Exercise 1
Analyze the text of the textbook and choose the correct answers.
1. What caused the peaceful nature of the European foreign policy of Nicholas II at the beginning of the reign:
a) the fact that Russia had no allies among the leading European powers;
b) the fact that the military-industrial potential of Russia was significantly inferior to the potential of the European powers;
c) the fact that peace in Europe facilitated the establishment of Russian dominance in East Asia?
2. What foreign policy actions did Nicholas II take to establish peace in Europe:
a) concluded an agreement with England;
b) initiated the convening of an international conference on problems of general disarmament;
c) recognized the primacy of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans?
Task 2
Analyze the text of the paragraph, read the document and give written answers to the questions.
From a letter from Wilhelm II to Nicholas II. January 1904 ... Russia, subject to the laws of expansion, must strive to go to the sea and have an ice-free harbor for its trade. By virtue of this law, she has the right to claim the strip of coast where such harbors are located (Vladivostok, Port Arthur). Hinterland (the lands behind them) must be in your hands in order to be able to build the railroads needed to transport goods to the ports (Manchuria). Between the two ports there is a strip of land, which, if it falls into the hands of the enemy, can become something like new Dardanelles. You cannot allow this. These "Dardanelles" (Korea) should not be a threat to your communications and a threat to your trade. Such is the case in the Black Sea, but in the Far East you cannot reconcile yourself to such a situation. Therefore, it is clear to any unprejudiced person that Korea must be and will be Russian. When and how - nobody cares about this and concerns only you and your country.
1. What are the causes of the Russo-Japanese War and its nature? 2. What goals did Russia pursue in this war? 3. What do you think, for what purpose did the German emperor write such a letter?
1. The clash of interests of Russia and Japan in the Far East. Both countries wanted to strengthen their positions in the region.
2. Implementation of the "great Asian program": the strengthening of Russian dominance in East Asia. Obtaining an ice-free port in the Yellow Sea. Strengthening positions at sea by creating a Russian naval base.
3. Germany was also interested in strengthening its influence in the Far East, as it sought to redistribute spheres of influence in the world. In 1897, she took control of the port of Qingdao.
Task 3
Task 4
Based on the text of the textbook and materials found on your own, write a miniature essay “A letter from a Russian soldier to his relatives in a village from besieged Port Arthur.”
Some time ago, Admiral Makarov arrived to us. He immediately took vigorous measures to restore the combat effectiveness of the Russian squadron, which led to an increase in military spirit in the fleet.
The Japanese tried several times to block the exit from the harbor, but to no avail. The first time they were prevented by us, the second time they spoiled their plan. It turned out to be done only on the third attempt. Now the Japanese were able to land troops ashore and began to move towards Port Arthur. However, our spirit is not broken and we continue to strengthen the fortress. Everything is being done to increase the combat readiness of our garrison: arms and ammunition are brought in. I do not know how much longer we will hold out, because the Japanese have begun to conduct active hostilities.
Task 5
Using textbook text, map:
1. Names of states. 2. The directions of the offensive of the Japanese troops. 3. The direction of the blows of the Russian troops. 4. Dates of the beginning and end of the defense of Port Arthur. 5. Places and times of the main battles of the war on land and at sea. 6. Borders between Russia and Japan before and after the war.
Task 6
Based on the text of the paragraph, determine which of the following was included in the terms of the Peace of Portsmouth (several answers are possible):
a) compensation by Russia for the material losses of Japan in the amount of 100 million gold rubles;
b) the introduction of Russian troops into Korea;
c) Japanese occupation of Manchuria;
d) the transfer of the lease of Port Arthur to Japan;
e) the transfer of the southern part of Sakhalin Island to Japan;
f) prohibition to the Japanese of the right to fish along the Russian shores in the Sea of Japan, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea.
In February 1945, a conference was held in Yalta, which was attended by representatives of the countries that were part of Great Britain and the United States, managed to get the Soviet Union to agree to take a direct part in the war with Japan. In exchange for this, they promised him to return the Kuril Islands and South Sakhalin, lost during the Russo-Japanese War of 1905.
Termination of the peace treaty
At the time when the decision was made in Yalta, the so-called Neutrality Pact was in force between Japan and the Soviet Union, which was concluded back in 1941 and was supposed to be valid for 5 years. But already in April 1945, the USSR announced that it was breaking the treaty unilaterally. The Russo-Japanese War (1945), the reasons for which were that the Land of the Rising Sun had sided with Germany in recent years, and also fought against the allies of the USSR, became almost inevitable.
Such a sudden statement literally plunged the leadership of Japan into complete disarray. And this is understandable, because her position was very critical - the Allied forces inflicted significant damage on her in the Pacific Ocean, and industrial centers and cities were subjected to almost continuous bombardment. The government of this country was well aware that it was almost impossible to achieve victory in such conditions. But still, it still hoped that it would somehow be able to wear down and achieve more favorable conditions for the surrender of its troops.
The United States, in turn, did not count on the fact that they would get an easy victory. An example of this is the battles that unfolded for the island of Okinawa. About 77 thousand people fought here from Japan, and about 470 thousand soldiers from the United States. In the end, the island was taken by the Americans, but their losses were simply amazing - almost 50 thousand killed. According to him, if the Russo-Japanese War of 1945 had not begun, which will be briefly described in this article, then the losses would have been much more serious and could have amounted to 1 million soldiers killed and wounded.
Announcement of the outbreak of hostilities
On August 8, in Moscow, the document was handed over to the Japanese Ambassador to the USSR at exactly 17:00. It said that the Russo-Japanese War (1945) was actually starting the very next day. But since there is a significant time difference between the Far East and Moscow, it turned out that only 1 hour remained before the start of the offensive of the Soviet Army.
In the USSR, a plan was developed, consisting of three military operations: the Kuril, Manchurian and South Sakhalin. All of them were very important. But nevertheless, the Manchurian operation was the most large-scale and significant.
Side forces
On the territory of Manchuria, the Kwantung Army, commanded by General Otozo Yamada, opposed. It consisted of about 1 million people, more than 1 thousand tanks, about 6 thousand guns and 1.6 thousand aircraft.
At the time when the Russo-Japanese War of 1945 began, the forces of the USSR had a significant numerical superiority in manpower: only there were one and a half times more soldiers. As for equipment, the number of mortars and artillery exceeded the similar enemy forces by 10 times. Our army had 5 and 3 times more tanks and aircraft, respectively, than the corresponding weapons of the Japanese. It should be noted that the superiority of the USSR over Japan in military equipment consisted not only in its numbers. The equipment at the disposal of Russia was modern and more powerful than that of its opponent.
Enemy strongholds
All participants in the Russo-Japanese War of 1945 were well aware that sooner or later, but it had to start. That is why the Japanese created a significant number of well-fortified areas in advance. For example, we can take at least the Hailar region, where the left flank of the Trans-Baikal Front of the Soviet Army was located. Barrage structures on this site were built for more than 10 years. By the time the Russo-Japanese War began (August 1945), there were already 116 pillboxes, which were interconnected by underground passages made of concrete, a well-developed system of trenches and a significant number. This area was covered by Japanese soldiers, whose number exceeded the divisional one.
In order to suppress the resistance of the Hailar fortified area, the Soviet Army had to spend several days. Under war conditions, this is a short period, but during the same time the rest of the Trans-Baikal Front moved forward by about 150 km. Given the scale of the Russo-Japanese War (1945), the obstacle in the form of this fortified area turned out to be quite serious. Even when his garrison surrendered, the Japanese warriors continued to fight with fanatical courage.
In the reports of Soviet military leaders one can very often see references to the soldiers of the Kwantung Army. The documents said that the Japanese military specially chained themselves to the beds of machine guns so as not to have the slightest opportunity to retreat.
evasive maneuver
The Russo-Japanese War of 1945 and the actions of the Soviet Army were very successful from the very beginning. I would like to mention one outstanding operation, which consisted in a 350-kilometer throw of the 6th Panzer Army through the Khingan Range and the Gobi Desert. If you take a look at the mountains, they seem to be an insurmountable obstacle to the passage of technology. The passes that Soviet tanks had to pass were located at an altitude of about 2 thousand meters above sea level, and the slopes sometimes reached a steepness of 50⁰. That is why cars often had to zigzag.
In addition, the advancement of equipment was also complicated by frequent heavy rains, accompanied by flooding of rivers and impassable mud. But, despite this, the tanks still moved forward, and already on August 11 they overcame the mountains and reached the Central Manchurian Plain, in the rear of the Kwantung Army. After such a large-scale transition, the Soviet troops began to experience an acute shortage of fuel, so they had to arrange for additional delivery by air. With the help of transport aviation, it was possible to transport about 900 tons of tank fuel. As a result of this operation, more than 200 thousand Japanese soldiers were captured, as well as a huge amount of equipment, weapons and ammunition.
Height Defenders Sharp
The Japanese War of 1945 continued. On the sector of the 1st Far Eastern Front, Soviet troops encountered unprecedentedly fierce enemy resistance. The Japanese were well entrenched on the heights of Camel and Ostraya, which were among the fortifications of the Khotous fortified area. It must be said that the approaches to these heights were indented by many small rivers and were very swampy. In addition, wire fences and excavated scarps were located on their slopes. The firing points of the Japanese soldiers were cut down in advance right in the rocky granite rock, and the concrete caps protecting the bunkers reached a thickness of one and a half meters.
During the fighting, the Soviet command offered the defenders of Ostra to surrender. A man from among the local residents was sent to the Japanese as a truce, but they treated him extremely cruelly - the commander of the fortified area cut off his head. However, there was nothing surprising in this act. From the moment the Russo-Japanese War began (1945), the enemy basically did not go to any negotiations. When the Soviet troops finally entered the fortification, they found only dead soldiers. It is worth noting that the defenders of the height were not only men, but also women who were armed with daggers and grenades.
Features of military operations
The Russo-Japanese War of 1945 had its own specific features. For example, in the battles for the city of Mudanjiang, the enemy used kamikaze saboteurs against units of the Soviet Army. These suicide bombers tied themselves with grenades and threw themselves under tanks or at soldiers. There was also such a case when about two hundred "live mines" lay on the ground next to each other in one sector of the front. But such suicidal actions did not last long. Soon, the Soviet soldiers became more vigilant and had time to destroy the saboteur in advance before he came close and exploded next to equipment or people.
Surrender
The Russo-Japanese War of 1945 ended on August 15, when the country's emperor Hirohito addressed his people on the radio. He stated that the country had decided to accept the terms of the Potsdam Conference and capitulate. At the same time, the emperor called on his nation to observe patience and unite all forces to build a new future for the country.
3 days after Hirohito's appeal, the call of the Kwantung Army command to its soldiers was heard on the radio. It said that further resistance is pointless and there is already a decision to surrender. Since many Japanese units did not have contact with the main headquarters, their notification continued for several more days. But there were also cases when fanatical military personnel did not want to obey the order and lay down their arms. Therefore, their war continued until they died.
Consequences
It must be said that the Russo-Japanese War of 1945 was truly of great not only military but also political significance. managed to completely defeat the strongest Kwantung Army and end World War II. By the way, its official end is considered to be September 2, when the act of surrender of Japan was finally signed in Tokyo Bay right on board the battleship Missouri, owned by the United States.
As a result, the Soviet Union regained the territories that had been lost back in 1905 - a group of islands and part of the South Kuriles. Also, according to the peace treaty signed in San Francisco, Japan renounced any claims to Sakhalin.
Topic No. 4. The development of military art in the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Lesson number 3. Fundamentals of strategy and tactics in the wars of the early twentieth century.
Study questions:
2. Review of the events of the First World War 1914-1918.
1. Lessons and conclusions of the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905.
Rapid development at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. industrial production led to further expansion of the material and technical base of the armed forces. At the end of the XIX century. machine guns appear (Fig. 1), and at the beginning of the 20th century. - aircraft.
Repeating rifles (Fig. 2), quick-firing artillery pieces with a firing range of 6–8 km are being put into service with the main armies of the world. Ammunition with smokeless powder is widely used (Fig. 3).
Fig.1. The first samples of machine guns
Fig.2. Manual reloading systems, rifle magazine types
Fig.3. Smokeless powder metal cartridge (1886)
Mass construction began in the fleets armadillos
, destroyers And submarines
.
The expansion of the economic base of the armed forces, the creation of mass armies equipped with new military equipment, changed the conditions for conducting armed struggle. Combat operations began to unfold simultaneously over a vast area. The presence of a developed network of railways made it possible to quickly carry out the necessary concentration of troops or their transfer over long distances. The use of the telegraph, telephone and radio facilitated the work of the command of various levels in commanding troops to achieve the goals of a battle (battle).
The quantitative growth of the armed forces and the increase in the level of their technical equipment made the course and outcome of the war dependent on the economic capabilities of the country, and also strengthened the connection between the front and the rear.
Most clearly, new trends in the development of military art, associated with changes in the socio-economic and material and technical conditions for conducting armed struggle in this era, manifested themselves during the Russo-Japanese and the First World Wars.
The Russo-Japanese War arose as a result of a clash of economic and territorial interests of Japan and Russia. Japan sought to capture Korea and Manchuria, then launch an offensive directly against China, and later capture the Russian Far East as well.
Russian army at the beginning of the twentieth century. consisted of a standing army and a people's militia. The term of active service in the standing army was set as follows: in the infantry and foot artillery - 3 years, and in the reserve - 15 years; in other branches of the military - 4 years, in the reserve 9-12 years.
In 1904, the size of the Russian army was 1.1 million people, of which only about 100 thousand people were in the Far East.
The infantry was armed with a new magazine Mosin rifle
with a range of up to 2000 m. There were very few machine guns in the Russian army. The field artillery was armed with a 76-mm cannon of the 1902 model with a firing range of up to 6.5 km (Fig. 4).
Fig.4. 76 mm gun model 1902
Fig.5. The battle order of the Russian infantry regiment according to the Charter of 1900
The company reserves moved in close formation following the rifle lines at a distance of up to 200 m and had the task of supporting their actions and inflicting a decisive bayonet strike. The infantry chains advanced at a pace until approaching the enemy at 700–1000 m (the range of actual rifle fire), stopping to fire at convenient positions. It was not allowed to fire on the move. Fire from a distance of more than 1000 m was carried out only on especially important targets. In the sphere of real rifle fire and in open areas, the movement was carried out by dashes (up to 100 m) by units and one by one. For the next dash, a milestone was outlined ahead. During the crossings, the units supported each other with fire. The fire was led by each soldier independently. The platoon commander controlled the fire, assigning the sight, order and rate of fire ("rare", "frequent", "packs").
In the chain, the soldiers moved at intervals of 1-2 steps, the alignment was not observed. Being in the chain, each soldier had to apply to the terrain in order to take cover from enemy fire and choose a convenient position for shooting. At a distance of 250-300 m from the enemy, the attackers occupied the last shooting position, from where they prepared an attack with strong rifle fire ("packs"). Having approached the enemy by 50-100 steps, the infantry rushed into a bayonet attack.
By this time, company reserves were pouring into the chain, and the chain was closing to increase the force of the bayonet strike.
The task of a defensive battle was to upset the advancing enemy with fire, and then go on the offensive and defeat him. For this, a strong reserve was intended (up to half of all forces).
The position for defense had to provide good shelling. At the position, separate rifle trenches were opened for a squad, platoon, half-company or company, located in a chain. Depending on the availability of time, the trenches were torn off for firing from the knee or standing. In more important areas, earthen fortifications were erected: and lunettes (fortifications open from the rear, consisting of 1–2 frontal ramparts). Notches, wolf pits and wire fences were arranged in front of the trenches (Fig. 6)
.
Fig.6. Types of barbed wire and how to install it
The Russian Pacific Fleet consisted of 69 ships. The main forces of the fleet were based in Port Arthur, which occupied an advantageous strategic position, but as a fleet base it was poorly equipped and poorly protected from land. The second detachment of ships was in Vladivostok.
In general, the Russian side's plan for conducting military operations in the event of a war with Japan was not sufficiently developed and was of a passive nature. The Russian military command clearly underestimated the enemy. Intelligence was conducted poorly, the theater of war was not properly studied and prepared. In the event of a surprise attack by Japan, a six-month defensive action was envisaged. After the concentration of sufficient forces, it was supposed to go on the offensive with the aim of driving the enemy out of Manchuria. To complete the defeat of the Japanese army, it was planned to land troops on the Japanese islands.
The number of the Japanese army at the beginning of the war reached 375 thousand people with 1140 guns. The infantry was armed with a rifle of approximately the same design as the Russians (Fig. 7).
Fig.7. Russian and Japanese soldiers of the Russo-Japanese War: 1 - Japanese artillery officer; 2 - Japanese infantryman; 3 - Russian infantryman; 4 - officer
The Japanese had 200 heavy machine guns purchased from abroad. Artillery units were armed with 75-mm guns. Most of the Japanese artillery was adapted for action in the mountains.
Central to Japan's preparations for war was building a fleet. By the beginning of the war, Japan had 168 warships. Many large ships had better armor and armament and had greater speed than the ships of the Russian fleet.
When planning a war with Russia, the Japanese command intended to destroy the Russian Pacific squadron with a surprise attack, gain dominance at sea and seize bridgeheads in Korea and the Liaodong Peninsula (album of schemes, scheme 38). After that, it planned to land the main ground forces and, having organized an attack on Mukden, destroy the Russian army in Manchuria before reinforcements from Russia arrived. The implementation of this plan was entrusted to the fleet and four land armies under the command of Marshal Oyama. (Video)
Struggle for supremacy at sea
The Russo-Japanese War began on the night of February 9, 1904 with a sudden attack by the Japanese fleet on Russian ships in Port Arthur, as a result of which 4 Russian ships were put out of action. The Russian squadron also lost those stationed in port of Chemulpo
the cruiser "Varyag" and the gunboat "Korean". The battle between the cruisers "Varyag" and "Koreets" with the Japanese squadron took place on the afternoon of February 9, 1904. Russian sailors sank a Japanese destroyer and inflicted serious damage to two cruisers. But since the forces were unequal, finding themselves in a hopeless situation, the Russian sailors destroyed their ships: the cruiser was flooded, and the gunboat was blown up. The heroic feat of the sailors "Varyag" and "Korean" forever entered the history of our people.
As a result of the surprise attack, the Russian fleet suffered significant losses, which led to an even greater change in the balance of forces in the theater in favor of the Japanese fleet. The new commander of the Pacific Fleet, Admiral Makarov, who soon arrived in Port Arthur, carried out a number of measures to strengthen the Russian fleet and intensify its operations. He took the squadron out to sea more than once, but the Japanese usually did not accept the battle and retreated. When returning to Port Arthur on April 13, Admiral Makarov died along with his headquarters (the battleship Petropavlovsk, on which the admiral was, was blown up by Japanese mines and sank).
After the death of Makarov, the active operations of the Russian fleet ceased. The Japanese took advantage of this and began landing ground troops in Korea and on the Liaodong Peninsula.
First land battles
Landed in Korea, the 1st Japanese Army in mid-April launched an offensive in the direction of Liaoyang, where the main forces of the Russian troops were concentrated. With the forces of the 2nd Army, the Japanese planned to capture Port Arthur on the move. However, the calculations of the Japanese failed.
As a result of the measures taken by General R. I. Kondratenko, who commanded the land defense of Port Arthur, the Japanese were stopped 25 km from the fortress and at the end of June went on the defensive.
For more than a month, the Japanese command was preparing to storm Port Arthur, reinforcing the existing grouping with two more armies.
In July 3rd Japanese Army
launched an offensive in the direction of Port Arthur, and the 1st, 4th and 2nd armies - in the direction of Liaoyang against the main forces of the Russian Manchurian army. In early August, Japanese troops came close to the fortifications of Port Arthur (album of diagrams, scheme 38
).
The garrison of the fortress consisted of 42 thousand people, had 646 guns and 62 machine guns. The Russian squadron consisted of 38 warships, but all of them were in the inner roadstead and did not conduct active operations.
The Japanese had about 50 thousand people, 72 machine guns and 400 guns in the group, and 52 Japanese ships carried out the blockade of Port Arthur from the sea.
Attack on Port Arthur
started August 8th. Fierce battles lasted until August 24, but having lost up to 20 thousand people, the Japanese were forced to abandon their attempt to capture the fortress by an accelerated attack and proceeded to the siege.
While fierce battles were going on in the Port Arthur area, the main Japanese forces were slowly advancing towards Liaoyang (album of diagrams, scheme 38). The Japanese command expected a quick capture of Port Arthur, hoping after that to transfer the 3rd Army to Liaoyang. But since the Japanese could not take Port Arthur in August, it was decided to launch an offensive without waiting for the fall of Port Arthur.
In the three Japanese armies near Liaoyang, there were 130 thousand people and 508 guns. The Russian army had 152 thousand people and 606 guns.
Liaoyang battle
began on August 24 at the front of 75 km and lasted 11 days. Russian troops, using pre-prepared positions and a well-organized system of artillery and machine-gun fire, inflicted heavy losses on the enemy and stopped his advance. There was a favorable situation for the transition to the counteroffensive, which was not used by the Russian command, as a result of which the Russian troops retreated to Mukden.
This was the first battle in the history of warfare in which mass armies met, equipped with rapid-fire artillery, repeating rifles and machine guns. The presence of new weapons, and especially the increase in the range of fire weapons, increased the capabilities of the troops and necessitated the use of new methods of action on the battlefield. The advancing troops were forced to deploy into battle formations at a much greater distance than before.
During the offensive, dashes, self-digging and the impact on the defense with rifle and machine-gun fire became mandatory. In turn, the growth of fire capabilities required an increase in the depth of defense, the creation of a system of continuous trenches and artificial barriers in front of defensive positions.
By the end of September, the Japanese army, which reached the Shahe River, numbered 150 thousand people and 648 guns. The Russian army had 214 thousand people and 758 guns. With such a balance of forces, the Japanese command at first took a wait-and-see position, hoping to take Port Arthur as quickly as possible and transfer its siege army to Manchuria to reinforce the main grouping.
However, on October 5 battle on the Shahe river
, which did not bring success to either side, which led to the formation of a continuous positional front with a length of more than 60 km.
The Japanese launched a new unsuccessful assault on Port Arthur on October 26. The siege of Port Arthur, which continued until the end of 1904, ended only on January 2, 1905, thanks to the signing of a secret treacherous act of surrender of the garrison by General Stessel.
The fortress was surrendered prematurely. The court sentenced Stessel to death, but the king pardoned him.
The fall of Port Arthur and the destruction of the main forces of the Russian Pacific Fleet provided the Japanese with dominance at sea. The Japanese command was in a hurry to take advantage of this advantage and the defeat of the Russian troops near Mukden
decide the outcome of the war in your favor. By mid-February 1905, the Japanese concentrated 270 thousand people, 1062 guns and 200 machine guns near Mukden. The total number of Russian troops in this area reached 293 thousand people, 1475 guns and 56 machine guns.
The Japanese troops were the first to go on the offensive on February 23. As in the battle of Liaoyang, the Japanese command, striving for encirclement, forced the Russians to move reserves from the right flank to the left by a false maneuver. After that, on February 27, the Japanese delivered the main blow around the right flank of the Russian troops. Intense fighting ensued, which continued until March 9, when the Russian troops, under the threat of encirclement, were ordered to withdraw.
Although the Russian army, having lost 89 thousand people, was forced to retreat, it was not defeated and did not capitulate, which the Japanese command was counting on. In the battle of Mukden, the Japanese lost 71 thousand people.
To reinforce the Pacific Fleet from the Baltic to the Far East, in October 1904, a squadron of Admiral Rozhdestvensky was sent, consisting of 38 ships. The squadron turned out to be unprepared, some ships went to sea unfinished, there was not a single base on the route.
May 27–28, 1905 in the Tsushima Strait
Rozhdestvensky's squadron was defeated by the superior forces of the Japanese fleet.
Two days after the Battle of Tsushima, the Japanese government turned to the US President for mediation in peace negotiations with Russia. Under pressure from the United States, the tsarist government signed the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, according to which Russia ceded lease rights to Port Arthur and Dalny to Japan; the Japanese also captured the southern part of Sakhalin.
Features of the armed struggle in the Russo-Japanese war
Participation in the war of a mass army, equipped with a variety of equipment, led to a further expansion of the front of simultaneously ongoing hostilities. The battle unfolded over a large area and continued for many days.
This war required the mass production of weapons of all kinds and equipment. The role of the rear increased immeasurably. Uninterrupted supply of troops with ammunition and food began to play a decisive role in achieving success on the battlefield.
With the advent of more advanced weapons, positional forms of combat in the field were born.
Machine guns and magazine rifles forced the final abandonment of dense battle formations of troops, chains became more rare. The machine gun and powerful fortifications sharply increased the possibility of defense, forced the attackers to combine fire and movement, use the terrain more carefully, dig in, conduct reconnaissance, conduct fire preparations for the attack, make extensive use of detours and coverage, fight even at night, better organize the interaction of troops on the field fight. Artillery began to practice firing from closed positions. The war required an increase in the caliber of guns and the widespread use of howitzers.
The fighting at sea revealed the need to increase the range and rate of fire of naval artillery, increase the speed and armor of ships, and create special-purpose ships. The interaction between the fleet and the land army acquired great importance. The combat operations of the army, saturated with new technical means, made increased demands on the personnel of the army and navy.
The presence of railway transport, telegraph and telephone sharply increased the possibilities of the parties to concentrate large groupings of troops and control them over a large area.
The main trends in the development of methods of warfare, which manifested themselves in the Russo-Japanese War, were confirmed, strengthened and developed in subsequent wars.
2. Overview of the events of the First World War 1914–1918
The First World War arose as a result of the intensification of the political and economic struggle between the major imperialist countries, the struggle for markets and sources of raw materials. As a result of the uneven and spasmodic development of capitalism in the era of imperialism, some countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development later than others in a short time overtook and outstripped in technical and economic terms such old colonial countries as England and France. Particularly indicative was the development of Germany, which by 1900 overtook these countries in terms of industrial production, but was significantly inferior to them in the size of colonial possessions. Germany openly sought to capture the British colonies in the Middle East and Africa.
By penetrating the Middle East, Germany posed a threat to Russia's interests in the Black Sea basin. Austria-Hungary, acting in alliance with Germany, was a serious competitor to tsarist Russia in the struggle for influence in the Balkans.
The aggravation of contradictions between the major countries led to the split of the world into two camps and to the formation of two groups: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Entente (England, France, Russia). The war between the major European powers was beneficial to the United States, since as a result of this struggle favorable conditions developed for the further development of their expansion, especially in Latin America and the Far East.
Due to the fact that the war for the redivision of the world affected the interests of all developed countries, most of the world's states gradually became involved in it. The war became a world war, both in its political aims and in its scope.
Armed forces and plans of the parties
By the beginning of the war, all the major European states, except England, had standing armies manned on the basis of universal conscription. In England, the army was hired, but with the outbreak of war, universal conscription was introduced there as well.
The main branches of the ground forces in all armies were infantry (Fig. 8), artillery and cavalry. Signal troops, engineering and other special troops had a small share (about 2%).
Fig.8. Infantrymen of the main countries participating in World War 1: 1-ranked Russian army; 2-ranked French army; 3-ranked British army; 4-ranked German army
The highest tactical formation was the corps, which usually consisted of two or three infantry divisions, cavalry, artillery and other units and support units. The infantry division consisted of 16-21 thousand people, 36-48 guns and about 30 machine guns.
In the infantry regiments, the main means of fighting was a repeating rifle with an effective range of about 2000 m and a rate of fire of 10-12 rounds per minute. In addition, each regiment had up to 8 heavy machine guns. The regiment, as a rule, did not have full-time artillery. Artillery was at the disposal of the division commander. The main model of divisional artillery was 75–77 mm caliber guns with a firing range of 7–8 km. Heavy artillery (Fig. 9) was scarce.
Fig. 9.122-mm howitzer model 1910
By the beginning of the war, the Russian army consisted of 263 aircraft, the German - 232 and the French - 138. The army corps included detachments of 3-6 aircraft, intended mainly for reconnaissance. By 1914, the armed forces of Germany had about 4000 vehicles, Russia - 4500, England - 900, France - 6000 (Fig. 10).
Fig.10. Armored car of the Russian-Baltic plant 1914
Many states participating in the war had large navies. In addition to battleships, which were considered the basis of the fleet, destroyers and submarines began to play an important role, the theory of combat use of which had not yet been worked out at that time. The war plans of its main participants did not sufficiently take into account the increased role of economic and moral factors and were designed to conduct combat operations only at the expense of mobilization reserves accumulated in peacetime. It was believed that the war would be short-lived. The transfer of the economy to the needs of wartime was not envisaged.
The essence of the German war plan was the desire to consistently defeat the opponents: first it was supposed to strike at France and defeat its army, and then transfer the main forces to the East and defeat the Russians (album of schemes, scheme 39). In the East, at the beginning of the war, it was planned to deploy one army with the task of covering East Prussia from a possible invasion of Russian troops. Active operations against Russia at that time were to be carried out by the Austro-Hungarian troops, who, in addition, were to conduct active operations against Serbia and Montenegro. The French war plan was passive and expectant, since the initial actions of the main forces of the army were made dependent on the actions of the enemy. The British ruling circles hoped to shift the main burden of the war on land to Russia and France. England considered its main task to ensure dominance at sea.
The Russian war plan was developed in conditions of economic and political dependence on the plans of England and France. Thus, the interests of Russia demanded the main blow against Austria-Hungary, but according to the plan of the Entente, she had to conduct offensive operations against Germany in order to divert her forces from the west and weaken the blows of German troops on the French army.
By the start of hostilities, the Germans had deployed 86 infantry and 10 cavalry divisions against France and Belgium (1.6 million men and 5,000 guns). These forces were opposed by 85 infantry and 12 cavalry divisions of the Franco-Anglo-Belgian troops (1.6 million people and 4640 guns). 75 Russian divisions (up to 850 thousand people and 3200 guns) were concentrated in the Eastern European theater of war against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Opponents of Russia had 64 divisions here (over 1 million people and up to 2700 guns).
The immediate cause for the outbreak of hostilities was the assassination in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. England declared war on Germany on August 4, and on August 23 Japan came out against Germany, which decided to seize the German colonies in the Far East. Subsequently, on October 29, Türkiye joined the German-Austrian bloc. In May 1915, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente, and in April 1917, the United States.
The First World War, which began in August 1914, continued until November 11, 1918. According to the nature of the tasks to be solved and the military-political results achieved, the First World War can be divided into five campaigns, each of which includes several operations carried out in various theaters of military operations .
Campaign 1914
The first campaign revealed the discrepancy between pre-war theoretical ideas and the actual conditions of warfare. This was especially evident in the field of tactics.
The rifle chain, used in all armies as the main form of military formation in the offensive, did not justify itself - its strike force was insufficient. In addition, the infantry offensive thick chains
(intervals between fighters 1-2 steps) led to large losses.
Fig.11. Building defenses at the beginning of the First World War
The infantry, advancing in tight chains with weak artillery support, could not break through even the shallow focal defenses that were created at the beginning of the war (Fig. 11). Meanwhile, already in the campaign of 1914, individual rifle trenches began to connect with each other, continuous trenches appeared. The infantry division at the end of 1914, when organizing the defense, built 2-3 continuous trenches, covered from the front by barbed wire. The infantry could not break through such a defense. The end result of the "competition" of offensive and defensive in 1914 was the formation of continuous fronts and the transition to positional forms of struggle in all the main theaters of military operations, which led to a protracted war.
The interaction between infantry and artillery was weak. Aviation was not yet able to provide direct support to ground troops. She conducted mainly reconnaissance and corrected artillery fire. Only at the end of the campaign was experience gained in the combat use of aircraft. So, on September 8, 1914, in the Battle of Gorodok between Russian and Austro-Hungarian troops, the commander of the 11th aviation detachment, P.N. Nesterov, made the first air ramming (Fig. 12).
Fig.12. The world's first air ram, committed on September 8, 1914 by P.N. Nesterov
At the end of 1914, hostilities also began in Transcaucasia. Russian troops inflicted a heavy defeat on the invading Turkish troops and pushed them back into Turkey.
Military operations at sea in 1914 were reduced mainly to a naval blockade of Germany and to the struggle of the Entente fleet with individual German cruisers.
Campaign 1915
The second campaign of the war was marked by the search for means and ways to overcome positional defense. The combat use of artillery, which was the main fire weapon of the ground forces, developed especially rapidly. Along with the growth of the total number of guns, the number of howitzers and mortars increased significantly. The density of artillery in the offensive reached 50–60 guns per 1 km of the front. The duration of the artillery preparation was in some cases several days.
Equipping aircraft with small arms and bomber weapons gradually turned aviation into an effective combat weapon. Along with reconnaissance aircraft, bombers and fighters appeared. The need to fight against aviation led to the creation of anti-aircraft artillery and the emergence of air defense. So, on December 8, 1914, the air defense system of Petrograd was organized, consisting of fighter aircraft, anti-aircraft artillery, visual observation posts, which later became the basis of the air defense forces of the USSR and Russia.
When applying a counterattack at the river. Ypres April 22 Germans for the first time used poisonous substances.
On a 6-kilometer front, 6,000 cylinders containing 180 tons of chlorine were installed. The poisonous substance was used by a gas launcher (Fig. 13) with a favorable wind direction. 15 thousand people were poisoned, of which 5 thousand died. After this operation, poisonous substances began to be used by almost all the warring armies, which required the adoption of gas masks and the organization of anti-chemical protection of the troops.
Fig.13. The first device for gas release of poisonous substances
In order to increase the strike force of the infantry, the combat formations of the attackers were echeloned in depth. Instead of one, they began to build three or four chains. This form of troop formation was called "waves of chains." However, the new formation of troops did not provide a breakthrough in positional defense.
Artillery provided only the preparation of the attack. Attack support has not yet been practiced.
During the summer of 1915, Russia's allies did not undertake a single major operation and thus allowed Germany to transfer to the Russian front not only all its reserves, but also part of the forces from the French front. As a result of this, the German troops managed to break through the Southwestern Front in May in a section 35 km wide. However, the Germans failed to encircle and defeat the Russian army. Waging heavy defensive battles, the Russian troops got out of the enveloping blows. At the end of September, they stopped the enemy and organized positional defense.
Thus, the stability of the defense in the context of the search for new measures to overcome it again increased due to the creation of a second, and sometimes a third position, echeloning of the combat formations of troops, increasing the distances between trenches, better engineering equipment of the terrain and an increase in the number of machine guns. The defense became anti-artillery, anti-air and anti-chemical.
Campaign 1916
Despite the fact that during the two previous campaigns Germany held the initiative, by the beginning of 1916 the general strategic situation was in favor of the Entente. The command of the countries of the German coalition, trying to keep the strategic initiative, in 1916 decided to go on the defensive on the Eastern Front, and on the Western - to launch an offensive in the Verdun area.
Representatives of the Entente governments recognized the need for concerted action and decided to launch simultaneous offensive operations both in the West and in the East.
The fighting in the Verdun region began on 21 February. In a strip 40 km wide, the Germans deployed 12 divisions and 1377 guns and mortars. The advance of the ground forces was supported by 189 aircraft. The main blow was delivered by six divisions in a 15 km section. The density of artillery was over 60 guns per 1 km of the front. On the German breakthrough site, the French had two divisions, over 300 guns and several dozen aircraft.
Organizing the offensive, the Germans relied on artillery, which was supposed to consistently suppress the French defensive lines and ensure that they were occupied by infantry.
The battle order of the attacking troops was a series of waves of chains (Fig. 14), each consisting of 2–3 chains. When attacking a battalion on a front of 400–500 m, the depth of its battle formation reached 350–400 m.
In each battalion, assault groups were created, which were supposed to advance ahead of the first wave and destroy enemy barriers
.
Fig.14. Battle formation "waves of chains"
Simultaneously with the beginning of the offensive of the ground forces, aviation operations also unfolded. Here, for the first time, the belligerents practically solved the problem of gaining air supremacy. Air battles were fought, as a rule, by single aircraft. The bombers operated in groups of 15 to 28 aircraft. The main targets attacked by bomber aircraft were reserves approaching the battlefield. Bombers often performed combat missions at night, as they were afraid of enemy fighters.
In the first five days, the German troops advanced only 5–6 km and could not completely break through the French defenses. Moreover, since the Germans were advancing on only one narrow section of the front, the French command, with the help of vehicles, was able to quickly transfer reserves from other sectors to Verdun, as a result of which, by the end of March, the German offensive near Verdun failed.
At the same time, the offensive operations of the Anglo-French troops on the Somme River, which began on July 1 after seven days of artillery preparation, turned out to be unsuccessful. For the first time, to support an attack, artillery used a barrage of fire, which was a continuous curtain of fire on the line in front of the front of its attacking troops, sequentially transferred as they advanced. To do this, in the direction of the main attack, it was supposed to have an artillery density of up to 120 barrels per 1 km of the front.
On September 15, the British used tanks for the first time (Fig. 15). 32 tanks took part in the attack. Used in small numbers, technically still imperfect (weight 28 tons, speed 4.4 km / h, armament - 4 machine guns, two 57-mm guns, crew - 8 people), the tanks had only a moral impact on the German troops and helped to reach the local tactical success. There was no total fracture during the operation. This was the first experience of using tank troops to break through positional defenses. In the future, the use of tank troops became the basis for breaking through the positional defense of the enemy.
Fig.15. The first experienced English tank (1916)
The most important event in the fighting at sea in 1916 was Battle of Jutland . It was the largest and, in fact, the only naval battle in the entire First World War. In it, the Germans expected to destroy the leading squadron of the British, but they met the main forces of the English fleet. The firefight of both fleets lasted 12 minutes. The British lost 14 ships, and the Germans 11. The Germans' hopes of defeating the English fleet in parts collapsed, after which their fleet no longer risked going to sea for major operations.
Campaign 1917
The general strategic situation by the beginning of 1917 was favorable for the Entente. On all fronts, the Entente had 425 divisions against 331 enemy divisions, and on April 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on its side.
The Entente command planned to end the war in 1917 by delivering a series of concerted strikes against the armies of the German coalition countries.
From the point of view of military art, the operation at Cambrai, carried out by British troops in November 1917, is of the greatest interest.
To break through the defense of the German troops at Cambrai (Fig. 16), 8 infantry divisions and a cavalry corps were involved.
Fig.16. The construction of the defense in 1917–1918
Each division received an offensive zone 1,500–1,700 meters wide. The actions of the ground forces were to be supported by 289 aircraft. By the beginning of the operation, the Germans had only 78 aircraft in this direction, i.e. the task of gaining air supremacy was solved in favor of the Entente.
The density of artillery was less than in previous operations (85 guns per 1 km of front). However, the British planned to attract 378 tanks, which gave an unprecedented density so far - 32 tanks per 1 km of front.
Each infantry battalion of the first echelon received 9-12 tanks for reinforcement. To ensure reliable interaction between infantry and tanks, its battle order was changed. During the period of rapprochement, the infantry had to move in detached or platoon columns under the cover of tanks, deploying in a chain only for firing or for attacking (Fig. 17).
Fig. 17. Joint use of infantry and tanks in the operation at Cambrai (November 1917)
In order to achieve surprise, the attack of tanks and infantry had to begin without artillery preparation. It was planned to support the offensive with a barrage of fire.
In preparation for the operation, all infantry divisions intended to participate in the operation underwent special training together with tankers in the rear training camps.
On the morning of November 20, the British went on the attack. A few minutes later the artillery opened fire. Tanks, and then infantry, advanced after the barrage of fire. Aviation struck at the headquarters and artillery of the Germans.
The German troops were stunned, and in the first position, in fact, did not offer serious resistance. Only two hours later resistance was organized, mainly on the flanks of the breakthrough, where the British had no tanks.
By 12 o'clock the advancing troops advanced 7-8 km and completed the breakthrough of two positions of the German defensive zone. Thus, in a few hours, what was spent months in previous operations was achieved.
Stubborn fighting continued until December 7th. Only thanks to powerful counterattacks did the Germans almost completely restore their previously occupied positions.
The October Revolution in Russia (November 1917) had a huge impact on the further course of the entire world war. The Soviet government took decisive steps towards exiting the war, and the first stage on this path was the conclusion of an armistice on December 2, 1917 between Soviet Russia and Germany.
Campaign 1918
By the beginning of 1918, on all fronts, the Entente (without Russia) had 274 divisions and 15,750 artillery pieces against 283 divisions and approximately the same number of guns of the German coalition. Its armed forces included 3,784 aircraft and 890 tanks. The countries of the Triple Alliance had 2890 aircraft, there were practically no tanks in their armies.
Having lost the overall numerical superiority due to Russia's withdrawal from the war, the Entente command decided to temporarily go on the defensive, speeding up the transfer of troops from the United States to Europe, and in the second half of 1918 begin active operations.
On February 18, 1918, German troops violated the truce with Soviet Russia and went on the offensive. However, they did not achieve the expected results and on February 23 they agreed to peace talks.
On the German-French front, all offensive operations of the Germans ended in failure, which strengthened the confidence of the Entente command in victory. As a result of successful military operations in August 1918, the initiative completely passed to the Anglo-French troops. German attempts to achieve an honorable peace through diplomacy and avoid surrender failed.
In this situation, at the end of September, the general offensive of the Entente began, on November 5, German troops began to retreat along the entire front, and on November 11, 1918, Germany capitulated. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost all its colonies, Alsace, Lorraine, Saar and other territories were taken away from it. She was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people, aviation, tanks and submarines. Germany managed to recover from the humiliating Treaty of Versailles only by the beginning of the 1930s.
War 1914–1918 was World War I. It included 38 states with a population of 1.5 billion people. Already at the beginning of the war, the size of the armies of both sides exceeded 8 million people, and in the course of it more than 70 million people were put under arms. More than 1 million people took part in separate operations at the same time.
By the end of the war, the armies of its main participants (at the front and in the rear) had a total of 18.5 million rifles, 480,000 machine guns, 183,000 guns and mortars, over 8,000 tanks, 84,000 aircraft, 340,000 cars.
Participation in the war of mass armies, equipped with numerous military equipment, led to the further development and improvement of methods for preparing and conducting operations and battles. The operation arose as a set of combat operations of troops coordinated and interconnected in terms of purpose, place and time, carried out according to a single plan by an operational formation to achieve the set goal.
The advent of new technology has caused changes in tactics. The dense skirmish lines were replaced by group formations of troops. The density of artillery increased sharply. She began to support the infantry attack with a barrage of fire. Aviation and chemical weapons were widely used to suppress the defense. In the field of offensive combat tactics, there was a desire to ensure close interaction of all forces and means participating in the battle. The defense was improved by increasing its depth by creating a system of defensive positions and lanes. Resistance knots, cut-off positions began to be created inside the bands, reinforced concrete and metal caps appeared.
The use of aviation and tanks required the creation of anti-aircraft and anti-tank artillery.
The problem of ensuring continuous interaction between infantry and artillery has not been fully resolved. Having advanced 3–4 km, the infantry was forced to stop, as it lost the support of artillery, which at that time changed firing positions.
By the beginning of World War I, all armies had numerous cavalry, but it did not play the role of a mobile branch of the armed forces in carrying out operational tasks.
The use by the belligerents of poisonous substances, as well as tanks, was the result of a search for new means and methods of breaking through the positional defense.
Poisonous substances and methods of their combat use were improved during the war - from a primitive gas launch from cylinders to shelling from special gas launchers, mortars and guns. The emergence of chemical means of combat required the organization of a new type of combat support - chemical protection (PCP).
The proportion of engineer troops by the end of the war had increased one and a half times. Their most characteristic tasks were the arrangement of defensive structures and barriers, the production of road and bridge works, the destruction of enemy defenses and barriers.
The emergence of new types of troops made great demands on communications technology and its organization. During the war, new means of communication were most developed: radio, long-distance telephone communication, direct-printing telegraph equipment..
The increased scope of operations required the implementation of a quick and clear maneuver of human and material reserves. In this regard, the purpose of rail and road transport has sharply increased. During the war years, the vehicle fleet of the armies of the main participants in the war grew from 15,000 to 340,000 vehicles.
Aviation developed rapidly during the war years. The power of aircraft engines increased from 60–80 to 300–400 hp. s., horizontal flight speed - from 80 to 200 km per hour, range - up to 300-500 km, and the ceiling from 2-3 to 7 km. The time of ascent to a height of 2 km decreased from 30–50 to 8–15 minutes. Instead of unarmed vehicles, aircraft equipped with machine guns appeared. The bomb load increased to 1000 kg. By the end of the war, the armies of the belligerents had (at the front and in the rear) 84,000 aircraft.
The variety of tasks performed required the creation of certain types of aircraft, and then special types of aviation. By the end of the war, there were three types of aircraft: reconnaissance (including spotters), fighters and bombers.
If at the beginning of the war the main organizational units were the detachment and squadron, then in 1918 aviation divisions appeared.
The widespread use of aviation led to the emergence of air defense (air defense)
The emergence of new naval combat assets led to a decrease in the proportion of battleships and cruisers and an increase in the role of light forces and submarines. Aircraft carriers, torpedo boats, landing and patrol ships, submarine hunters, underwater minelayers appeared. In the course of the war, a new branch of the naval forces arose - naval aviation. Achieving major goals through a single naval battle became impossible; a new form of combat activity of the fleet arose - a naval operation. The importance of close cooperation between all the forces of the fleet and their reliable and comprehensive support has sharply increased. Such new types of combat support for fleet operations have appeared, such as anti-mine, anti-submarine, anti-aircraft and anti-boat defense.
The wars of the era of imperialism revealed the growing role of economic and moral factors. This was a direct consequence of the presence of massive armies, a variety of military equipment and the protracted nature of wars, in which all the economic and political foundations of the state were tested.
Assignment for independent work:
1. Study the material of lesson No. 3 of topic No. 4.2. Prepare for Workshop #4.
3. Supplement the information in lesson No. 3 of topic No. 4 of the workbook (form - abstract).
4. Fill in part 3 of the conceptual table "The development of military art in the 19th - early 20th centuries."
Exercise 1. Analyze the text of the textbook and choose the correct answers.
1. What caused the peaceful nature of the European foreign policy of Nicholas II at the beginning of the reign:
a) the fact that Russia had no allies among the leading European powers;
b) the fact that the military-industrial potential of Russia was significantly inferior to the potential of the European powers;
c) the fact that peace in Europe facilitated the establishment of Russian dominance in East Asia
2. What foreign policy actions did Nicholas II take to establish peace in Europe:
a) concluded an agreement with England;
b) initiated the convening of an international conference on problems of general disarmament;
c) recognized the primacy of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans
Task 2. Analyze the text of the paragraph, read the documents and answer the questions.
From the letter of the German Emperor Wilhelm II to Nicholas II. January 1904
... Russia, obeying the laws of expansion, should strive to go to the sea and have an ice-free harbor for its trade. By virtue of this law, she has the right to claim the strip of coast where such harbors (Vladivostok, Port Arthur) are located. ports (Manchuria). Between the two ports there is a strip of land, which, if it falls into the hands of the enemy, can become something like new Dardanelles. You cannot allow this. These "Dardanelles" (Korea) should not be a threat to your communications and a threat to your trade. Such is the case in the Black Sea, but in the Far East you cannot reconcile yourself to such a situation. Therefore, it is clear to any unprejudiced person that Korea must be and will be Russian. When and how, no one cares about this and concerns only yourself and your country.
1. What are the causes of the Russo-Japanese War and its nature?
Reason: Russia's desire to dominate the Far East, which did not suit Japan. Russia sought to go to the sea and have an ice-free harbor. Another goal of the Russian government - victory in the war could divert attention from internal problems and bring down the rising revolutionary movement. Captivating character.
2. What are the goals of the persecution of Russia in this war?
Expand the sphere of influence and establish dominance in the Far East. Solve the country's internal problems associated with the spread of the revolutionary movement.
3. What do you think, for what purpose did the German emperor write such a letter?
In order to weaken Russia by tying it into a war with Japan.
Task 3. Match historical figures and facts.
Task 4. Based on the text of the paragraph, determine which of the following was included in the terms of the Peace of Portsmouth (several answers are possible):
a) compensation by Russia for the material losses of Japan in the amount of 100 million gold rubles;
b) the introduction of Russian troops into Korea;
c) Japanese occupation of Manchuria;
d) the transfer of the lease of Port Arthur to Japan;
e) the transfer of the southern part of Sakhalin Island to Japan;
f) prohibition to the Japanese of the right to fish along the Russian shores in the Sea of Japan, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea.
Task 5. Using textbook text, map:
1. The directions of the offensive of the Japanese troops.
2. Dates of the beginning and end of the defense of Port Arthur.
3. Places and times of the main battles of the war on land and at sea.
4. Borders between Russia and Japan before and after the war.
