According to the generally accepted point of view, in the middle of the XI - the beginning of the XII centuries. The Old Russian state is entering a new stage in its history - the era of political fragmentation. The beginning of this process is attributed to the time of the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), when Russia was practically divided between his three sons - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Yaroslav's grandson Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) managed to unite the Russian lands again. This was facilitated, in particular, by his success in the fight against the Polovtsians. After the death of Monomakh, the Kyiv throne passed to his son Mstislav (1125-1132). With great difficulty he maintains the unity of the Russian lands, but with his death, Kievan Rus finally disintegrated into independent principalities. In the middle of the XII century. there were 15 of them, at the beginning of the XIII century. - about 50, and in the XIV century. the number of great and specific principalities reached 250.
Causes of feudal fragmentation
The weakening of the central government, that is, the power of the Kyiv prince.
Lack of strong economic ties between the lands; the predominance of subsistence farming; the growth of cities, which turned into centers of economic and political development.
The emergence and strengthening "in the field" of their own princely dynasties, which was both a cause and a consequence of the economic, political and military independence of the lands from the center.
The decline in the value of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which performed a unifying function at the stage of formation of the Old Russian state.
The most significant state formations into which Kievan Rus broke up were Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities and Novgorod land.
North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir-Suzdal Principality) became independent during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh's son - Yuri Dolgoruky (1132-1157) - he received a nickname for his desire to expand the territory of the principality. The first mention of Moscow dates back to the time of his reign (1147).
North-Eastern Russia had a favorable geographical position:
It was removed from the steppe regions, impenetrable forests served as a reliable protection against nomads, which contributed to the influx of population;
Control over the Volga trade route provided opportunities for economic development.
The economic and political rise of North-Eastern Russia falls on the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). He built up the new capital of the principality - Vladimir - with extraordinary splendor. Andrei is known in Russia as a brave, successful warrior and autocratic statesman. He waged a successful war with the Volga-Kama Bulgaria (1164), and in honor of the victory, on his orders, not far from Bogolyubov, the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin was erected on the river. Nerl.
After the death of Andrei, the struggle for the princely table took on an internecine character. The winner was the younger brother of Andrei Bogolyubsky Vsevolod, nicknamed the Big Nest (1177-1212).
He continued his brother's foreign policy: he successfully fought with the Volga-Kama Bulgaria, made several successful campaigns in the Ryazan principality and achieved his submission to his will. Vsevolod was the most powerful of the princes of the Russian land. However, the centrifugal forces were irresistible. After his death (1212), the unified principality broke up into seven appanages: Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Uglitsky, Yuriev and Murom.
Galicia-Volyn land was located in the extreme south-west of Russia. Thanks to the exceptionally fertile chernozem soil, agriculture successfully developed here, and numerous forest and fishing industries, salt production, and handicrafts were also developed. Soil fertility contributed to the formation of an influential boyars here, which opposes itself to the princes. A strong influence on the development of Southwestern Russia was exerted by the Polish and Hungarian states, whose rulers actively interfered in the internal affairs of the principality.
Novgorod land gained independence from Kyiv in the 30s. 12th century The harsh climate and infertile soils led to the fact that agriculture was poorly developed here (Novgorod did not provide itself with bread). The main source of income was fishing activities: hunting, fishing, salt production. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by a favorable geographical position - trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia crossed here, and remoteness from nomads - Novgorod was never subjected to their raids.
In Novgorod, a special socio-political structure was being formed - the boyar republic - a specific form of government in which the main issues of state life were decided at a meeting of the owners of city estates - veche. It was the veche that adopted laws, approved treaties, considered issues of war and peace, elected city authorities: the mayor - the head of the judicial and executive authorities, the thousandth, who controlled the tax system, the archbishop - the church hierarch. The prince in Novgorod performed the functions of a military leader. He was invited by the veche, he took an oath of allegiance to Novgorod traditions, after which an agreement was concluded with him. For more than two hundred years, about 40 people from three princely branches - Suzdal, Smolensk, Chernigov - have been on the throne of Novgorod.
The Novgorod Republic had a class character, the leading role in it was played by the boyars. Unlike the boyars of other lands of Russia, it was caste. It was impossible to become a Novgorod boyar, they could only be born.
Novgorod was the most important trading center of Russia and the largest city in Europe.
Consequences of feudal fragmentation Positive:
Development of economic life;
The flourishing of cities;
The rise of culture.
Negative:
strife;
Conflicts between boyars and princes;
Fragmentation of principalities between heirs;
Weakening of the defense capability and political unity of the country.
The political fragmentation of Kievan Rus did not lead to cultural disunity. A single language, a common religious consciousness and the unity of church organization slowed down the processes of isolation and created the prerequisites for the future reunification of the Russian principalities. At the end of the XII - the first half of the XIII centuries. North-Western Russia had to face danger from the west - with the onset of German crusader knights, as well as Swedish and Danish feudal lords.
Ever since the end of the 11th century. Crusades to the East begin at the call of the Pope. For their organization, knightly orders are created (an order is an organization of knights with specific goals). In 1202, in order to conquer the lands of Estonians and Latvians, the Order of the Swordbearers was created, which pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization. In 1219, the Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, founding the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of the Estonian settlement. In 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in Jerusalem, arrived to conquer the lands of Lithuania and Russia. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order. Having subjugated the Finnish tribes, the Swedes sought to subjugate the Novgorod lands as well.
At the end of the 30s. It became known that the Swedish knights, led by the son-in-law of King Erik Erikson Jarl (noble title) Birger, were preparing for a campaign against Russia. The goal of the Swedish invasion was to capture the mouth of the Neva River and the city of Ladoga, which made it possible to capture the most important section of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which was under the control of Novgorod the Great.
Alexander, the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, then reigned in Novgorod. In 1240, when the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords against Novgorod began, he was not yet 20 years old. He participated in the campaigns of his father, was well read and had an idea about war and the art of war. But he didn't have much personal experience.
In 1239, Alexander began preparations to repel the Swedish aggression, fortified the border, ordered to “cut down” the city on the Shelon River, established an alliance with the Finno-Ugric population of the Izhora land and its elder Pelgusius. Pelgusius in 1240 gave notice of the beginning of the Swedish invasion. Having received the news of the appearance of the Swedes, Alexander Yaroslavich, without waiting for the approach of all his forces, moved down the Volkhov River and, before the Swedes, went to Ladoga, where the squad of Ladoga joined him; by this time, the Swedes with their allies (Norwegians and Finns) had reached the mouth of the Izhora River. On July 15, 1240, the Battle of the Neva took place. Taking advantage of the fog, the Russians unexpectedly attacked the Swedish camp. Russian soldiers broke into the Swedish ships along the bridges and destroyed them. In battle, Alexander met with Birger himself and inflicted a severe wound on him. The battle ended with a complete victory for the Russians. Birger himself barely escaped. After winning this battle, Alexander received the nickname Nevsky.
The defeat of the Swedes on the Neva did not completely eliminate the danger hanging over Russia. Already in the early autumn of 1240, the Livonian knights invaded the Novgorod possessions and occupied the city of Izborsk. Soon his fate was shared by Pskov. The German feudal lords managed to capture it thanks to the betrayal of the boyars. In the same autumn of 1240, the Livonians captured the southern approaches to Novgorod, invaded the lands adjacent to the Gulf of Finland and created the Koporye fortress here, where they left their garrison. It was an important foothold that allowed control of the Novgorod trade routes along the Neva, to plan further advance to the East. After that, the Livonian aggressors invaded the very center of the Novgorod possessions, captured the Novgorod suburb of Tesovo. In their raids, they approached Novgorod for 30 kilometers. Alexander at that time, due to disagreements with the veche, was in the Vladimir land. Novgorodians again invited him to the princely throne.
In 1241, Alexander Nevsky took the stronghold of the Crusaders Koporye and destroyed the fortress there. In the winter of 1242, Alexander went on a campaign to Pskov and with a sudden blow knocked out the crusaders from the city, after which he set off with his troops to Lake Peipsi.
On April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which had already melted, a famous battle took place, which went down in history under the name Battle on the Ice. The German regiments lined up in a traditional wedge, "pig", where the cavalry was located on the flanks, and the infantry was in the center. Alexander deployed his main forces on the flanks, and in the center he placed worse armed and trained infantry. The knights crushed the center of the Russian troops, but as a result they were surrounded. 400 knights were destroyed and 50 were taken prisoner. Part of the Livonians drowned in the lake. Those who escaped from the encirclement were pursued by the Russian cavalry, completing their rout.
The victory on Lake Peipsi led to the fact that the crusader offensive was suspended. The Livonian knights were forced to send an embassy to Novgorod, abandoning all their seizures, and concluded a peace treaty in 1243. The western borders of Russia, established after the Battle of the Ice, held out for centuries. The battle on the ice also went down in history as a remarkable example of military tactics and strategy. Skillful formation of a battle order, a clear organization of the interaction of its individual parts, especially infantry and cavalry, constant reconnaissance and taking into account the weaknesses of the enemy in organizing battles, the right choice of place and time, good organization of tactical pursuit, the destruction of most of the superior enemy - all this determined the Russian military art as the foremost in the world.
THE STATE OF RUSSIA (IX - THE BEGINNING OF THE XII century)
The ancient Russian state can be described as early feudal monarchy. The head of state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His brothers, sons and warriors carried out the administration of the country, the court, the collection of tribute and duties. The income of the princes and their entourage was then still largely determined by the tribute from the subordinate tribes, the possibility of exporting it to other countries for sale. The young state faced major foreign policy tasks related to the protection of its borders: repulsing the raids of the nomadic Pechenegs, fighting the expansion of Byzantium, the Khazar Khaganate, and Volga Bulgaria. It is from these positions that the domestic and foreign policy of the Kievan grand dukes should be considered.
Early feudal monarchy IX - early. 12th century
The history of Kievan Rus, the chronological framework of which most historians define as the 9th - early 12th century, can be conditionally divided into three large periods. The first (IX - the middle of the X century) - the time of the first Kyiv princes. The second (the second half of the 10th - the first half of the 11th century) - the time of Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise), the heyday of the Kievan state; the third period - the second half of the 11th - the beginning of the 12th century, the transition to territorial and political fragmentation.
THE FIRST Kyiv PRINCES (IX - MIDDLE X c.)
Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv. Since 862, Rurik, according to the "Tale of Bygone Years", established himself in Novgorod. According to tradition, from that time they lead the beginning of Russian statehood. (In 1862, a monument to the millennium of Russia was erected in the Novgorod Kremlin, sculptor M.O. Mikeshin.) Some historians believe that Rurik was a real historical figure, identifying him with Rurik Friesland, who, at the head of his squad, repeatedly made trips to Western Europe . Rurik settled in Novgorod, one of his brothers, Sineus, on the White Lake (now Belozersk, Vologda region), another, Truvor, in Izborsk (near Pskov). Historians consider the names of the "brothers" to be a distortion of the ancient Swedish words: "sineus" - "with their families", "truvor" - a faithful squad. This usually serves as one of the arguments against the authenticity of the Varangian legend. Two years later, according to chronicles, the brothers died, and Rurik handed over the most important cities to his husbands. Two of them, Askold and Dir, who made an unsuccessful campaign against Byzantium, occupied Kyiv and freed the people of Kiev from the Khazar tribute.
After the death of Rurik in 879, who did not leave behind an heir (according to another version, he was Igor, which subsequently gave grounds in historical literature to call the dynasty of the Kievan princes "Rurikovich", and Kievan Rus - "the power of the Rurikovichs"), seized power in Novgorod the leader of one of the Varangian detachments Oleg (879-911). It was he who undertook a campaign against Kyiv, carefully preparing it. He gathered a large army, which included representatives of all peoples subject to Novgorod. There were Ilmenian Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud, Merya, all. The strike force of Oleg's troops was the Varangian squad.
Oleg took the main city of the Krivichi Smolensk, then Lyubech. Having sailed to the Kyiv mountains and not expecting to take a strong fortress by storm, Oleg went to a military trick. Hiding the soldiers in the boats, he sent the news to Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kyiv, that a merchant caravan had sailed from the north and he was asking the princes to go ashore. Unsuspecting Kyiv rulers came to the meeting. Oleg's soldiers jumped out of the ambush and surrounded the people of Kiev. Oleg picked up little Igor in his arms and told the Kyiv rulers that they did not belong to the princely family, but he himself "is the prince's family", and Igor is the son of Prince Rurik. Askold and Dir were killed, and Oleg established himself in Kyiv. Entering the city, he declared: "Let Kyiv be the mother of Russian cities."
So the Novgorod north defeated the Kyiv south. But it was only a purely military victory. Both economically, politically, and culturally, the Middle Dnieper region has far outstripped other East Slavic lands. At the end of the ninth century it was the historical center of the Russian lands, and Oleg, having made Kyiv his residence, only confirmed this position. A single ancient Russian state arose with its center in Kyiv. It happened in 882.
During this war, Prince Oleg showed himself to be a decisive and treacherous military leader, an outstanding organizer. Having seized the throne of Kyiv and spent about 30 years here (Oleg died in 912), he pushed Igor into the shadows. There is no unity among historians on this point. Some believe that Oleg was at first just a regent for the young Igor, and then a usurper of his power. Others believe that at that time in Russia, as in other countries of Eastern Europe, there was still no strong hereditary power, and the most powerful leader stood at the head of the state, followed by a squad. So Oleg turned out to be after the death of Rurik.
Oleg did not complete his military successes on this. Having settled in Kyiv, he imposed a tribute on the territories subject to him - he "set a tribute" to the Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi, other tribes and peoples. Oleg concluded an agreement with the Varangians and undertook to pay them annually 300 silver hryvnias so that there was peace on the northwestern borders of Russia. He undertook campaigns against the Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi and imposed tribute on them. But here he ran into Khazaria, which considered the northerners and Radimichi their tributaries. Military success again accompanied Oleg. From now on, these East Slavic tribes ceased their dependence on the Khazar Khaganate and became part of Russia. The Vyatichi remained tributaries of the Khazars.
At the turn of the IX - X centuries. Oleg suffered a sensitive defeat from the Hungarians. At this time, their horde moved along the Black Sea to the west. On the way, the Hungarians attacked the Russian lands. Oleg was defeated and locked himself in Kyiv. The Hungarians undertook a siege of the city, but to no avail, and then a peace treaty was concluded between the opponents. Since then, the Hungarian-Russian alliance began to operate, which lasted for about two centuries.
Having united the East Slavic lands, having defended them from the onslaught of foreigners, Oleg gave the princely power unprecedented authority and international prestige. He now assumes the title of prince of all princes, or grand duke. The rest of the rulers of individual Russian principalities become his tributaries, vassals, although they still retain the rights to rule in their principalities.
Russia's trading partner was the mighty Byzantine Empire. Kyiv princes repeatedly made campaigns against their southern neighbor. So, back in 860, Askold and Dir undertook this time a successful campaign against Byzantium. Even more famous was the agreement between Russia and Byzantium, concluded by Oleg.
In, 907 and 911, Oleg with an army twice successfully fought under the walls of Constantinople (Tsargrad). As a result of these campaigns, treaties were concluded with the Greeks, drawn up, as the chronicler wrote, "for two charats", i.e. in two copies - in Russian and Greek. This confirms that Russian writing appeared long before the adoption of Christianity. Before the advent of Russkaya Pravda, legislation was also taking shape (the treaty with the Greeks mentioned the Russian Law, according to which the inhabitants of Kievan Rus were judged). According to the agreements, Russian merchants had the right to live for a month at the expense of the Greeks in Constantinople, but they were obliged to walk around the city without weapons. With this, the merchants had to carry written documents with them and warn the Byzantine emperor in advance about their arrival. Oleg's agreement with the Greeks made it possible to export the tribute collected in Russia and sell it in the markets of Byzantium.
Under Oleg, the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi were included in his state and began to pay tribute to Kyiv. However, the process of incorporating various tribal unions into Kievan Rus was not a one-time action.
Prince Igor. Polyudie. Revolt of the ancients. After the death of Oleg, Igor (912-945) began to reign in Kyiv. During the time of Igor, the state of Russia expanded even more. It included a tribe of streets, with whom Prince Oleg waged an unsuccessful war. Now, like other principalities, they have pledged to pay tribute to Kyiv.
How was the tribute collected from the princedoms subject to the great Kievan prince?
In late autumn, the prince, together with his retinue, traveled around his possessions in order to collect the due tribute from them. This detour by the prince of his vassal possessions was called polyud. In the same way, at first, princes and kings collected tribute in some neighboring countries, where the level of state development was still low, for example, in Sweden. The name "polyudye" comes from the words "to walk among people".
The detour continued throughout the winter and ended in early spring. The path went through the lands of the Drevlyans, their main city Iskorosten; then the princely caravan headed north to the city of Lyubech on the Dnieper, and from there it fell into the land of the Dryagovichi, and the Radimichi also lived nearby. In the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the princely detour entered the land of the Krivichi and reached their main city of Smolensk. Further, the path went along the winter Desna to the Seversky lands, and then through Chernigov the Kyiv prince returned back to Kyiv. The whole way, therefore, was circular, its length was about 1200-1500 km. On the day of the prince's caravan, consisting of equestrian warriors and a large sleigh convoy, on average, did 7-8 km. But this is taking into account stops along the way, overnight stays. The day of the horse path was usually equated to 30 km.
What was the tribute? Of course, in the first place were furs, honey, wax, linen. Ever since the time of Oleg, the main measure of tribute to the subject tribes was the furs of the marten, ermine, and squirrels. Moreover, they were taken "from the smoke", that is, from each residential building. In addition, the composition of the tribute included food, even clothing. In short, they took everything that could be taken, trying on this or that locality, the type of economy.
Was the tribute fixed? Judging by the fact that the feeding of the prince and his escort was part of the polyudya, requests were often determined by needs, and they, as a rule, could not be counted. That is why during the Polyudia there were frequent violence against the inhabitants, their actions against the princely people. An example of this is the tragic death of Prince Igor.
In the very first winter after the approval of the Russian-Byzantine treaty, Igor went to the polyudye. His path at first lay in the lands of the Drevlyans. Igor had old scores with the Drevlyans. It was they who rebelled and tried to break away from Kyiv, as soon as he came to the throne. It was them that he imposed a heavier tribute than Oleg did.
During the collection of tribute in 945, Igor's soldiers committed violence against the Drevlyans. Having collected tribute, Igor sent the main part of the squad and the convoy back home, and he himself, left with the "small" squad, decided to wander around the Drevlyansk lands in search of prey. The Drevlyans, led by their prince Mal, rebelled and killed Igor's squad. The prince himself was captured and executed by a cruel death: he was tied to two bent trees, and then they were released.
Duchess Olga. Igor's wife remained in Kyiv with her young son Svyatoslav. The newly formed state was in critical condition. However, the people of Kiev not only recognized Olga's rights to the throne in connection with the minority of the heir, but also unconditionally supported her.
By this time, Princess Olga was in the prime of her physical and spiritual strength. According to one legend, she came from a simple Varangian family and lived near Pskov. Igor saw her during his stay in the Pskov land and was captivated by her beauty. At that time, there was no strict hierarchy in the selection of a wife for an heir. Olga became Igor's wife.
Interestingly, with the widespread practice of polygamy in the Slavic pagan environment, especially among wealthy Slavs, Olga was Igor's only wife. Some historians believe that the prince himself was a hidden Christian and was guided in his family life by the rules of Christian morality.
From the first steps of her reign, Olga showed herself as a resolute, powerful, far-sighted and stern ruler. She took revenge on the Drevlyans. During the negotiations, the Drevlyan ambassadors in Kyiv were brutally killed, and then Olga, supported by the governors of Igor Sveneld and Asmud, organized a military campaign in the Drevlyansk lands.
In the first battle, the Kyiv army defeated the Drevlyans. The chronicle tells that the battle was ritually started by the young Svyatoslav, throwing his spear towards the enemy. The Drevlyans fled and locked themselves in the capital city of Iskorosten. For several months the people of Kiev besieged the Drevlyane capital and finally took it by storm, having previously managed to set fire to the wooden buildings of the city. The Drevlyans were subjected to a heavy tribute, some of them were taken captive and handed over to the Kyiv combatants as slaves.
At the same time, Olga streamlined the collection of tribute, realizing that any arbitrary exactions could cause a new uprising of the freedom-loving and rebellious population. She walked with a retinue through the Drevlyansk land and established for the local population the norms for paying tribute (lessons) and the places where it was supposed to be taken (graveyards).
The same reform of tribute collection, its streamlining was carried out in other lands. From now on, local representatives of the princely administration were supposed to collect tribute. This was the end of the polyudye and the beginning of an organized system of taxation of the Russian land.
Having established order within the state, Olga turned her attention to foreign policy. Russia also faced the issue of establishing strong political and economic relations with strong neighbors. This could raise the authority of both the state and the dynasty, which was already firmly established on the throne of Kiev.
In 957, Olga went to Constantinople, herself, leading a magnificent and crowded embassy, consisting of more than a hundred people, not counting the servants, shipmen. Olga was accepted at the highest rank. She was invited to the imperial chambers for dinner, and she was received by the empress. During the conversations, Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus and Olga confirmed the validity of the previous agreement, as well as the military alliance of the two states, directed primarily against the Arabs and Khazaria.
Baptism of Princess Olga. An important issue of the negotiations was the baptism of the Russian princess.
By the middle of the IX century. almost all the major states of Western Europe, as well as part of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula and the Caucasus, adopted Christianity - some according to the Roman, others - according to the Byzantine model. Christianity attached states and peoples to a new civilization, enriched their spiritual culture, and raised the prestige of baptized statesmen to a higher level.
But for the pagan world, this process was difficult and painful. That is why in most countries the adoption of Christianity took place in several stages, had various forms. In the Frankish state, King Clovis adopted Christianity along with his retinue at the turn of the 5th - 6th centuries. The purpose of the baptism was clear: to get help from papal Rome in the fight against strong opponents in still pagan Europe. The main part of Frankish society remained pagan for a long time and only later was Christianized. In England in the seventh century kings accepted personal baptism, but then, under the influence of pagan opposition, they renounced it, and then were baptized again. Bulgaria in the ninth century. the entire population converted to Christianity along with Boris I. There, the roots of Christianity under the influence of neighboring Byzantium were very deep.
Olga chose for herself as a model the baptism of English kings. She, being a very perspicacious ruler, understood that further strengthening of the state prestige of the country and the dynasty was unthinkable without the adoption of Christianity. But she also understood the complexity of this process in Russia with its powerful pagan tradition, with the great commitment of the people and part of the ruling circles to the old religion. In large cities, among the merchants, townspeople, part of the boyars, there were already quite a few Christians and they had equal rights with the pagans. But the farther from the center of the state, the stronger the influence of pagan orders, and most importantly, the pagan Magi. Therefore, Olga decided to accept personal baptism, laying the foundation for this process in the princely environment.
Moreover, morally, the princess was already prepared for this act. Having survived the tragic death of her husband, the bloody battles with the Drevlyans, the destruction of their capital in the fire, Olga could turn to the new religion for an answer to the human questions that disturbed her, which just tuned in to the inner world of a person and tried to answer his eternal questions about the meaning of being and place in the world. If paganism looked for answers to all eternal questions outside of man, in the mighty actions of the forces of nature, Christianity turned to the world of human feelings and human reason.
Olga furnished the baptism with pomp appropriate for a great state. Baptism took place in the church of St. Sophia. Her godfather was the emperor himself, and the patriarch baptized her. Olga was baptized with the name Helena, in honor of the mother of Constantine the Great, the Byzantine emperor, who made in the 4th century. Christianity is the official religion of the empire. After baptism, Olga was received by the patriarch and had a conversation with him about faith.
Upon returning to Kyiv, Olga tried to persuade Svyatoslav to Christianity, saying that the squad would also accept baptism after the prince. But Svyatoslav, being an ardent pagan who worshiped the retinue god Perun, refused her.
A few years after her trip to Constantinople, Olga sent an embassy to the German Emperor Otto I. The purpose of the embassy was twofold - to establish permanent political relations with Germany and to strengthen religious ties. A zealous Christian, Otto I sent Christian missionaries to Kyiv. Olga continued her line. However, the Kievan pagans drove the missionaries out of the city and almost killed them.
Dying, the princess bequeathed not to celebrate a pagan feast on her grave, but to bury her according to the Christian rite.
Campaigns of Svyatoslav. Some historians consider Svyatoslav (964-972) - the son of Olga and Igor, a talented commander and statesman, others argue that he was an adventurer prince who saw the goal of his life in war. Svyatoslav was faced with the task of protecting Russia from nomadic raids and clearing trade routes to other countries. Svyatoslav coped with this task successfully, which confirms the validity of the first point of view.
Svyatoslav, in the course of his numerous campaigns, began to annex the lands of the Vyatichi, defeated the Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian tribes, defeated the Khazar Khaganate, successfully fought in the North Caucasus and the Azov coast, having captured Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula, repelled the onslaught of the Pechenegs. He tried to bring the borders of Russia closer to Byzantium and joined the Bulgarian-Byzantine conflict, and then led a stubborn struggle with the Emperor of Constantinople for the Balkan Peninsula. During the period of successful hostilities, Svyatoslav even thought about moving the capital of his state on the Danube to the city of Pereyaslavets, where, as he believed, “goods from different countries would converge”: silk, gold, Byzantine utensils, silver and horses from Hungary and the Czech Republic, wax , honey, furs and captive slaves from Russia. However, the struggle with Byzantium ended unsuccessfully, Svyatoslav was surrounded by a hundred thousandth Greek army. With great difficulty he managed to escape to Russia. A non-aggression pact was concluded with Byzantium, but the Danube lands had to be returned.
On the way to Kyiv, Svyatoslav in 972 was ambushed by the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids and was killed. The Pecheneg Khan ordered to make a cup from the skull of Svyatoslav, bound with gold, and drank from it at feasts, believing that the glory of the murdered would pass to him. (In the 30s of the 20th century, during the construction of the Dneproges, steel swords were discovered at the bottom of the Dnieper, which, as they say, belonged to Svyatoslav and his warriors.)
What you need to know about these topics:
Archaeological, linguistic and written evidence about the Slavs.
Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-IX centuries. Territory. Lessons. "The Way from the Varangians to the Greeks". Social system. Paganism. Prince and squad. Campaigns to Byzantium.
Internal and external factors that prepared the emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs.
Socio-economic development. Formation of feudal relations.
Early feudal monarchy of the Rurikids. "Norman theory", its political meaning. Management organization. Domestic and foreign policy of the first Kyiv princes (Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav).
The heyday of the Kievan state under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise. Completion of the unification of the Eastern Slavs around Kyiv. Border defense.
Legends about the spread of Christianity in Russia. Adoption of Christianity as the state religion. The Russian Church and its role in the life of the Kyiv state. Christianity and paganism.
"Russian Truth". The establishment of feudal relations. organization of the ruling class. Princely and boyar estates. Feudal-dependent population, its categories. Serfdom. Peasant communities. City.
The struggle between the sons and descendants of Yaroslav the Wise for the grand ducal power. fragmentation tendencies. Lyubech Congress of Princes.
Kievan Rus in the system of international relations in the 11th - early 12th centuries. Polovtsian danger. Princely feuds. Vladimir Monomakh. The final collapse of the Kievan state at the beginning of the XII century.
Culture of Kievan Rus. Cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs. Folklore. Epics. The origin of Slavic writing. Cyril and Methodius. Beginning of chronicle. "The Tale of Bygone Years". Literature. Education in Kievan Rus. Birch letters. Architecture. Painting (frescoes, mosaics, iconography).
Economic and political reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Russia.
feudal landownership. Urban development. Princely power and boyars. The political system in various Russian lands and principalities.
The largest political formations on the territory of Russia. Rostov-(Vladimir)-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod boyar republic. Socio-economic and internal political development of principalities and lands on the eve of the Mongol invasion.
International position of Russian lands. Political and cultural ties between Russian lands. Feudal strife. Fighting external danger.
The rise of culture in the Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries. The idea of the unity of the Russian land in the works of culture. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
Formation of the early feudal Mongolian state. Genghis Khan and the unification of the Mongolian tribes. The conquest by the Mongols of the lands of neighboring peoples, northeastern China, Korea, Central Asia. Invasion of Transcaucasia and South Russian steppes. Battle on the Kalka River.
Campaigns of Batu.
Invasion of North-Eastern Russia. The defeat of southern and southwestern Russia. Campaigns of Batu in Central Europe. Russia's struggle for independence and its historical significance.
Aggression of the German feudal lords in the Baltic. Livonian order. The defeat of the Swedish troops on the Neva and the German knights in the Battle of the Ice. Alexander Nevskiy.
Formation of the Golden Horde. Socio-economic and political system. Control system for conquered lands. The struggle of the Russian people against the Golden Horde. The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke for the further development of our country.
The inhibitory effect of the Mongol-Tatar conquest on the development of Russian culture. Destruction and destruction of cultural property. Weakening of traditional ties with Byzantium and other Christian countries. Decline of crafts and arts. Oral folk art as a reflection of the struggle against the invaders.
- Sakharov A.N., Buganov V.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century.
One of the most powerful in its time was Kievan Rus. A huge medieval power arose in the 19th century as a result of the unification of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. During its heyday, Kievan Rus (in the 9th-12th centuries) occupied an impressive territory and had a strong army. By the middle of the XII century, the once powerful state, due to feudal fragmentation, split into separate ones. Thus, Kievan Rus became an easy prey for the Golden Horde, which put an end to the medieval state. The main events that took place in Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries will be described in the article.
Russian Khaganate
According to many historians, in the first half of the 9th century, on the territory of the future Old Russian state, there was a state formation of the Rus. Little information has been preserved about the exact location of the Russian Khaganate. According to the historian Smirnov, the state formation was located in the region between the upper Volga and the Oka.
The ruler of the Russian Khaganate bore the title of Khagan. In the Middle Ages, this title was of great importance. The kagan ruled not only over nomadic peoples, but also commanded over other rulers of different peoples. Thus, the head of the Russian Khaganate acted as the emperor of the steppes.
By the middle of the 9th century, as a result of specific foreign policy circumstances, the transformation of the Russian Khaganate into the Russian Grand Duchy took place, which was weakly dependent on Khazaria. During the reign of Askold and Dir, they managed to completely get rid of oppression.
Rurik's reign
In the second half of the 9th century, the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes, due to fierce enmity, called on the Varangians overseas to reign in their lands. The first Russian prince was Rurik, who began to rule in Novgorod from 862. The new state of Rurik lasted until 882, when Kievan Rus was formed.
The history of Rurik's reign is full of contradictions and inaccuracies. Some historians are of the opinion that he and his squad are of Scandinavian origin. Their opponents are supporters of the West Slavic version of the development of Russia. In any case, the name of the term "Rus" in the 10th and 11th centuries was used in relation to the Scandinavians. After the Scandinavian Varangian came to power, the title "Kagan" gave way to "Grand Duke".
In the annals, scant information about the reign of Rurik has been preserved. Therefore, it is rather problematic to praise his desire to expand and strengthen state borders, as well as to strengthen cities. Rurik was also remembered for the fact that he was able to successfully suppress the rebellion in Novgorod, thereby strengthening his authority. In any case, the reign of the founder of the dynasty of the future princes of Kievan Rus made it possible to centralize power in the Old Russian state.
Reign of Oleg
After Rurik, power in Kievan Rus was to pass into the hands of his son Igor. However, due to the young age of the legitimate heir, Oleg became the ruler of the Old Russian state in 879. The new one turned out to be very belligerent and enterprising. Already from the first years of his tenure, he sought to take control of the waterway to Greece. To realize this grandiose goal, Oleg in 882, thanks to his cunning plan, dealt with the princes Askold and Dir, capturing Kyiv. Thus, the strategic task of conquering the Slavic tribes who lived along the Dnieper was solved. Immediately after entering the captured city, Oleg announced that Kyiv was destined to become the mother of Russian cities.
The first ruler of Kievan Rus really liked the advantageous location of the settlement. The gentle banks of the Dnieper River were impregnable for the invaders. In addition, Oleg carried out large-scale work to strengthen the defense structures of Kyiv. In 883-885, a number of military campaigns took place with a positive result, as a result of which the territory of Kievan Rus was significantly expanded.
Domestic and foreign policy of Kievan Rus during the reign of Oleg the Prophet
A distinctive feature of the internal policy of the reign of Oleg the Prophet was the strengthening of the state treasury by collecting tribute. In many ways, the budget of Kievan Rus was filled thanks to extortions from the conquered tribes.
The period of Oleg's reign was marked by a successful foreign policy. In 907, a successful campaign against Byzantium took place. A key role in the victory over the Greeks was played by the trick of the Kievan prince. The impregnable Constantinople was threatened with destruction after the ships of Kievan Rus were put on wheels and continued to move by land. Thus, the frightened rulers of Byzantium were forced to offer Oleg a huge tribute, and to provide Russian merchants with generous benefits. After 5 years, a peace treaty was signed between Kievan Rus and the Greeks. After a successful campaign against Byzantium, legends began to form about Oleg. The Kyiv prince began to be credited with supernatural abilities and a penchant for magic. Also, a grandiose victory in the domestic arena allowed Oleg to get the nickname Prophetic. The Kyiv prince died in 912.
Prince Igor
After the death of Oleg in 912, her rightful heir, Igor, the son of Rurik, became the full ruler of Kievan Rus. The new prince was by nature distinguished by modesty and respect for his elders. That is why Igor was in no hurry to throw Oleg off the throne.
The reign of Prince Igor was remembered for numerous military campaigns. Already after accession to the throne, he had to suppress the rebellion of the Drevlyans, who wanted to stop obeying Kyiv. A successful victory over the enemy made it possible to take additional tribute from the rebels for the needs of the state.
The confrontation with the Pechenegs was carried out with varying success. In 941, Igor continued the foreign policy of his predecessors by declaring war on Byzantium. The reason for the war was the desire of the Greeks to free themselves from their obligations after the death of Oleg. The first military campaign ended in defeat, as Byzantium carefully prepared. In 943 a new peace treaty was signed between the two states because the Greeks decided to avoid a fight.
Igor died in November 945, when he was collecting tribute from the Drevlyans. The prince's mistake was that he let his squad go to Kyiv, and he himself, with a small army, decided to profit additionally from his subjects. The indignant Drevlyans brutally dealt with Igor.
The reign of Volodymyr the Great
In 980, Vladimir, the son of Svyatoslav, became the new ruler. Before taking the throne, he had to emerge victorious from fraternal strife. However, Vladimir managed, after escaping "overseas", to gather the Varangian squad and avenge the death of his brother Yaropolk. The reign of the new prince of Kievan Rus turned out to be outstanding. Vladimir was also revered by his people.
The most important merit of the son of Svyatoslav is the famous Baptism of Russia, which took place in 988. In addition to numerous successes in the domestic arena, the prince became famous for his military campaigns. In 996, several fortress cities were built to protect the lands from enemies, one of which was Belgorod.
Baptism of Russia (988)
Until 988, paganism flourished on the territory of the Old Russian state. However, Vladimir the Great decided to choose Christianity as the state religion, although representatives from the Pope, Islam and Judaism came to him.
The Baptism of Russia in 988 nevertheless took place. Christianity was accepted by Vladimir the Great, close boyars and warriors, as well as ordinary people. For those who resisted to move away from paganism, all sorts of oppression threatened. Thus, since 988, the Russian Church originates.
The reign of Yaroslav the Wise
One of the most famous princes of Kievan Rus was Yaroslav, who not by chance received the nickname the Wise. After the death of Vladimir the Great, turmoil seized the Old Russian state. Blinded by the thirst for power, Svyatopolk sat on the throne, killing 3 of his brothers. Subsequently, Yaroslav gathered a huge army of Slavs and Varangians, after which in 1016 he went to Kyiv. In 1019, he managed to defeat Svyatopolk and ascend the throne of Kievan Rus.
The reign of Yaroslav the Wise turned out to be one of the most successful in the history of the Old Russian state. In 1036, he managed to finally unite the numerous lands of Kievan Rus, after the death of his brother Mstislav. Yaroslav's wife was the daughter of the Swedish king. Around Kyiv, by order of the prince, several cities and a stone wall were erected. The main city gates of the capital of the Old Russian state were called Golden.
Yaroslav the Wise died in 1054, when he was 76 years old. The reign of the Kyiv prince, 35 years long, is a golden time in the history of the Old Russian state.
Domestic and foreign policy of Kievan Rus during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise
The priority of Yaroslav's foreign policy was to increase the authority of Kievan Rus in the international arena. The prince managed to achieve a number of important military victories over the Poles and Lithuanians. In 1036, the Pechenegs were completely defeated. On the site of the fateful battle, the Church of St. Sophia appeared. During the reign of Yaroslav, a military conflict with Byzantium took place for the last time. The result of the confrontation was the signing of a peace treaty. Vsevolod, son of Yaroslav, married the Greek princess Anna.
In the domestic arena, the literacy of the population of Kievan Rus increased significantly. In many cities of the state, schools appeared in which boys studied church work. Various Greek books were translated into Old Church Slavonic. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the first collection of laws was published. "Russkaya Pravda" became the main asset of numerous reforms of the Kyiv prince.
The beginning of the collapse of Kievan Rus
What are the reasons for the collapse of Kievan Rus? Like many early medieval powers, its collapse turned out to be completely natural. There was an objective and progressive process associated with an increase in boyar land ownership. In the principalities of Kievan Rus, a nobility appeared, in whose interests it was more profitable to rely on a local prince than to support a single ruler in Kyiv. According to many historians, at first, territorial fragmentation was not the reason for the collapse of Kievan Rus.
In 1097, at the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh, in order to end the strife, the process of creating regional dynasties was launched. By the middle of the XII century, the Old Russian state was divided into 13 principalities, which differed from each other in their area, military power and cohesion.
Decline of Kyiv
In the XII century, there was a significant decline in Kyiv, which turned from a metropolis into an ordinary principality. Largely because of the Crusades, there was a transformation of international trade communications. Therefore, economic factors significantly undermined the power of the city. In 1169, as a result of princely strife, Kyiv was first taken by storm and plundered.
The final blow to Kievan Rus was dealt by the Mongol invasion. The scattered principality did not represent a formidable force for numerous nomads. In 1240 Kyiv suffered a crushing defeat.
Population of Kievan Rus
There is no information about the exact number of inhabitants of the Old Russian state. According to the historian, the total population of Kievan Rus in the 9th - 12th centuries was approximately 7.5 million people. About 1 million people lived in cities.
The lion's share of the inhabitants of Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries were free peasants. Over time, more and more people became smerds. Although they had freedom, they were obliged to obey the prince. The free population of Kievan Rus, due to debts, captivity and other reasons, could become servants who were slaves without rights.
Russia in XII th century
The emergence of specific principalities
The weakening of Kyiv and the emergence of new centers of power
The Kyiv period of Russian history (IX-XI centuries) was marked by a significant development of the economy. On old arable lands, instead of the slash-and-burn system of agriculture, a three-field system began to be introduced - a regular system of land use. New field, garden and horticultural crops appeared. The number of livestock increased. Cities grew significantly, handicrafts developed. By the XII century. there were already about 300 cities in the country. There was a specialization of production and division of labor. The growth of wealth made one strive not only to preserve them in their own way, but to pass them on to their own son. There was a very important idea for Russian history about the “fatherland”, as the legacy of the father, which meant the replacement of tribal values with family ones.
From the middle of the XII century. the decline of the Kyiv principality begins. It has been associated with a number of reasons:
1) The trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” gradually lost its significance. In Byzantium, as well as in Russia, there was a process of strengthening local centers of power at the expense of Constantinople - the traditional consumer of Russian exports - furs, honey, slaves. In the XIII century. this route finally gave way to its role as the main link between the north and south of Europe to the “amber route” from Pomerania to Venice. As a result, the protection of this path, which was one of the main reasons for the formation of a single ancient Russian state, lost its meaning. Local princes were no longer so interested in supporting the prince of Kyiv, who controlled the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks." They were no longer willing to give him people for the army, saying that this would interfere with the peasants in their work.
2) On the other hand, the princes became strong enough to defend their lands themselves. The main source of wealth for local princes was no longer the gifts of the forest collected during the polyud, but money, handicraft products, bread, which they received from their estates, as well as in the form of taxes from peasants and cities. Now the boyars were tied to the princes not only by the opportunity to get rich during the “polyudya”, but also the right to receive land for farming for service, on which it was possible to plant serfs and purchases - peasants who fell into debt dependence.
3) The Kiev principality was becoming an increasingly dangerous place to live. He was constantly attacked by princes who wanted to achieve a great reign. He was worried about the Polovtsy, who did not dare to attack the cities, but constantly plundered the villages. Therefore, the population began to leave from there, move to the northeast, to the sparsely populated lands along the Oka and the Upper Volga, not so long ago attached to the ancient Russian state. The towns of the Dnieper region were also empty, living by trade with the peasants, as well as by working for the boyars of the rich Kievan princes.
By tradition, Kyiv was still the goal of the aspirations of the princes. The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav, made attempts to restore the unity of Kievan Rus. But under the princes Yuri Dolgoruky and his son Andrei Bogolyubsky in the middle of the XII century. the center of the country more and more noticeably moved after its inhabitants to the northeast to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
The main political and economic life now went on in separate principalities. By the end of the XII century. there were already several dozen of them. The principality was considered as a “fatherland”, the property of the prince, therefore, in his will, he distributed it in parts to his sons, who were usually several. So already after 2-3 generations, 10 or even 20 were formed from one principality. This process was hampered by the centralization tendencies of individual princes, who subordinated their neighbors and restored the former integrity of the state. As a result, individual principalities began to form their own dominant centers of power, their own great principalities. The most powerful were the grand dukes of the Vladimir-Suzdal land in the northwest and the Galicia-Volyn land in the southwest of Russia.
For the further history of Russia, the history of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, which bordered the Ryazan and Chernigov principalities (to the north of the Oka), in the west - with the Smolensk principality, and in the north - with Novgorod land, is of particular interest. Even in the IX-X centuries. Finno-Ugric tribes lived on this territory along with the Vyatichi and Krivichi tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. they were partly pushed back to other places, partly assimilated by the Slavs. The greatest value of the Vladimir land was represented by opolya - forested areas of old arable land, well protected from external intrusions. The cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality arose much later than the cities of the south.
The emergence of feudalism in Russia
Over time, land interests played an increasingly important role in the life of Russian society. In the XII-XV centuries. a system of private, boyar and monastic land tenure is being formed, first on the basis of the transfer by the prince of the boyars and monasteries of part of their administrative and judicial rights, for example, the collection of tribute, and then by expanding their own farms, in which dependent peasants worked, debtors of boyars and monasteries, or who sought they have protection. Such a transfer by the prince of part of his rights to the boyars and monasteries created new feudal relations between them.
Features of Russian feudalism
Lack of a clear legal nature of feudal relations (feudal immunity).
Russian feudalism did not lead to a dialogue between the centers of power. The princes were the real political force in the country, the cities were not free (as it was in Western Europe), the church was not an independent political force and could not play the role of an arbitrator, the boyars were perceived not as vassals, but as servants.
The emergence of power-property in the territory subject to the prince.
Civilizational Alternative: “Challenge” of the East and “Challenge” of the West
The development of Russian civilization was determined not only by the choice of faith, but also by the choice of the natural and political environment to which the population and the state had to adapt and which they tried to transform in their own interests. For Russia, located between Europe and Asia, it was extremely important in which direction it would turn its face - to the East or to the West. Kievan Rus managed to maintain a neutral position between them, but the new political situation of the 13th century, the invasion of the Mongols and the crusade of European knights against Russia, which called into question the continued existence of the Russian people and their culture, forced them to make a definite choice. The fate of the country for many centuries to come depended on this choice.
Call of the East
In 1223, the Mongols first appeared in the Black Sea steppes and defeated the combined army of Russians and Polovtsians near the Kalka River. In 1227, Genghis Khan died, having divided his vast possessions between his sons before his death. The supreme power was given to the eldest son, Udegei, who ruled in Karakorum. Genghis Khan's son Jochi died during his father's lifetime, and the ulus (possession) destined for him was transferred to his son Batu; this was the land to the west of the Urals, which had yet to be conquered. In 1236, Batu with the Mongol-Tatar horde defeated the Bulgar kingdom, subjugated the Polovtsy and Alans (Ossetians) in the North Caucasus, and also captured the lands of the Mordovians. In the winter of 1237, he approached the borders of the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes turned to Vladimir and Chernigov for help, but they did not understand the danger of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. After all, in the last decades before this, the steppes had ceased to threaten the interior regions of Russia. Nobody came to help. One after another, the cities of Ryazan, Pronsk and others were defeated. The inhabitants of the Ryazan land defended themselves heroically, but their resistance was broken.
All Russian lands offered desperate resistance to the conquerors one by one, but one by one they perished. A fierce battle unfolded near Kolomna, Moscow stubbornly defended itself under the leadership of the governor Fyodor Nyanka. The city was taken, burned, its inhabitants were exterminated “from an old man to a living baby”, all villages and monasteries near Moscow were destroyed and plundered. Such a fate befell all the other cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Within two years, Batu conquered all of northeastern Russia. In 1239-1240. the southwestern Russian lands were conquered, Chernigov, Pereyaslav-Yuzhny, Glukhov were taken and devastated, and in December 1240 the capital of Russia was Kyiv.
Defeated, suppressed and devastated, the Russian land became the ulus of the Tatar Khan. It is important to note that the power of the Tatar "king", as he is called by the Russian chronicles, did not cancel or replace the power of the Russian princes. The Russian princes had to recognize the supreme power of the khan over themselves and then received from him the approval of their princely rights. Thus, the Horde did not establish its control in Russia, did not encroach on the Russian system of power and control. The power of the Russian princes over the population of their lands was not only preserved, but also increased, for now it relied on the enormous military power of the Tatar Khan.
Tatar khans developed special relations with the Orthodox Church. Like most pagans, they honored the local gods and patronized the priests, believing that this would propitiate foreign gods and attract them to the side of the Mongol-Tatars.
Calling the West
In 1240, at a time when eastern and middle Russia was subjected to a devastating Mongol-Tatar invasion, the northern neighbor of Veliky Novgorod, the Swedes, together with the Finnish tribes subordinate to them, attacked the Novgorod land. Russia was squeezed between two aggressive forces: from the east it was threatened by the empire of Genghis Khan, and from the west by the Holy Roman Empire of the German Hohenstaufen emperors. The organizer and inspirer of the “onslaught to the east” was the Catholic Church, which called for a crusade of German, Swedish and Danish feudal lords. The main goal of this campaign against Russia was to cut it off from trade routes, capture the Neva, access to the Baltic Sea and subdue the entire Novgorod land.
The fundamental work of the outstanding Russian scientist, specialist in the history, archeology and culture of ancient Russia, Academician Boris Aleksandrovich Rybakov (1908–2001), which is brought to the attention of readers, was first published in 1982 by the Nauka publishing house and has since been republished in small editions without significant changes to it. content and structure.
In Soviet times, B.A. Rybakov, as Academician-Secretary of the Department of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, winner of the highest state awards and prizes for his many years of fruitful scientific activity, recognized head of the Russian school of medievalists, by his very highest and well-deserved authority, was actually delivered not only from unscrupulous, but in general any meaningful criticism in his address, although there were enough reasons for scientific criticism and rejection of the scientific positions defended by him, especially those presented in this obviously debatable book; serious reasons precisely in scientific terms, if we discard any other political motives that made themselves felt soon after the publication of the book, but especially in the 90s, when the overthrow of all sorts of authorities and scientific achievements of the Soviet era became commonplace.
The basis for most critical reviews of the book by B.A. Rybakov "Kievan Rus" were the opinions of prominent domestic historians A.P. Novoseltsev (Questions of history. No. 1. 1993. P. 23–32) and L.S. Klein (The Resurrection of Perun. St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 2004) about the insufficient validity of some of the provisions of Rybakov's concept about the history of the origin of ancient Russian statehood, which in general terms boil down to the following:
1. The southern origin of the term "Rus" and the Rus tribe in the territory of the Polyans and Severyans is not confirmed by sources.
2. Attributing the time of the founding of Kyiv to the end of the 5th - the beginning of the 6th century. nothing is substantiated.
3. The existence of the dynasty of Kyiv princes in the VI-IX centuries. - Rybakov's invention.
5. Too free interpretation by him of geographical and other information about ancient Russia contained in Arabic and other written sources.
The position of opponents of the historical concept of acad. B.A. Rybakov summed up A.P. Novoseltsev: “Him (Rybakova. - Ed.) fantasy creates sometimes impressive (for non-specialists) pictures of the past, which, however, have nothing in common with what we know from surviving sources. At the same time, it should be noted that this is said about a scientist who, before the publication of this book, devoted more than 50 years of his life to the study of pre-Mongolian Russia as an archaeologist and source specialist, an expert on ancient cults, ethnography and folklore. If we add to the above that B.A. Rybakov is the author of a fundamental study on the history of pre-Christian culture and beliefs of the Slavs (“Paganism of the Ancient Slavs”, 1981; “Paganism of Ancient Russia”, 1987), in which he used the richest archaeological, ethnographic and generally cultural material of “time immemorial”, then reproaches against the author of the book "Kievan Rus" in terms of historical fantasizing look clumsy and inappropriate.
The thoughtful reader, of course, will understand and appreciate the evidentiary power of the author’s multifaceted and logically consistent argumentation regarding the most complex historical problems, for which there is still no single idea about them in modern Russian society, in particular, on the issue of the Varangian origin of Russian statehood. . For all the main provisions of his historical concept, which even now cause sharp to irreconcilability objections of opponents, the book provides detailed justifications and explanations of the author, who is not inclined to pass over in silence obvious contradictions in the sources or the insufficiency of archaeological research data - but is B.A. Is Rybakov to blame for the fact that the front of expensive archaeological excavations in Russia and Ukraine does not correspond to the level of complexity and significance of the tasks of knowing our own historical past? Moreover, the most experienced archaeologist, the head of several archaeological expeditions, Rybakov knew perfectly well the “urban” specifics on the territory of Ancient Russia of the 1st millennium: “... one should completely abandon the idea that archaeological excavations will open a classic medieval city with a Kremlin and a suburb, with shopping areas, crafts quarters and several concentrations of fortifications” (see p. 102 of this edition). Stone architecture in Russia was formed one and a half thousand years later than in Western Europe. And a purely wooden city from a crazy spark can burn to the ground in 1-2 hours - the work of more than one decade. Therefore, our smart ancestors of cities in the European sense until the 9th-10th centuries. and did not build. After all, even stone Rome burned down under Nero! So what - to recognize the existence of one Kyiv on the entire vast East European Plain for 4-5 centuries? Nonsense. And Rybakov understood this very well, and did not confuse the "knot" of the Polyano-Severyansky trade interests that had actually existed for many centuries with the administrative-political city and the artisan settlement of the European burg.
Those who doubt that Russia as an ethnic group and as a certain political association corresponding to its large number and development in the fertile territory of the Dnieper region by the 5th-6th centuries. has already fully taken place, and after three centuries it finally took shape in a powerful East Slavic union with a minimal role in it of several hundred Scandinavian robbers, it is proposed to answer two simple questions: 1) which people, who did not know the centralized princely government, could until the 7th century. to build huge Serpentine ramparts with a total length of more than 2 thousand km to protect against the raids of the steppes and 2) who organized the Slavic campaign against Byzantium in 860, laid siege to Constantinople and made the intimidating population of the capital of a huge empire horrified by its power?
As for the “freedom” of interpreting the historical works of foreign-language authors, Arabic in particular, it should be said that only thanks to the exceptional scrupulousness and pedantry of B.A. Rybakov, happily combined with his outstanding logical talent, managed to decipher without blatant contradictions, for example, what Arabic writers understood as the description of numerous mountains in the territories of the Vyatichi, Severyan, Polyany and their southern neighbors - compilers of geographical instructions and guidebooks. Only Rybakov clearly understood and proved that the "mountains" in Russia are the rows of highlands of the watersheds of large Russian rivers, which had to be climbed by eastern merchants walking with a heavy load (see Appendix 1). But how many source historians before Rybakov tried unsuccessfully to "reconcile" Arabic geography with real Russian!
Book B.A. Rybakov "Kievan Rus" is a scientific work in which a consistent presentation of the problems of the historical path of the Eastern Slavs discussed by the author is accompanied by citation and analysis of a huge source material that determines the informational and conceptual base of the book. The author himself, apparently, was clearly aware that in order to facilitate the perception of the most complex material of the book, the source studies proper issues should be separated from its context into separate sections, which he did in the 1982 edition: a review and study of sources on Kievan Rus of the 9th–12th centuries . the entire large second chapter “Sources” was devoted to the source study on the topic “Russian principalities of the XII - early XIII centuries.” - a special section "Sources" in the last - sixth chapter of the book. However, the specificity of their content and the style of presentation that must correspond to it inevitably complicate the perception of the main material of the book, especially by readers who do not have professional training in this field of science. Therefore, the publishing house found it useful, precisely from the point of view of facilitating the perception of the material of the book, to transfer the above second chapter and the section "Sources" of the sixth chapter to the Appendix, and in the main text to specifically note the references to the Appendix where it was provided by the author.
