In historical science, it is generally accepted that the history of any nation begins with the formation of a state. More than 100 peoples and nationalities live in the Russian Federation. But the main state-forming people of our country is the Russian people (out of 149 million - 120 million are Russians).

The Russian people - one of the largest peoples in the world - for many centuries played a leading role in the political, economic, cultural development of the country. The first state of Russians, as well as Ukrainians and Belarusians, was formed in the 9th century around Kyiv by their common ancestors - the Eastern Slavs.

The first written evidence of the Slavs.

By the middle of the II millennium BC. Slavs stand out from the Indo-European community. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the Slavs became so significant in terms of numbers, influence in the world around them that Greek, Roman, Arabic, Byzantine authors began to report on them (the Roman writer Pliny the Elder), the historian Tacitus - I century AD, the geographer Ptolemy Claudius - II century .n.e. ancient authors call the Slavs "antes", "sklavins", "veneds" and speak of them as "countless tribes").

In the era of the great migration of the peoples of the Slavs, other peoples began to crowd on the Danube. The Slavs began to split up.

Part of the Slavs remained in Europe. Later they will receive the name of the southern Slavs (later Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnians, Montenegrins will come from them).

Another part of the Slavs moved to the north - the Western Slavs (Czechs, Poles, Slovaks). Western and southern Slavs were conquered by other peoples.

And the third part of the Slavs, according to scientists, did not want to submit to anyone and moved to the northeast, to the East European Plain. Later they will receive the name of the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians).

It should be noted that most of the tribes sought to Central Europe, to the ruins of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire soon fell under the blows of the alien barbarians (476 AD). On this territory, the barbarians will create their own statehood, having absorbed the cultural heritage of ancient Roman culture. The Eastern Slavs, on the other hand, went to the northeast, into the dense forest jungle, where there was no cultural heritage. The Eastern Slavs left in two streams. One part of the Slavs went to Lake Ilmen. Later, the ancient Russian city of Novgorod will rise there. The other part - to the middle and lower reaches of the Dnieper - there will be another ancient city of Kyiv.

In the VI - VIII centuries. Eastern Slavs mostly settled in the East European Plain.

Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs. And other peoples already lived on the East European (Russian) Plain. On the Baltic coast and in the north lived the Baltic (Lithuanians, Latvians) and Finno-Finnish (Finns, Estonians, Ugrians (Hungarians), Komi, Khanty, Mansi, etc.) tribes. The colonization of these places was peaceful, the Slavs got along with the local population.

The situation was different in the east and southeast. There, the Steppe adjoined the Russian Plain. The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs were the steppe nomads - the Turks (the Altai family of peoples, the Turkic group). In those days, peoples leading a different way of life - sedentary and nomadic - were constantly at enmity with each other. The nomads lived by raiding the settled population. And for almost 1000 years, one of the main phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs will be the struggle against the nomadic peoples of the Steppe.

The Turks on the eastern and southeastern borders of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs created their own state formations.

In the middle of the VI century. in the lower reaches of the Volga there was a state of the Turks - the Avar Khaganate. In 625, the Avar Khaganate was defeated by Byzantium and ceased to exist.

In the VII - VIII centuries. here appears the state of other Turks - the Bulgar (Bulgarian) kingdom. Then the Bulgar kingdom broke up. Part of the Bulgars went to the middle reaches of the Volga and formed the Volga Bulgaria. Another part of the Bulgars migrated to the Danube, where the Danube Bulgaria was formed (later the newcomer Turks were assimilated by the southern Slavs. A new ethnic group arose, but it took the name of the newcomers - "Bulgarians").

The steppes of southern Russia after the departure of the Bulgars were occupied by new Turks - the Pechenegs.

On the lower Volga and in the steppes between the Caspian and Azov seas, semi-nomadic Turks created the Khazar Khaganate. The Khazars established their dominance over the East Slavic tribes, many of whom paid tribute to them until the 9th century.

In the south, the Byzantine Empire (395 - 1453) with its capital in the city of Constantinople (in Russia it was called Tsargrad) was a neighbor of the Eastern Slavs.

Territory of the Eastern Slavs. In the VI - VIII centuries. The Slavs were not yet one people.

They were divided into tribal unions, which included 120 - 150 separate tribes. By the ninth century There were about 15 tribal unions. Tribal unions were called either by the area in which they lived, or by the name of the leaders. Information about the resettlement of the Eastern Slavs is contained in the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", created by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor in the second decade of the 12th century. (The chronicler Nestor is called "the father of Russian history"). According to the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", the Eastern Slavs settled: the meadow - along the banks of the Dnieper, not far from the mouth of the Desna; northerners - in the basin of the Desna and Seim rivers; radimichi - on the upper tributaries of the Dnieper; Drevlyans - along Pripyat; Dregovichi - between Pripyat and the Western Dvina; polochane - along Polota; Ilmen Slovenes - along the rivers Volkhov, Shchelon, Lovat, Msta; Krivichi - in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Western Dvina and Volga; Vyatichi - in the upper reaches of the Oka; buzhane - along the Western Bug; Tivertsy and streets - from the Dnieper to the Danube; white Croats - the northern part of the western slopes of the Carpathians.

The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks". The Eastern Slavs did not have a sea coast. Rivers became the main trade routes for the Slavs. They "huddled" to the banks of the rivers, especially the greatest river of Russian antiquity - the Dnieper. In the ninth century a great trade route arose - "from the Varangians to the Greeks". It connected Novgorod and Kyiv, Northern and Southern Europe. From the Baltic Sea along the Neva River, the caravans of merchants got to Lake Ladoga, from there along the Volkhov River and further along the Lovat River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. From Lovat to the Dnieper in the region of Smolensk and on the Dnieper rapids they crossed by "drag routes". Further, the western coast of the Black Sea reached the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (the Eastern Slavs called it Constantinople). This path became the core, the main trade road, the "red street" of the Eastern Slavs. The whole life of the East Slavic society was concentrated around this trade route.

Occupations of the Eastern Slavs. The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. They cultivated wheat, rye, barley, millet, planted turnips, millet, cabbage, beets, carrots, radishes, garlic and other crops. They were engaged in cattle breeding (bred pigs, cows, horses, small cattle), fishing, beekeeping (gathering honey from wild bees). A significant part of the territory of the Eastern Slavs lay in the zone of a harsh climate, and farming required the exertion of all physical strength. Labor-intensive work had to be completed within a strictly defined time frame. This was only possible for a large team. Therefore, from the very beginning of the appearance of the Slavs on the East European Plain, the collective - the community and the role of leader - began to play the most important role in their life.

Cities. Among the Eastern Slavs in the V - VI centuries. cities arose, which was associated with the long-standing development of trade. The most ancient Russian cities are Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Suzdal, Murom, Pereyaslavl South. In the ninth century the Eastern Slavs had at least 24 major cities. Cities usually arose at the confluence of rivers, on a high hill. The central part of the city was called the Kremlin, Detinets and was usually surrounded by a rampart. The Kremlin housed the dwellings of princes, the nobility, temples, monasteries. A moat filled with water was erected behind the fortress wall. Bargaining was located behind the moat. A settlement adjoined the Kremlin, where artisans settled. Separate areas of the settlement, inhabited by artisans of the same specialty, were called settlements.

Public relations. Eastern Slavs lived in clans. Each clan had its own foreman - the prince. The prince relied on the tribal elite - "the best husbands." The princes formed a special military organization - a squad, which included warriors and advisers to the prince. The squad was divided into senior and junior. The first included the most noble warriors (advisers). The younger squad lived with the prince and served his court and household. Vigilantes from the conquered tribes collected tribute (taxes). Campaigns for the collection of tribute were called "polyuds". From time immemorial, the Eastern Slavs had a custom - to solve all the most important issues in the life of the family at a secular gathering - a veche.

Beliefs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They worshiped the forces of nature and the spirits of their ancestors. In the pantheon of Slavic gods, a special place was occupied by: the god of the sun - Yarilo; Perun is the god of war and lightning, Svarog is the god of fire, Veles is the patron of cattle. The princes themselves acted as high priests, but the Slavs also had special priests - sorcerers and magicians.

Bibliography:
The Tale of Bygone Years. - M.; L.; 1990.
Rybakov B.A. The first centuries of Russian history. - M., 1964.

The first reliable news about the unification of the Eastern Slavs

According to the testimony of Arab writers of the 9th and even the 10th century, the Eastern Slavs did not constitute one people, but were divided into many separate tribes, between which eternal enmity reigned. “If the Slavs,” wrote Masudi (beginning of the 10th century), “were not so fragmented, and if there were less disagreement between their individual tribes, then not a single people in the world would be able to resist them.”

These reviews, however, were already an anachronism for their time. There are undoubted indications that by the beginning of the tenth century, the Eastern Slavs, if not all, then in large part, formed an alliance under the leadership of one leader. Such a leader is the Russian Grand Duke Oleg. In 907, according to the story of the chronicle, having concluded an agreement with the Greeks, after a successful attack on Constantinople, Oleg took from them "ways", indemnity for the cities of Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Polotsk, Rostov, Lyubech and others: great princes, under Olg exist, ”explains the chronicler, who sets out the contract, apparently on the basis of an official act. The ambassadors sent by Oleg to Tsargrad four years later "to build peace and lay ranks between the Greeks and Russia," concluded an agreement on behalf of "Olga, the Grand Duke of Russia and from all those who are at hand, bright and great prince and his great boyars" . This is what the text of the treaty, included in the annals, says. In 944, the Russian ambassadors who arrived in Constantinople also agreed on behalf of Igor, the Grand Duke of Russia, "and from all the princes and from all the people of the Russian land." A well-known political association of Eastern Slavs appears in these testimonies as an undeniable fact. How did it happen?

Preparation of the unification of the Slavs. Khazar dominion

The initial Russian chronicle, as you know, considers this unification to be the work of the Varangian princes, princes of two or three generations. Having initially established themselves in the land of the Ilmen Slavs, Chuds and Vess, the Varangian princes moved from here to the south, subjugated the cities that lay along the great waterway from the Varangians to the Greeks, and all the surrounding tribes, without letting go of Novgorod. Thus, the Grand Duchy of Russia was formed, uniting the Eastern Slavs. However, there is evidence indicating that the unification of the Eastern Slavs took place with a certain historical preparation, not as quickly as depicted in the annals, and not only through the efforts of the Varangian princes. In the matter of uniting the Eastern Slavs, the Varangians had their predecessors - the Khazars.

It has already been indicated above that the Slavs settled widely in the southern regions of present-day European Russia under the protection and rule of the Khazar kingdom, that the Khazar kagan was their overlord. In the Khazar kingdom, the Slavs received their first preparation for a broad political unification for the struggle for existence. Submission to the power of the Kyiv Varangian people for the Slavs of our south was only a simple change of rulers. Our chronicle has noted this fact extremely clearly. According to her story, Askold and Dir, having come to the meadows, asked them: “To whom do you give tribute?” - “Khazar,” was the answer. “Pay us,” said the princes, and the meadows submitted to the Varangian princes. The same thing happened, according to the chronicle, later among the northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi, when Oleg and then Svyatoslav appeared among them. But what explains this change of rulers?

Breakthrough of nomads to the southern steppes of Eastern Europe in the 9th century

In the 9th century, the Khazar kingdom was no longer able to protect the Slavs, who settled in the southern regions of Eastern Europe, from nomadic raids. These nomads began to break into our southern steppes and wreak havoc here. In 837, according to the story of the Vertinsky chronicle, ambassadors from the Byzantine emperor Theophilus arrived to Emperor Louis the Pious and brought with them some people from the people rus. These people were sent to the emperor Theophilus by their king, with the name khakan(rex illorum, chacanus vocabulo), to testify to him his friendship. But on the occasion of the savage peoples who had taken over the path for them, they could not return by the direct route and had to take a detour. When they were asked in more detail who they were, it turned out that they were of Swedish origin (ex gente Sueonum). Obviously, it was Russia, which was in the service of the Khazar kagan (and later, in the tenth century, Russia and the Slavs, according to the Arabs, usually lived in the capital of Khazaria). But what kind of wild tribes were they who took over their path when they returned to the kagan? At present, it is already possible to answer this question with more or less certainty. According to Arab writers, in the middle of the 9th century, people already lived in our steppes. eels. These Ugrians constantly attacked the Slavs, took captives from them, took them to Karkh (apparently Kerch) and exchanged them for Greeks for brocade, colorful woolen carpets and other Greek goods. According to another Arabic news, "they rule over all the neighboring Slavs, burden them with heavy tribute and treat them like their own slaves." Obviously, the Khazars were no longer able to hold back the nomadic hordes pushing from the east, and let the Ugrians pass. Following the Ugrians, a horde of Pechenegs broke into our steppes in the 70-80s of the same century, who were pressed from the east by bonds (or the Torques of our chronicles). The Pechenegs pushed the Ugrians to the west, who settled in the region of the Dniester, Prut and Seret rivers. At the call of the Byzantine government, the Ugrians took part in the war between the Greeks and the Bulgarians in 892. But the Bulgarians called the Pechenegs against them, and the Ugrians, having fallen between two fires, rushed up the Danube, to the camps of the Huns and Avars, and settled here. This movement of tribes in our south is reported by both Constantine Porphyrogenitus and the western chronicler-monk Reginon, disagreements are only in dates (Konstantin relates the arrival of the Hungarians to the Middle Danubian lowland in 898, and Reginon - to 889). Reginon's message is especially curious. “In 889,” he writes, “the people of the Hungarians came out of the Skies swamps, where the Tanais flows, expelled from their residence by neighboring peoples called Pecinati.”

The consequences of the invasion of Eastern Europe for the Slavs

The invasion of predatory hordes has made great changes in the life of our south. The Slavs, scattered along the steppe rivers and rivers in the basins of the lower Don, lower Dnieper, Southern Bug, lower Dniester, were partly exterminated, partly had to leave their villages, their towns. That is why the compiler of the legend about the beginning of Russia released the Don basin from the area of ​​\u200b\u200bSlavic settlement. That is why he also reports about the habitation of the streets and Tivertsy on the Black Sea coast as a fact of the past: "and the essence of their hail to this day." The Pontic and Azov steppes, previously captured by the Slavic colonization, were already deserted by the beginning of the 10th century and became a free space for nomadic hordes. On the Black Sea and Azov coasts, only a few inhabited places survived under the protection of strong walls, the sea or swamps of river deltas. Such were the cities - Belgorod at the mouth of the Dniester, renamed by the Turks into Akkerman (now Akkerman), Chernograd, now Ochakov, on the Dneprobug estuary, Oleshye at the mouth of the Dnieper in an alder thicket, ancient Greek colonies in the Crimea and at the mouth of the Don, and, finally, Tmutarakan on swampy Taman Peninsula, on the lower reaches of the Kuban.

The living conditions for the Slavs who settled in the forest region of Eastern Europe also deteriorated greatly. These Slavs were diligently engaged in hunting and beekeeping and sold their prey to merchants who traveled along the great waterway from the Varangians to the Greeks and along the Volga. Numerous treasures with Arab and Byzantine coins of the 7th-9th centuries testify to the established trade with Khazaria and Byzantium. This trade, which had acquired paramount, vital importance for the Eastern Slavs, now began to be endangered both on the Dnieper and on the Volga. This circumstance, in connection with the constant raids of the nomads, forced all the Slavs who lived along the great waterway to unite in order to jointly protect the trade routes and repel the nomads.

The unification of the Eastern Slavs under the rule of the Kyiv princes

This unifying movement came out of Novgorod and was headed by the Varangian princes, that is, the Scandinavian kings with their retinues. The Varangians-Scandinavians have long been visiting our country to plunder and collect tribute, and mainly for trade, and even began to settle permanently in the main cities of the Eastern Slavs. Their leaders kings in the second half of the 9th century, they began to establish themselves as local leaders or princes in these cities. One of these kings, Oleg, in Scandinavian Hilga, moved with his retinue from Novgorod to the south, established himself in Kyiv, the former main junction of trade routes leading from Russia to Tsargrad, and, relying on the numerous Scandinavian element here, forced himself to be recognized as the main leader all Eastern Slavs. Other Varangian kings, who established themselves in the cities of the Eastern Slavs, and the tribal princes and elders who existed in some places, also became under his authority. That is why agreements with the Greeks began to be concluded on behalf of "Olga, the Grand Duke of Russia and from all those who are at hand, light and great princes, and his great boyars." This Grand Duke began to protect the trade of the Eastern Slavs and repel the raids of the nomads, and at times to undertake distant campaigns for robbery and booty, as was the custom among the Norman kings. The trade of the Eastern Slavs now began to be carried out under the protection of special expeditions equipped with princes. During the winter, the princes collected tribute from the population subject to them - furs, wax and honey. In the spring, with the opening of the rivers, the princes loaded the collected tribute onto boats and sent a whole flotilla of ships down the Dnieper from Kyiv. Merchants from Kyiv, Chernigov, Smolensk, Novgorod and other cities joined the prince's boats. The flotilla was accompanied by armed men. When the ships reached the fourth threshold, the merchants unloaded their goods, disembarked the chained slaves, and walked along the coast at a distance of 600 steps. Here they usually had to engage in battle with the Pechenegs who were waiting for them. Having repulsed the barbarians, the Russians boarded the boats again, went out to sea and, following along its western coast, reached Tsargrad. This is how Konstantin Porphyrogenitus tells in his essay “On the Administration of the Empire”. His story is also confirmed by the treaties between the first princes and the Greeks, which testify that the merchant caravans arriving from Russia always included princely ships with the prince's ambassadors. In addition to protecting trade, the princes began to repel the attacks of nomads on the Ukraine of the Slavic settlement. Therefore, those Slavic tribes that were attacked by nomads willingly submitted to them; some, however, they had to "torment". One way or another, but, in the end, the Eastern Slavs united under the rule of the Kyiv prince, and a political union of all the Eastern Slavs was created.

Question about Varangians-Rus

This explanation of the origin of the Russian state, although it does not completely coincide with the chronicle, nevertheless stands on the same ground of facts and views. In it, one way or another, a significant role is assigned to the Varangians, that is, the Scandinavian squads with their kings, who seem to be an active unifying force. But before we dwell on this explanation definitively, we must carefully review the facts and the views underlying it. The fact is that explanations of the origin of the Russian state, one way or another consistent with the annalistic narrative, have long aroused and still arouse heated protests.

Opinion on the Slavic-Baltic origin of the Varangians and Rus

More Lomonosov, who fought with the Germans at the Academy of Sciences, took up arms against them in historiography. When an academic Miller wrote a speech in which, according to the annals and the arguments of the academician Baer, proved the Scandinavian origin of the Varangians-Rus, Lomonosov opposed him with sharp, passionate criticism and with his own theory, which considered the Varangians-Russ Slavs from the Baltic coast. Lomonosov dated the homeland of the Varangian-Russians to the Neman region, indicating that the Neman in the lower reaches is called Rus. So, although the Varangians-Rus were alien people among the Eastern Slavs, they were still their own, fellow tribesmen, and not aliens - the Germans. Lomonosov found followers. Professor at Moscow University Moroshkin proved that Varangians left the Slavic region Wagria - from the Baltic coast, and Russians, whom he distinguishes from the Varangians, from the island Rügen. Moroshkin's theory was developed and furnished with evidence Zabelin in his History of Russian Life. In his opinion, the initial chronicle, listing the peoples of the Japheth tribe who settled in the north of Europe, dates Russia as to the Baltic Slavic coast. And indeed, he says, on this coast we see a lot of geographical names with roots: Rus, Ros, Rug, Runes. Here we meet, among other things, the region of Rugia, the island of Rügen, which in the geographical works of the late 16th century is directly called Russia. So, the homeland of Russia is the Slavic Baltic coast. Here is also the homeland of the Varangians, in whom Zabelin sees the Slavic tribe of Vagrs. Zabelin points out that the Baltic Slavs in the 9th century were not only farmers, but also enterprising merchants and sailors who successfully competed with the Normans and Swedes. The tribe of Vagra, Vagira or Vargi was especially distinguished by its courage and enterprise. These were the Vikings of our chronicle. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Baltic Slavs carried on a lively trade with Scandinavia and the East and arrived in our country; they had to set up their trading posts here, maintain their garrisons in the most important points of the region, and look for new trade routes from here. The result of this was the emergence in the Ilmensky region of the colony of Western Slavs - Novgorod. Zabelin believes that the first Slavic settlement must have arisen here, at least in the time of Ptolemy. And the Dnieper Rus, in his opinion, originates from the same Baltic Rus, which moved here in very distant times, so that it became known in the 1st century to Strabo, who mentions it under the name Roxalan.

The theory of the native origin of Russia

Zabelin followed in the footsteps of the Varangian, in fact, the issue and Gideons in his "Excerpts from Studies on the Varangian Question" and then in the book "Varyags and Russia". Gedeonov collected a whole range of historical evidence about the Baltic Slavs, proving that it dominated the Baltic Sea even when the very name of the Normans was barely becoming known in Western Europe. Gideonov deduces from this that the Baltic Sea received the name Varangian from us not from the Normans, but from the Wagris. But on the question of the origin of Russia, Gideonov disagreed with Zabelin and recognized Russia as the indigenous East Slavic population, which itself transferred its name to the newcomers, the Varangians, and did not borrow from them. On this last question he agreed with Gedeonov and Ilovaisky in his "Investigations about the beginning of Russia". Ilovaisky made a concession to the Normanists in that he agreed to regard the Varangians as Normans. But he does not attach any importance to these Norman Varangians in the organization of the Russian state and considers the annalistic legend about the calling of princes to be a pure fairy tale. In his opinion, in the middle Dnieper region, in ancient times, an independent Slavic-Russian principality was formed, the ethnographic material for which was given by the Scythian-Sarmatian, also Slavic, Roxalan or Rosalan tribe, placed by Strabo between the Dnieper and the Don. State power appeared in this principality not from outside, but developed naturally from the power of the tribal elder.

Ilovaisky points out that the name "Rus" in its pure form, contrary to the assertions of the Normanists, occurs much earlier than the second half of the 9th century. Iornand already knew the Russians, whom he calls rock. The Bertin Chronicles mention an embassy from the Ros people under the year 839. Byzantine writers report that in order to protect themselves from the Dnieper Russ, the Khazars asked Emperor Theophilos to build the Sarkel fortress back in 835. The Bavarian geographer of the 9th century, along with the streets (Unlici) and barns (Casiri), also puts Russia (Ruzzi). The mention of the native people "Rus" is also found in the Arabic writer Khordadbeg. In addition to the Dnieper Rus, Ilovaisky also recognizes the primordial existence of the Azov-Black Sea Rus, thanks to which the Black Sea also received the name Russian. To this Russia, he dates the Byzantine news about raids on Byzantium, about the existence of a Russian metropolis of the 9th century (with Leo the Philosopher), about the adoption of Christianity by Russians in the 60s, and the fact that Konstantin the Philosopher found in Korsun, or Tauric Chersonese, in the second half of the 9th century , a gospel written in Russian letters, and a person who spoke Russian ... Ilovaisky also refers to this Rus the news of the Arabs about the Russian colony in the capital of Khazaria, about the grandiose raids of the Russians on the Caspian coast in 913-914; By the existence of the same Russia, he explains the news of some Arab writers about the division of Russia into three parts: Slavia (Novgorod region), Kuyava (Dnieper Russia) and Artania (Black Sea-Azov, according to Ilovaisky), as well as their placement of Russia between Khazaria and Rum and the news that the Russians live on a large peninsula (Taman). To all this, Ilovaisky adds the indication that both among the Arabs and in Western sources, the Bosporus, or Kerch, was sometimes called "Russia". Where did this Azov-Black Sea Rus subsequently go? She, Ilovaisky answers, from the middle of the 9th century begins to be obscured by the growing power of Russia near the Dnieper, then is cut off from it by the hordes of nomads who invaded our steppes, and, finally, in the era of appanage Russia, makes it possible to see itself again in the person of the mysterious Russian Tmutarakan principality. These are the statements of Ilovaisky.

The theory of the Gothic origin of Russia

Recently, a new theory has been put forward, which is also looking for Russia not in the Scandinavian north, but in the Dnieper region, but not among the Slavs, but among the Germans. Yes, professor. Budilovich found it possible to see in Russia the Gothic tribe Hroth (pronounced Gros), which dissolved among the Eastern Slavs, united it and gave it its name.

How should we treat all these theories, should we accept them or reject them? This is an important question in the science of Russian history. Depending on which side we will take in this dispute, the image of the origin of the Russian state should come out differently both in details and in the general concept. Therefore, it is necessary to go into details, to revise the data of sources, according to which one can somehow get an idea of ​​the nationality of the Varangians-Rus.

Source data on the Scandinavian origin of the Varangians-Rus

It was indicated above that the question of the Varangians-Rus over time was divided in the historical literature into two questions - a separate one about the Varangians and a separate one about Russia. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the data of the sources separately about the Varangians and separately about Russia.

First of all, we find data about the Varangians in the legend about the beginning of Russia. The compiler of this legend lived under Yaroslavl and, at the latest, under his sons, and should have known well those people who were called by this name, for even in his time they were in the service of the Russian prince both in Kyiv and in Novgorod. “Idosha,” he says about the Novgorod Slavs, “over the sea to the Varangians of Russia: this is the name of you and the Vikings of Russia, as if all friends are called their own, the friends of the Anglians, Urmans, friends of the Gotes, tacos and si.” So, according to this view, the Varangians were none other than Scandinavians. Turning to contemporary Byzantine writers in our chronicle, we see that they also know the Varangians, calling them βάραγγοι. By this name they mean the hired squads of the Anglo-Saxons from the island of Thule (from the British group), who served in Byzantium. With the same meaning of the North German squads, the words Waeringer are also found in Western chroniclers. Arabic writers also know the Varangians as Normans. The late academician Vasilyevsky found one extremely curious Byzantine monument of the 11th century, which he outlined in the article "Advice and Answers of a Byzantine Boyar of the 11th Century." This Byzantine boyar, retelling the well-known saga about Harald, directly calls Harald the son of the king of Varangia, and it is known that Harald was from Norway. This is how Norway and Varangia, Normans and Varangians are identified. Based on all these data, the question of the Varangians can be considered resolved in the sense of the teachings of the Norman school, and one can hardly see them as a West Slavic tribe, as Lomonosov and his followers wanted.

The question of who Rus was is difficult to resolve, although in this matter there are more chances of truth for the Norman school than for the Slavic. The Norman school draws its arguments primarily from the legend of the beginning of Russia. In this legend, as we have seen, Russia is identified with the Varangians and is recognized as one of the Scandinavian tribes. The author of the legend derives from these alien Varangians the origin of the name Orus” in the appendix to our country. “And from those Varangians the Russian land of Novgorodtsy was nicknamed: these are the people of Novgorodtsy from the Varangian clan, before the former Slavs.” In other words: the Varangians-Rus gave their name to the Novgorod land, which was previously a purely Slavic land. When Oleg, with his Rus, moved from Novgorod to Kyiv and subjugated the Dnieper Slavs to his power, the name Rus spread to the Kiev Dnieper region, and then to the entire region of the Eastern Slavs.

The defenders of the Norman theory have tried to support the messages of our chronicle with foreign evidence and philological considerations. In 860, as is known, there was an attack on Constantinople by the people of Russia, as Patriarch Photius testified to this in his sermon εΐς τόν έΦοδον τών Ρως . Deacon John testified in these terms: "eo tempore Normannorum gentes cum trecentis sexaginta navibus Constantinopolitanam urbem adire ausi sunt." Western writers recognized the Normans in Russia even in the 10th century. So Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, who was twice ambassador to Byzantium (in 948 and 968) writes: "Habet Constantinopolis ab aquilone Hungarios, Pizenacos, Chasaros, Rusios, quos nos alio nomine Nordmannos appellamus." Arab writers, such as Ibn-Dasta in his work "The Book of Precious Treasures" (912), speaking of Russia, who came to Khazaria, clearly distinguish it from the Slavs. The Arabs generally considered the Normans and Russia to be one people. So, Ahmed Al Katib, writing at the very end of the 9th century (after 890), reports that in 844 the pagan Russians attacked Seville, plundered and burned it. What were the Russians? It is unlikely that our Dnieper Slavs, most likely - the Normans, who devastated at that time all the coasts of Western Europe.

With this news about the Normans-Rus, the data of the language of these Russ are also quite consistent. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, talking about the trade of Russia with Constantinople, gives two rows of names for the Dnieper rapids - Russian and Slavic. According to careful philological research, it turns out that the Russian names of the rapids are explained well from the Scandinavian languages. So, the name of the threshold Ulworsi, in Slavic "Island-niprag", derived from the Scandinavian Holm-fors, which also means island-threshold; threshold name "Cellandri", noisy in Slavonic (ringing), derived from Scandinavian Gellandi, sounding; threshold name aifor, in Slavic Neyasyt (now Nenasytetsky), derived from the Scandinavian Eifor, indomitable; title baruforos, in Slavic Vulniprag (Free now), derived from the Scandinavian Baru-fors, waterfall, etc. If you look closely at the names of the first Russian princes, you can easily see that all these names are Scandinavian; Rurik - Hroerekr; Sineus - Signiutr; Truvor - Thorvard, Oleg - Helgi, Igor - Ingwarr; Oskold - Hoskuldr, Dir - Dyri, etc. The names of Igor's combatants are "from the Russian family", as they are listed in his agreement with the Greeks, all Scandinavian names: Karls, Inegeld, Farlof, Veremund, Rulav, Guda, Ruald, etc. e. All these names appear in the inscriptions on the so-called runic monuments around Lake Melara in Sweden. It is clear that Russia was of Scandinavian origin.

But what about the fact that among the Scandinavian tribes, Western sources do not indicate the tribes of Russia? The names of the Swedes, Normans, Goths, Angles and Danes are known, but the name Rus is unknown. The Normanists explained this fact in this way: the Scandinavians began to be called Rus only here, in Eastern Europe. The Slavs heard this name for the first time from the Finns, who still call Sweden Ruotsi, Rots (Estonians), and the Finns, in turn, heard this word from the Scandinavians who arrived in Eastern Europe, who called themselves rothsmens, sailors. The Finns took this common name for their own ethnographic, and with their light hand it established itself behind the Varangians-Scandinavians in our country and in neighboring ones - Khazaria and Byzantium.

Anti-Normanist theory

It is impossible not to admit that these arguments in total solidly substantiate the idea that Russia was of Scandinavian origin. Opponents of the Normanists tried to refute this position, but, in our opinion, to no avail. All they have achieved is that they pushed back the arrival of the Varangians-Rus in our country to a more ancient time. So, they indicated that the name Rus is in the monuments much earlier than 862, at the very beginning of the 9th century. The lives of Stephen of Surozh and George of Amastrid speak of an attack by the prince of the Russians on the shores of Asia Minor at the beginning of the 9th century; Byzantine chronicles report under the year 835 about the request of the Khazarian kagan to send help against the people of Rus. The Vertinsky chronicles, as we have already seen, report about the Rus people under the year 839. For the chronology of the initial chronicle, relating the arrival of Russia to the year 862, of course, it is not necessary to stand after these instructions. This chronology is already suspected in science, which found out that this chronology belongs to the later compiler of the initial chronicle code, who put numbers where they were not originally there. The data cited by the anti-Normanists, having pushed back the arrival of the Varangians-Rus to us, help us explain the fact that at the beginning of the tenth century the name Rus became already the topographical name of a well-known region in our country. Konstantin Porphyrogenitus relates this name precisely to the middle Dnieper region, where the city of Kyiv stood. It is obvious that the Varangians-Rus had been in charge in this area for a long time and therefore they told her the name of Rus, the Russian land. That is why the prince of Kyiv in the treaties of Oleg and Igor is called the prince of Russia; that is why the laws that existed here are called Russian laws in the treaties of Oleg and Igor. Thus, the folk tradition preserved by our initial chronicle, in general, correctly conveyed the main facts of our ancient history. She just couldn't keep the details, the details exactly. The details were introduced by the compiler of the initial chronicle, a learned man, and as you can see, not entirely successful.

The role of the Varangian princes in the unification of the Eastern Slavs

So the vocation, or rather Adoption, Vikings really took place in our country. The Normans in Russia showed the same organizational activity that they showed in some other parts of Europe, created a special state from local scattered elements, just as they created the same states in the north of France, in the south of Italy and later - in England. Of course, this organizational role of the Normans should not be exaggerated. The Varangian kings united the Eastern Slavs under their rule only because the circumstances of life at a certain moment insistently, as we have seen, demanded this unification. And then; life also prepared the ground for this unification, for the Eastern Slavs, as we have seen, had already managed to organize themselves into a number of large, social unions, connected with each other by certain essential interests. In this case, the Varangian kings did not have to create everything ab ovo, but only to connect the individual parts and crown, so to speak, with a “roof” the political building that was being built by local life. With such reservations, we can quite calmly, without any feeling unpleasant for national pride, accept the legend of the calling of princes from across the sea as a reflection, although perhaps refracted through the prism of time, of a real fact that took place in our initial history. It is only difficult to agree with the chronicle legend regarding the main motive that caused the calling, or acceptance, of the Varangian princes. Such a main motive, according to the chronicle legend, is the internal structure of the earth; the princes were called for court and attire, which were absent among the Eastern Slavs. We once assumed that the Varangian kings with their retinues were taken in large trading cities, mainly for the defense of lands, trade routes and interests. This assumption is fully justified by the activities of the first Varangian princes, as it is depicted in the initial chronicle.

External activities of the first Varangian princes

The first Varangian princes act in our country not so much as the internal organizers of the land, but precisely as leaders of squads who protected the Eastern Slavs from the insults and attacks of their neighbors and protected their trade interests.

Russia, that is, princely ambassadors and guests from various East Slavic cities, as can be seen from the messages of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, conducted active trade relations with Byzantium, where they sold furs, wax, honey and servants, that is, slaves. At times, the Byzantines offended Russian merchants who came to them in Constantinople. The first Varangian princes are the avengers for these grievances. Askold and Dir attacked Constantinople in 860, according to the testimony of Patriarch Photius, because the Byzantines killed some of their fellow tribesmen and denied Russia satisfaction for this offense. Oleg's attack on Tsargrad was also caused, according to all sources, by the grievances that the Greeks inflicted on Russian merchants. The treaties that he concluded with the Greeks determined for the future precisely the position of the Russian guests and the princely “words”, that is, ambassadors, who also came with them for trading purposes. According to these agreements, Russian ambassadors and guests received the right to reside in Constantinople all summer and could not stay only for the winter. They were assigned apartments in the suburbs near St. Mamas (monastery of St. Mamas), and they could enter the city itself only through the famous gates, in groups of no more than 50 people, and accompanied by an imperial bailiff. Throughout their stay, they received free food, a month, which was given to them in a certain order according to the seniority of the cities - first in Kyiv, then in Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, etc. In addition, they were allowed to wash for free in public baths. All goods were received duty-free. On the way back, they were supplied from the imperial treasury with food, anchors, sails, ropes and other necessary things. The treaties also provided for cases of mutual clashes between Russians and Greeks and established various guarantees against mutual insults. Russians were forbidden to run amok in the vicinity of Constantinople and in the villages. If Russia happens not far from a Greek ship, nailed by a storm to a foreign shore, then she must help him and guide him to a safe place. Captives sold into slavery are redeemed by both sides at their price. The Russes are given the opportunity, if they so wish, to be employed in the service of the Greek kings. A new campaign against Byzantium, undertaken by Oleg's successor Igor, ended with the confirmation of Oleg's treaty with some minor changes - a clear sign that this time it was undertaken to protect Russian merchants and Russian trade interests. For the same purpose, Yaroslav sent his son Vladimir to the Greeks in 1043, because just shortly before that, Russian merchants were beaten in Constantinople and one of them was killed.

In addition to Constantinople, the first Kyiv princes undertook campaigns against the Khazars and the Kama Bulgarians. In Khazaria and Bulgaria, Russian merchants conducted no less significant trade, as in Byzantium. In the capital of the kagan, Itil, a whole part of the city was occupied by Russian and Slavic merchants, who paid tithes from all their goods in favor of the kagan. The same thing happened in Kama Bulgaria. Arriving at the main city of the Bulgarians, the Russians built large wooden buildings for themselves on the banks of the Volga and settled in them for 10 and 20 people with their goods, which mainly consisted of fur furs and slaves. It was on the basis of trade relations that, obviously, clashes between Russia and the Khazars and Bulgarians arose in the 10th century, because at that time these peoples were not the immediate neighbors of Russia. Merya, Muroma and Mordovians separated the Eastern Slavs from the Bulgarians, and the Pechenegs from the Khazars. Therefore, the campaigns undertaken in Khazaria and Kama Bulgaria under Igor, Svyatoslav and Vladimir the Holy, were probably caused by the same reasons as the campaigns against the Greeks. This can be judged by the consequences of some of these campaigns. In 1006, Prince Vladimir concluded an agreement with the Kama Bulgarians, in which he negotiated for Russian merchants the right to freely come to Bulgarian cities with the seals of their posadniks and granted Bulgarian merchants the right to come to Russia and sell their goods, but only in cities - to local merchants, and not in the villages - virniks, tiuns, firemen and smerds.

So, the first Kyiv princes act as guardians of the trade interests of the Eastern Slavs. As these same guardians, they protect the great waterway from the Varangians to the Greeks. They carry out this work by sending armed detachments to escort trade caravans down the Dnieper, where these caravans were attacked by nomads. But especially prominent is the activity of the first princes in the defense of Slavic settlements from the raid of nomads. Having told about the approval of Oleg in Kyiv, the chronicler notes: “Now Oleg began to set up cities and set tribute to Sloven, Krivich and Mary, and set tribute to the Varangian, give 300 hryvnias from Nova-gorod for the summer of the world by dividing.” From whom did Oleg begin to strengthen the limits of the Russian settled way of life? Obviously, from the nomads, who began to break into our country in the 9th century. In the first half of the 10th century, according to the testimony of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the Pechenegs had already occupied all our steppes from the Don to the Carpathians, and both Igor and Svyatoslav, as is known, and the one who died in the fight against them, are fighting with these Pechenegs. Under Vladimir, the war with the Pechenegs was already going on "without ceasing," according to the chronicle. Vladimir, who had been defeated more than once by the Pechenegs, began, according to the chronicle, to set up cities along the Desna, Ostra, Trubezh, along the Sula and Stugna, recruit the best husbands from the Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud, Vyatichi and populate new cities with them: from the Pechenegs. In addition to the Pechenegs, Vladimir had to deal with the savages of the Lithuanian forest forests - the Yotvingians. Vladimir defeated them and occupied their land.

Protecting the trade interests of the Dnieper Slavs and protecting it from the raids of neighboring barbarians, the first Kyiv princes sought to join the union formed under their rule and the tribes that lived away from the Dnieper Slavs: Vyatichi, Drevlyans, Ulichs and Tivertsy, and, finally, Croats. Some of these tribes willingly went under the rule of the Kievan princes; some, like, for example, the Drevlyans, Uchi and Vyatichi, spent money, ”and the princes“ tormented ”them, conquered. In the end, they managed to unite all the Eastern Slavs into one political union.

Internal activities of the first Varangian princes

Compared to this intense external activity of the first Kievan princes, their activity in the internal organization of the country, in the introduction of attire in it, remains in the background, in the shadows. This activity was expressed mainly in the establishment and collection of tributes and dues, which went to the maintenance of both the princes themselves and their squads, and, thus, was closely connected with the same external activity. A legend reached the chronicler that Igor's widow Olga, in the early childhood of her son Svyatoslav, was especially distinguished in this regard. She traveled around the country and established churchyards, i.e., administrative centers in trading posts, tributes and dues. Tribute was collected by the first princes in different ways. The conquered tribes themselves brought tribute to Kyiv to the princely court. This so-called cart. Such a cart was taken, for example, to Kyiv by Radimichi. The tribute was collected by princely posadniks, or governors, and was spent on the maintenance of the princely squad that was with them - gridey. So, it was, for example, in Novgorod, where the princely posadniks from the time of Oleg until the death of Yaroslav collected tribute and paid it partly to the Varangians and, in general, to the princely combatants, and partly sent to Kyiv. The princes then collected tribute themselves, for which they went with their squad to the so-called polyudie.

Konstantin Porphyrogenitus gives the following details about this. In the month of November, as soon as the winter path was established, the Kievan princes set off for polyudye in all their volosts; they collected tribute, for the most part in kind, immediately administering judgment and reprisals. A whole winter passed in this wandering, and only in April, when the Dnieper opened, did the princes return to Kyiv, and after them they brought tribute, which was immediately sent on boats to Constantinople for sale. Igor, according to the chronicle, died during the collection of this tribute. But sometimes the princes entrusted the collection of polyudye to their warriors, as, for example, Igor did for a long time, sending his boyar Sveneld to the polyudye.

As can be seen from the message of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the first Kyiv princes also held court. Ibn-Dast’s message is quite consistent with this: “When one of them (Russians) has a case against another, he calls him to court before the tsar, before whom he bickers; when the king pronounces the sentence, what he commands is carried out; if both sides are dissatisfied with the verdict of the king, then by his order they must give the final decision to the weapon: whose sword is sharper, he wins; these relatives come to fight armed and become. Then the rivals enter into battle, and the winner can demand what he wants from the vanquished. The judicial function undoubtedly already belonged to the tribal leaders and elders, and passed from them simply by inheritance to the Varangian kings, who took their place in large trading centers with a rabble population. In view of the above facts and considerations, one cannot fully accept the characterization of the original Varangian-Russian prince, only as a hired watchman of the Russian land. From the very moment of his appearance among the Eastern Slavs, the Varangian-Russian prince was at the same time the organizer of the inner world and attire in the earth, although, of course, this activity of his did not stand in the foreground, and it was not for her that he was actually called or accepted by the population .

Weakness of the state association of Eastern Slavs

The newly formed political union of all the Eastern Slavs, although it can be called, in a certain sense, the original Russian state, this young state was still very far from what we are accustomed to understand by this name. First, the territory of this state has not yet been finally determined. The Slavic population was in a state of constant movement, leaving old habitable places and occupying new ones. It was indicated above that, as a result of the arrival of nomads in our southern steppes, the Slavs had to leave these steppes and go to the forest region, where their settlements were spreading more and more. This movement of the population just falls, mainly in the tenth century. Then, although the Eastern Slavs were united under the rule of one supreme leader and judge, under the rule of one sovereign, but still with weak bonds. Stronger were those ties that united them in local unions, local political measures, i.e., tribal and urban volosts, tribal villages. The Union of Eastern Slavs in the 10th century was more like a federation under the leadership of the Kyiv prince than a single state in our sense of the word. From the treaties of Oleg and Igor, we already know that in the main cities of the Eastern Slavs, numerous “bright princes” sat at the hand of the Grand Duke of Russia. These were part of the tribal princes of the Eastern Slavs, part of other kings and princely warriors, who were planted in separate volosts by the Grand Duke of Russia - his posadniki. The chronicle imagines the initial organization of state administration in Russia in this way. Rurik appears with his brothers and retinue from across the sea. He himself sits in the main city of the earth - Novgorod, sits his brothers around him, and sends his husbands to other cities. “And taking over the power of Rurik, and distributing cities to his husband, ovom Poltesk, ovom Rostov, another Beloozero.” Svyatoslav, going to fight in Bulgaria, planted Yaropolk in Kyiv, Oleg - in the Drevlyansk land, Vladimir - in Novgorod. From another place in the chronicle we learn that Prince Rogvold was sitting in Polotsk at that time. Vladimir, who had twelve sons, seated all of them during his lifetime, some in Murom, some in Novgorod, some in Polotsk, some in Rostov, and one - Mstislav - even in remote Tmutarakan. All these posadniks of the Russian Grand Duke went to their places with part of the retinue, and fed themselves at the expense of tribute and various extortions from the population, sending part of the tribute to the Grand Duke in Kyiv. Thus, for example, Yaroslav, planted by his father in Novgorod, sent him a "lesson" of two thousand hryvnias a year, and distributed 1000 hryvnias to his squad - the Grids. We saw that this was also the case under Oleg, who established to give annually 300 hryvnias to the Varangians who were in Novgorod, “sharing the world”, and, therefore, he took the rest of the tribute to Kyiv. These Varangian squads, who were in the cities along with the princes and posadniks, made it possible for the Grand Duke of Kyiv to keep in unity under his rule the East Slavic tribes scattered over the vast expanses.

The princes and men planted by the Grand Duke in the internal management of their volosts were, by all indications, completely independent, and their whole attitude towards the prince, who was in the center of the state, was expressed precisely in the fact that they sent him their “lesson” and went at his call to the war.

With the approval of these princes and posadniks with squads in separate lands and volosts, however, the former political amateur activity of local worlds did not die out. In the very center of Eastern Slavism - Kyiv - the Grand Duke did not become the complete master of the situation. When it was necessary to resolve any important matter, he gathered for advice not only his senior warriors - the boyars, but also the elders of the city, representatives of the local population. But these city elders brought with them to the council, of course, not only their personal understanding, but also the will and desires of the population, which were expressed at veche meetings.

The beginning of the unification of the national

So, the political unity of the Eastern Slavs, as far as it can be judged from the facts reported by the annals, was not close, the emerging state was not yet any kind of cohesive political body. But for all that, the significance of the accomplished fact cannot be denied. No matter how, but over many, hitherto disparate worlds, a common power appeared in the person of the Kyiv princes. This power, uniting tribes, cities and volosts, in common military and commercial enterprises; becoming an intermediary between them, regulating their relations, strengthened in them a sense of tribal unity and awakened national self-consciousness. Nothing but the awakening of national self-consciousness caused the need to explain where the Russian land came from, who first began to reign in Kyiv, and how this city became the mother of Russian cities - a need that our initial chronicler tried to satisfy.

Literature:

K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. Russian history. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1872.

N. P. Zagoskin. History of the law of the Russian people. T. 1. Kazan, 1899.

I. E. Zabelin. History of Russian life. Part 1

S. A. Gedeonov. Excerpts from studies on the Varangian question. SPb., 1862. He is the same. Varangians and Russia. SPb., 1876. T. 1-2.

D. I. Ilovaisky. Research about the beginning of Russia. Moscow, 1882.

A. A. Kunik. Die Berufung der Schwedischen Rodsen I-II. 1844-1845. He is. The Beginning of the Russian State // Readings in Imp. Tot. History and Ancient. Ross. 1891. Prince. one.

V. G. Vasilevsky. Proceedings. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1908; T. 2. Issue. 1. St. Petersburg, 1909. He is the same. Russian-Byzantine studies. Issue. 2. St. Petersburg, 1893.

The Eastern Slavs are a large group of kindred peoples, which today number more than 300 million people. The history of the formation of these peoples, their traditions, faith, relations with other states are important moments in history, since they answer the question of how our ancestors appeared in antiquity.

Origin

The question of the origin of the Eastern Slavs is interesting. This is our history and our ancestors, the first mention of which dates back to the beginning of our era. If we talk about archaeological excavations, then scientists find artifacts indicating that the nationality began to form even before our era.

All Slavic languages ​​belong to a single Indo-European group. Its representatives stood out as a nationality around the 8th millennium BC. The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs (and many other peoples) lived near the shores of the Caspian Sea. Around the 2nd millennium BC, the Indo-European group broke up into 3 peoples:

• Pro-Germans (Germans, Celts, Romans). Filled Western and Southern Europe.
• Baltoslavs. They settled between the Vistula and the Dnieper.
• Iranian and Indian peoples. They spread throughout Asia.

Around the 5th century BC, the Balotoslavs are divided into Balts and Slavs, already in the 5th century AD, the Slavs, in short, are divided into eastern (eastern Europe), western (central Europe) and southern (Balkan Peninsula).

To date, the Eastern Slavs include: Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians.

The invasion of the Hun tribes into the territory of the Black Sea region in the 4th century destroyed the Greek and Scythian state. Many historians call this fact the root cause of the future creation of the ancient state by the Eastern Slavs.

History reference

resettlement

An important question is how the development of new territories by the Slavs took place, and how their resettlement took place in general. There are 2 main theories of the appearance of the Eastern Slavs in Eastern Europe:

• Autochthonous. It assumes that the Slavic ethnos was originally formed on the East European plain. The theory was put forward by the historian B. Rybakov. There are no significant arguments in its favor.
• Migration. Suggests that the Slavs migrated from other regions. Solovyov and Klyuchevsky argued that the migration was from the territory of the Danube. Lomonosov spoke about migration from the Baltic territory. There is also a theory of migration from the regions of Eastern Europe.

Around the 6th-7th centuries, the Eastern Slavs settled the territory of Eastern Europe. They settled in the territory from Ladoga and Lake Ladoga in the North to the Black Sea coast in the south, from the Carpathian Mountains in the West to the Volga territories in the East.

13 tribes lived in this territory. Some sources speak of 15 tribes, but these data do not find historical confirmation. The Eastern Slavs in ancient times consisted of 13 tribes: Vyatichi, Radimichi, Polans, Polochans, Volynians, Ilmens, Dregovichi, Drevlyans, Ulichi, Tivertsy, Northerners, Krivichi, Dulebs.

The specifics of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs on the East European Plain:

• Geographic. There are no natural barriers, which facilitated movement.
• Ethnic. A large number of people with different ethnic composition lived and migrated in the territory.
• Sociability. The Slavs settled near captivity and unions, which could influence the ancient state, but on the other hand could share their culture.

Map of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs in antiquity

Tribes

The main tribes of the Eastern Slavs in antiquity are presented below.

Glade. The most numerous tribe, strong on the banks of the Dnieper, south of Kyiv. It was the clearing that became the sink for the formation of the ancient Russian state. According to the chronicle, in 944 they stopped calling themselves glades, and began to use the name Rus.

Slovenian Ilmen. The northernmost tribe that settled around Novgorod, Ladoga and Lake Peipus. According to Arab sources, it was the Ilmens, together with the Krivichs, who formed the first state - Slavia.

Krivichi. They settled north of the Western Dvina and in the upper reaches of the Volga. The main cities are Polotsk and Smolensk.

Polochane. Settled south of the Western Dvina. A minor tribal union that did not play an important role in the fact that the Eastern Slavs formed a state.

Dregovichi. They lived between the upper reaches of the Neman and the Dnieper. They mostly settled along the Pripyat River. All that is known about this tribe is that they had their own principality, the main city of which was Turov.

Drevlyans. Settled south of the Pripyat River. The main city of this tribe was Iskorosten.

Volynians. They settled earlier than the Drevlyans at the headwaters of the Vistula.

White Croats. The most western tribe, which was located between the rivers Dniester and Vistula.

Duleby. They were located east of the White Croats. One of the weakest tribes that did not last long. They voluntarily became part of the Russian state, having previously broken up into Buzhans and Volhynians.

Tivertsy. They occupied the territory between the Prut and the Dniester.

Uglichi. They settled between the Dniester and the Southern Bug.

northerners. They mainly occupied the territory adjacent to the Desna River. The center of the tribe was the city of Chernihiv. In the future, several cities were formed on this territory at once, which are known today, for example, Bryansk.

Radimichi. They settled between the Dnieper and the Desna. In 885 they were annexed to the Old Russian state.

Vyatichi. They were located along the sources of the Oka and Don. According to the chronicle, the legendary Vyatko was the ancestor of this tribe. At the same time, already in the 14th century there were no mentions of the Vyatichi in the annals.

Tribal unions

The Eastern Slavs had 3 strong tribal unions: Slavia, Kuyavia and Artania.

In relations with other tribes and countries, the Eastern Slavs carried out attempts to capture raids (mutual) and trade. The main contacts were with:

• Byzantine Empire (Slav raids and mutual trade)
• Varangians (Varangian raids and mutual trade).
• Avars, Bulgars and Khazars (raids on the Slavs and mutual trade). Often these tribes are called Turks or Türks.
• Finno-Ugrians (Slavs tried to seize their territory).

What did you do

The Eastern Slavs were mainly engaged in agriculture. The specifics of their settlement determined the methods of cultivating the land. In the southern regions, as well as in the Dnieper region, chernozem soil dominated. Here the land was used up to 5 years, after which it was depleted. Then people moved to another site, and the exhausted one recovered for 25-30 years. This farming method is called shifting .

The northern and central regions of the East European Plain were characterized by a large number of forests. Therefore, the ancient Slavs first cut down the forest, burned it, fertilized the soil with ashes, and only then proceeded to field work. Such a site was fertile for 2-3 years, after which it was left and moved on to the next one. This type of farming is called slash-and-burn .

If you try to briefly describe the main activities of the Eastern Slavs, the list will be as follows: agriculture, hunting, fishing, beekeeping (honey collection).

The main agricultural culture of the Eastern Slavs in ancient times was millet. Marten skins were mainly used by the Eastern Slavs as money. Much attention was paid to the development of crafts.

Beliefs

The beliefs of the ancient Slavs are called paganism, because there was a worship of many gods. Mostly deities were associated with natural phenomena. Almost every phenomenon or important component of life that the Eastern Slavs professed, corresponded to a certain god. For example:

• Perun - god of lightning
• Yarilo - god of the sun
• Stribog - the god of the wind
• Volos (Veles) - the patron saint of cattle breeders
• Mokosh (Makosh) - goddess of fertility
• Etc

The ancient Slavs did not build temples. They built rituals in groves, in glades, near stone idols and in other places. Attention is drawn to the fact that almost all fairy-tale folklore in terms of mysticism belongs precisely to the era under study. In particular, the Eastern Slavs believed in the goblin, brownie, mermaids, water and others.

How were the occupations of the Slavs reflected in paganism? It was paganism, which was based on worship of the elements and elements that affect fertility, that formed the attitude of the Slavs to agriculture as the main way of life.

social order

Settlement: occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains to the middle Oka. They mastered the East European Plain, came into contact with the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. At this time, the Slavs are united in tribal unions, each tribe consisted of clans. The glades lived along the middle reaches of the Dnieper, northeast of them settled the northerners, in the region of the upper Volga lived the Krivichi, near Lake Ilmen - the Ilmen Slovenes, along the Pripyat River, the Dregovichi, the Drevlyans. To the south of the river Bug - Buzhan and Volhynians. Between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug, the Tivertsy. On the river Sozh - radimichi.

Economy: the main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture (slash-and-burn, fallow). The main tools of labor were a plow, a wooden plow, an ax, a hoe. They harvested with sickles, threshed with flails, ground grain with stone grain grinders. Cattle breeding is closely connected with agriculture. Bred cows, pigs, small cattle. Draft power - oxen, horses. Crafts: fishing, hunting, gathering, beekeeping (gathering honey from wild bees).

The Slavs lived in communities, first tribal, then neighboring. This determined the way and characteristic features of life. The farms had a natural character (they produced everything for their own consumption). With the appearance of surpluses, exchange develops (agricultural products for handicraft goods).

Cities appear as centers of crafts, trade, exchange, strongholds of power, defense. Cities were built on trade routes. Historians believe that in the 9th century there were at least 24 large cities in Russia (Kyiv, Novgorod, Suzdal, Smolensk, Murom ...) The princes were at the head of the East Slavic tribal unions. The most important issues were resolved at public meetings - veche gatherings (veche). There was a militia, a squad. They collected polyudye (collection of tribute from subject tribes).

Beliefs - the ancient Slavs were pagans. Slavic gods personified the forces of nature and reflected social relations. Perun is the god of thunder and war. Svarog is the god of fire. Veles is the patron saint of cattle. Mokosh - protected the female part of the economy. They believed in spirits - goblin, mermaids, brownies. Ceremonies and holidays are connected with agriculture. Celebrated births and weddings. Honored ancestors. Worshiped the phenomena of nature.

Formation of the ancient Russian state. The problem of "Norman influence". By the ninth century the Eastern Slavs developed a set of socio-economic and political prerequisites for the formation of a state.

Socio-economic - the tribal community ceased to be an economic necessity and disintegrated, giving way to a territorial, "neighboring" community. There was a separation of the craft from other types of economic activity, the growth of cities and foreign trade. There was a process of formation of social groups, the nobility and the squad stood out.

Political - large tribal unions appeared, which began to conclude temporary political unions among themselves. From the end of the VI century. the union of tribes headed by Kiy is known; Arab and Byzantine sources report that in the VI-VII centuries. there was a "Power of Volhynia"; Novgorod chronicles report that in the ninth century. around Novgorod there was a Slavic association headed by Gostomysl. Arab sources claim that on the eve of the formation of the state there were unions of large Slavic tribes: Kuyaba - around Kyiv, Slavia - around Novgorod, Artania - around Ryazan or Chernigov.

Foreign policy - the most important for the formation and strengthening of states among all peoples was the presence of external danger. The problem of repelling external danger among the Eastern Slavs was very acute from the very appearance of the Slavs on the East European Plain. From the 6th century the Slavs fought against the numerous nomadic tribes of the Turks (Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Avars, Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy, etc.).

So, by the ninth century. the Eastern Slavs, with their internal development, were ready for the formation of a state. But the final fact of the formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs is associated with their northern neighbors - the inhabitants of Scandinavia (modern Denmark, Norway, Sweden). In Western Europe, the inhabitants of Scandinavia were called Normans, Vikings, and in Russia - Vikings. In Europe, the Vikings were engaged in robbery and trade. All Europe trembled before their raids. In Russia, there were no conditions for sea robbery, so the Varangians mainly traded and were hired by the Slavs in military squads. The Slavs and the Varangians were at approximately the same stage of social development - the Varangians also saw the decomposition of the tribal system and the folding of the prerequisites for the formation of the state.

As the chronicler Nestor testifies in The Tale of Bygone Years, by the ninth century. Novgorodians and some northern tribes of the Slavs became dependent on the Varangians and paid tribute to them, and the southern tribes of the Slavs paid tribute to the Khazars. In 859 the Novgorodians drove out the Varangians and stopped paying tribute. After that, civil strife began among the Slavs: they could not come to an agreement on who should rule them. Then, in 862, the Novgorod elders turned to the Varangians with a request: to send them one of the Varangian leaders to reign. The Varangian king (leader) Rurik responded to the call of the Novgorodians. Thus, in 862, power over Novgorod and its environs passed to the Varangian leader Rurik. It so happened that the descendants of Rurik were able to gain a foothold among the Eastern Slavs as leaders.

The role of the Varangian leader Rurik in Russian history is that he became the founder of the first ruling dynasty in Russia. All his descendants began to be called Rurikovich.

After his death, Rurik had a young son, Igor. Therefore, another Varangian, Oleg, began to rule in Novgorod. Soon Oleg decided to establish his control over the entire course of the Dnieper. The southern section of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" was owned by the people of Kiev.

In 882, Oleg went on a campaign against Kyiv. Rurik's combatants Askold and Dir ruled there at that time. Oleg tricked them out of the city gates and killed them. After that, he was able to gain a foothold in Kyiv. The two largest East Slavic cities were united under the rule of one prince. Further, Oleg established the boundaries of his possessions, imposed tribute on the entire population, began to keep order in the territory subject to him and ensure the protection of these territories from enemy attacks.

So the first state of the Eastern Slavs was formed.

Later, the chroniclers will begin counting time "from the summer of Oleg", i.e. from the time when Oleg began to rule in Kyiv.

The problem of Slavic ethnogenesis

The resettlement of the Eastern Slavs

Location of tribal unions

Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs

Occupations of the Slavs

pagan beliefs

Main Slavic gods

Social system. Family and neighborhood communities

Military democracy

The problem of Slavic ethnogenesis. The question of the time of the appearance of the Slavs in Europe is debatable. Linguistic scientists believe that 2-1.5 thousand years BC. Proto-Slavic language emerged from Indo-European. The Indo-European group of peoples also includes the British, Germans, Scythians, Balts, French, Greeks, Iranians, Armenians, and others. The ancestral home of the Indo-European community is located in Asia Minor (modern Turkey). From there, the ancestors of modern Europeans, including the Slavs, moved to Europe in the III-II millennium BC. e.

Settlement of the Eastern Slavs. There are two points of view:

1. Eastern Slavs - indigenous ( autochthonous) population of Eastern Europe. They come from the creators zarubiné tskoy and Chernyakhovsk archaeological cultures. Chernyakhov culture was destroyed during Great Migration III-VII centuries, when nomadic tribes of Goths and Huns migrated from Central Asia to the west.

2. The ancestral home of the Slavs - the interfluve of the river. Vistula and Odra. In the II millennium BC. Proto-Slavs settled the banks of the river. Vistula. Then they moved to the Dniester, Dnieper, Oka, Upper Volga. This point of view is the most correct.

Modern branches of Slavism - eastern, western and southern - arose in the 6th-7th centuries. Gothic scholar of the 6th century. Jordan divided the Slavs into three groups - Wends, Antes and sklavins. Jordanes wrote that the Wends were “a numerous tribe” that lived “from the origins of the Vistula (the ancient name of the Vistula river) ... they are called Sklavins and Antes.”

Archaeologists have identified 3 areas of settlement Proto-Slavs (Proto-Slavs):

Poland and r. Pripyat - sklavins;

R. Dniester and r. Dnipro - antes;

Pomorie and lower reaches of the river. Vistula - Wends.

By the 9th century Eastern Slavs occupied the territory from the Onega and Ladoga lakes in the north to the mouths of the Prut and Dniester rivers in the south, from the Carpathians in the west to the river. Oka and Volga in the east. A dozen and a half were settled here. tribal unions. Chronicler Nestor calls them tribal principalities. Tribal unions were formed by uniting small tribes around a strong tribe. Tribes were made up of clans.

Location of tribal unions :

-meadow- the middle course of the river. Dnieper (center - Kyiv);

-Drevlyans(from the word "tree") and Dregovichi(from the word "dryagva" - a swamp) – along the river Pripyat (center - Iskorosten);

-radimichi- upper reaches of the river Dnieper and r. Gum;

-northerners- along the river Desna, Sula, Seim (center - Chernihiv and Novgorod-Seversky);

-Volynians, Dulebs, Buzhans- R. Western Bug;

-krivichi- upper reaches of the river Western Dvina, Dnieper (center - Smolensk);

-Polotsk- in the middle reaches of the river. Western Dvina and along its tributary - r. Polota (center - Polotsk);

-Ilmen Slovenes- on the lake. Ilmen and r. Volkhov (center - Novgorod);

-Vyatichi- along the river Oka, Moscow;

-convict- in the interfluve Southern Bug and r. Dniester, on the Black Sea;

-Tivertsy- between the river Dniester and r. Prut, the mouth of the Danube;

-white croats- in the Carpathian mountains.

At first, historians did not trust the settlement scheme of Nestor's tribes, but archaeologists confirmed it by women's jewelry - temporal rings. Their varieties coincide with the area of ​​​​settlement of tribes.

There are a number of points of view on the origin of the term "Rus":

1. Russia - the tribes that inhabited the banks of the river. Ros and Rossava at Kyiv.

2. Russia - in the Old Norse language - rowers, Rurik's team.

3. Russia - from the ancient Slavic city Rusa(Staraya Russa).

4. Russia - from the Gothic word rosoman- fair-haired, light-haired person.

Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs:

In the northwest, the neighbors of the Slavs were the Scandinavians - Varangians (vikings, or Normans- "Northern people") - the ancestors of modern Swedes, Danes and Norwegians. Brave sailors and warriors, they plowed on boats - longships("dragon" ships) of the seas of Europe, terrifying its inhabitants. The scarcity of natural resources forced men to go on predatory campaigns. The word "Viking" (from vik - "bay") meant a participant in such campaigns, defining not a nationality, but a profession.

Along the Baltic were the Baltic tribes ( Livs, Ests, Zhmuds, Aukshaits, Yatvingians);

In the north and northeast: Finno-Ugric (whole, chud, sum, eat, korela, measuring, muromá, meshchera);

In the south: semi-nomadic peoples ( Pechenegs, Khazars) and Scythians.

In the IV century. Germanic tribes invaded the territory of the Slavs ready led by leader Germanarich. They were defeated, but Germanarich's successor Amal Vinitar deceived 70 Slavic elders, led by Busom(Bogem) and crucified them. The Gothic words “bread”, “plow”, “sword”, “helmet” remained in the Slavic language.

In the IV-V centuries. during the Great Migration of Peoples from Asia to Europe, Turkic tribes passed through the Slavic lands Huns.

In the VI century. the Slavs fought with the Turkic nomad Avar Khaganate. Avars during the negotiations treacherously killed the Slavic ambassador Mezamir. Avars subjugated the Carpathian Slavs Dulebov. PVL reports the cruelty of the Avars. "Obry", as the chronicler calls them, harnessed Slavic women to carts and forced themselves to carry them, they were "great in body and proud in mind", but "disappeared without a trace." Avar Khaganate in the 7th century was destroyed by Byzantium.

In the VI century. in the Black Sea region a Turkic Bulgarian kingdom. Part of the Bulgarians led by khan Asparuh migrated to the Danube, where they became glorified. Others settled on the middle Volga and Kama, creating Volga Bulgaria (Bulgaria) with the center in Bulgar .

By the 7th century in the North Caucasus, in the Lower Volga and the Black Sea region arose Khazar Khaganate. The Khazars borrowed Judaism from the Jewish population of Crimea and established dominance over the Eastern Slavs, who paid tribute to them until the 9th–10th centuries.

From the 6th century Slavs make trips to Byzantium- the heiress of the ancient Roman Empire, whose inhabitants called themselves "Romans". From Byzantine sources it is known about the Slavs and Ants, who, according to Mauritius Strategist, the author of the work of the VI century. " Strategicon”, “are similar in their way of life, in their customs, in their love for freedom”; "they can in no way be persuaded into slavery or submission." Rosy - "Scythian people, cruel and barbaric", "wild and rude". Byzantine author of the 6th century. Procopius of Caesarea wrote that "Slavic tribes are not ruled by one person, but live in the rule of the people (democracy), and therefore they consider happiness and misfortune in life to be a common thing, life and legalization were the same." Women, along with men, took part in military campaigns and battles. It is known that in the 830s in Constantinople at the court of the emperor Theophilus the first Russian embassy appeared.

Travelers from the Arab Caliphate, following the precepts of the Prophet Muhammad "look for science at least in China", made long-distance scientific expeditions. In the descriptions of the Arabs of the VIII-IX centuries. three proto-states – associations of tribal unions of the Rus - Cuiaba, or Kuyavia(with capital in Kyiv), Weak or Slavia(centered in Novgorod) and Artab(Arsab) , or artania. The location of Artania is unknown, possibly Ryazan, Rostov the Great or Beloozero.

Occupations of the Slavs - agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, etc.

Agriculture – main occupation. Archaeologists find grains of rye, wheat, flax, farming tools - hoes, sickles, scythes, metal tips dry. Rye among the Slavs was called " zhito" ("a life"). In the southern forest-steppe zone dominated há lying down farming system, or fallow- after several harvests, the land was not sown to restore fertility. In the northern forest regions there was undercut (slash-and-burn) farming system, or undercut: trees were cut and burned, clearing a piece of land (" a pancake»).

Cattle breeding . The Slavs raised cattle, pigs and horses. The cattle were highly valued. In the Old Russian language, the word "cattle" also meant money.

B ó martial arts (« board"- hive-deck) - collecting honey from wild bees.

Trade. Slavs exchanged furs, honey, wax, walrus ivory, and slaves for fabrics, jewelry, wine, and weapons. The main was the water-land route "from Varangian in the Greeks". His route: Baltic (Varangian) Sea, r. Neva, Lake Ladoga, r. Western Dvina, Volkhov, Ilmen-lake, r. Lovat, then the ships were dragged into the river. The Dnieper (Borisfen) and the Black Sea reached Byzantium. Along the river Volga (Itil) ran Volga trade route to the countries of the East - Khazaria, Volga Bulgaria, Persia, Khorezm.

pagan beliefs. Religion of the Slavs paganism (from the Old Slavs. " tongues"- foreign peoples who did not accept Christianity) religion based on the worship of many gods, personifying the forces and phenomena of nature, idolatry. Forms of beliefs:

-fetishism – worship of objects and phenomena(stones, trees);

-animism - belief in spirits, the cult of ancestors. The Slavs believed that spirits are the souls of ancestors, relatives, live nearby. The spirit (demon) has a positive or negative influence. There was faith in women in labor- goddesses of fertility. Lived in the water water and coastline, in the forest - goblin(forester), in the fields - field workers, in the dwelling - brownie, in the bath - banner;

-totemism – belief in the origin of the human race from animals. The Slavs worshiped wild boars, bears, elks, etc. A kind of ancestor worship in the form of animals is shapeshifting. So, in epics the hero Volga turns into a falcon, the bride girl turns into a swan, a duck, a frog;

-polytheism – faith in many gods.

Main Slavic gods:

- Perun - the god of lightning and thunder, the patron of the prince and the squad;

- Swar ó G - the god of the sky and heavenly fire, the patron of artisans;

-Svarozhychi - sons of Svarog;

- Genus - the deity of the Universe and fertility;

- Yarilo - the god of spring fertility, among a number of tribes - the god of the Sun;

- Horse , or God bless - the god of the Sun and light, the solar horse;

- Kupala – god of summer

- Page and the God - deity of wind and storms;

- Vel é with - the god of cattle, the patron of shepherds and wealth;

-M ó cat (Makosh) – wife of Perun, goddess of fertility, patroness of female needlework and girlish fate;

- Semargl - the only zoomorphic Slavic god, a winged dog, the embodiment of the sacred number seven (of Iranian origin).

Pagan holidays were associated with the agricultural cycle.

Archaeologists have found pagan idols, sanctuaries - toá food and burial places tré bisha. Rituals performed by priests Magi. Burial methods - placing the corpse in the soil ( inhumation) and cremation ( cremation). Weapons and vessels with food were placed in the funeral pyre. There were human sacrifices. Numerous remains of people, both adults and children, who were sacrificed, were found in pagan sanctuaries in the Carpathian region. Byzantine author of the ninth century Leo the Deacon described the pagan rites of the Ross (calling them Scythians) during the siege of the city of Dorostol by Prince Svyatoslav. “When night fell ... the Scythians went out onto the plain and began to pick up their dead. They piled them up in front of the wall, made many fires and burned them, slaughtering many captives, men and women, according to the custom of their ancestors. Having made this bloody sacrifice, they strangled several infants and roosters, drowning them in the waters of the Istra (Danube)."

Social system. Tribal and neighboring (territorial) communities. In the VI-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of decomposition of the primitive communal system, the formation of a state, the development of feudal relations. The low level of agriculture required large expenditures of physical labor. The main business unit was tribal community (rope) – group of people connected by blood relationship and the unity of the economy. In a tribal community, all its members are relatives - members of the same clan. They farmed together, cultivated the land with common tools, and also consumed the harvest jointly.

The improvement of the productive forces (development of agriculture, cattle breeding, iron tools) created a surplus crop. The tribal community broke up into families, was replaced by neighborly ( territorial ) community – human settlement,consisting of families living in the neighborhood in a certain area,not related by family ties, collectively cultivating the land. In the neighboring community, the basis was not consanguinity, but the proximity of residence. The main business unit was family. Community ownership of forests, hayfields, pastures, and reservoirs was preserved. The arable land was divided between families into allotments. The property of the family was the harvest, tools, housing, livestock. There was a wealth inequality.

Military democracy (inó Christmas) – form of tribal organization in the era of the decomposition of the primitive communal system in6th–8th centuries.; a transitional stage in the development of society, during which the military nobility (prince and retinue) stands out, concentrating material values ​​​​and political power in their hands. The supreme governing body continued to be veche - the supreme body of tribal self-government and the court. But in the conditions of numerous wars, the role of the military leader - the prince - increased. The prince was first chosen at a veche. Then the role of the veche falls, and the power of the prince becomes hereditary. The prince relied on squad, which could force the people into obedience.