

1955- restoration of Austria as a sovereign and independent state within the borders of 1938

Formation of the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) - an organization for coordinating military cooperation between the socialist countries. It included Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Albania and the GDR.

1957- the inclusion of the Saar region in the FRG.

Formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) consisting of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Italy.

The collapse of the USSR, the declaration of independent states of all the union republics that were part of it.

Formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). It did not include the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Georgia (joined in 1993).

The collapse of the SFRY, the formation of sovereign states - Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

1993- transformation of the European Economic Community (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Greece) into the European Union (EU); removal of state borders within the framework of the single European economic space.

Partition of Czechoslovakia into two independent states - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

1995- accession to the EU of Sweden, Finland, Austria.

1999- Poland, Czech Republic and Hungary are admitted to NATO.

The signing of an agreement on the union state of Belarus and Russia with the prospect of growing into a confederation.

2002- The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia became known as Serbia and Montenegro. While maintaining a single defense and foreign policy, different currencies are being introduced, customs legislation and economic systems are different.

2004- 10 countries of Central and Eastern Europe joined the EU: Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Cyprus, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Estonia.

2007 Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU.

Territorial disputes and ethnic conflicts. Europe, as part of the Old World with well-established political borders, has a minimal number of acute territorial disputes.

The question of the geographical position of the borders in the region has not been discussed since the Second World War. The inviolability of state post-war borders was secured by the Conference on Security and Cooperation (Helsinki, 1975). The principle was strictly applied until the beginning of the 90s. XX century, when, as a result of the collapse of the socialist system, the republics that were part of the USSR were recognized as independent subjects of international law. The collapse of Czechoslovakia, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the unification of the GDR and the FRG are the latest changes in state borders on the political map of Europe.

Schengen border at Munich airport (Germany)

Further events - the admission of new members to the EU (including the countries of Central and Eastern Europe), the entry into NATO of the former socialist countries of Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic - led to the disappearance of a direct military threat in Western Europe. The issue of collective security was on the agenda.

However, there are disagreements between countries regarding the drawing of borders. As a rule, these disagreements are of a private nature, not states, but political parties are in favor of changing borders. There are discussions about borders, territorial waters or unresolved issues.

For example, for changing the state status of territories inhabited by national minorities requiring self-determination (Northern Irish, South Tyroleans, Basques, Slovenes, Corsicans), or peoples with the status of national minorities, which in the post-war years were separated by state borders (Hungarians in Transylvania). Disputes are fought over territories that were previously part of another state. Virtually none of the European border disputes escalated into a military conflict, with the exception of the claims of the Albanians (supported by Albania) on the territory of the autonomous province of Kosovo in Serbia, as well as in Macedonia.

The expansion of the EU and the formation of a single European space have changed the former functions of borders - security and border control. Interstate borders become purely symbolic, but the question arises of the external border of the EU, which should protect prosperous Europe from smuggling and illegal migration.

The world is excited by the emergence of new independent states: Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and even earlier Kosovo. Meanwhile, as history shows, territorial changes of this kind were not something specific before. For example, let's compare the geopolitical situation after two world wars.

After the First World War, significant changes took place on the world map. They mostly affected Europe. The huge and once powerful Austria-Hungary collapsed, and in 1918, in addition to Austria and Hungary, independent states were formed on its territory: Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia. Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Poland appeared on the former western lands of Russia.

On June 28, a peace treaty was signed at Versailles, according to which Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France and also transferred the Saar region for 15 years. In addition, Germany lost some other lands that went to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Denmark and Belgium and all its overseas colonies.

Changes affected not only Europe. Turkey also suffered significant losses. She managed to retain only a very small part of her possessions. According to the agreement on August 10, 1920. she was supposed to return the lands seized in the Transcaucasus, in Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

After the end of World War II, the changes were no less significant. There were no major breakups of states, there were not very significant territorial increments and the liberation of colonies, new independent states appeared.

The USSR annexed part of East Prussia and Transcarpathian Ukraine, which previously belonged to Czechoslovakia. Received South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. In addition, in October 1944. The Republic of Tuva was annexed to the USSR.

The USSR returned the Bialystok District to Poland. Also, a significant part of East Prussia and other German lands in the west, up to the line of the Oder and Neisse rivers, went to her.

The map of the Middle East has also undergone changes. This is primarily due to the emergence of the state of Israel in the region. In November 1947 The UN decided to create in Palestine, the former British Mandatory Territory, two states - Israel and Palestine. But the neighboring Arab states did not want to recognize the existence of Israel, this was the cause of the Middle East conflict.

The Balkans became the same problematic region after the First World War. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Balkan peoples were unable to finally determine the borders and territories of their countries. Conflicts in these and some other areas remain unresolved to this day.

And this is not the only example of the formation of new states. In 1947, Muslim Pakistan seceded from India, and in 1948. from a single Korea, divided into two parts by American and Soviet troops, North and South were formed.

The liberation of the colonies in Southeast Asia contributed to the emergence of new countries there. For example, in 1946 Indonesian independence was recognized in 1949. Philippines became independent.

Much later, in 1960-1990, the independence of the European colonies in Africa was recognized, after which many countries appeared on the African map.

Territorial changes occurred almost constantly. For better or worse, it happens, and it has to be reckoned with. History is impartial and it shows how some acquire new territories, while others lose them, someone gets freedom, and someone gets dependence. The world is changing, but in what direction - it is to evaluate, as always, the society.