by decree of 1765, it was allowed to exile peasants not only to a settlement in Siberia, but also to hard labor. The term of hard labor could be set by the landowner himself. Links to penal servitude now punished the attempts of the serfs to complain about their landowner;

The general surveying of lands, begun under Elizabeth, continued, declaring the property of the landowners all the lands they had previously seized (in general, the general surveying brought the nobles 50 million acres of land);

for 1762-1796 the nobles were granted 800 thousand state peasants;

to strengthen the noble monopoly on land, industrialists were forbidden to buy serfs to work in enterprises;

in 1782, the decree on "mountain freedom" was canceled, according to which the right to develop ore deposits belonged to the one who discovers them. Now the nobles were declared the owners not only of the land, but also of its bowels;

in 1763, Catherine laid all the costs associated with the maintenance of military teams sent to pacify peasant uprisings on the peasants themselves;

in 1783, the transfer of peasants from one owner to another was prohibited in Ukraine. This meant the introduction of serfdom, which did not exist here before.

In April 1785, a “Letter of Letters to the Nobility” was published, where all the privileges given to the nobles after the death of Peter I were collected and confirmed. In addition, Catherine allowed the creation of noble societies in provinces and districts. Once every three years, meetings of the nobility were held, at which district and provincial marshals of the nobility were elected. They had the right to address the governors and governors with their needs and send petitions to the highest authorities and to the empress. The peasant uprising led by Pugachev and the revolutionary events in France led to a tightening of domestic politics. In 1775, a provincial reform was carried out. The number of provinces increased from 23 to 50. The population in the province was 300-400 thousand souls (for the male population), and in the county - 20-30 thousand. Governors were appointed at the head of the provinces, and police captains in the counties. This reform led to increased control of the authorities over the country's population. For the first time, estate judicial bodies were created on the ground: the district court for the nobles, the city magistrate for the townspeople and the lower reprisal for the state peasants (the trial of the serfs was administered by the landowner himself). Elected governments were introduced in the cities, but the mayor was appointed by the central authorities. The Zaporozhian Sich and the remnants of self-government in Ukraine were liquidated (1775). The revolution in France led to the introduction of strict censorship and the closure of free printing houses. For the publication of "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" A.N. Radishchev was sentenced to death, which was commuted to a ten year exile in Siberia. The famous publisher and writer N.I. Ekaterina Novikova ordered her to be imprisoned for 15 years in the Shlisselburg Fortress. All this testified to the end of the policy of "enlightened absolutism." Thus, the internal policy of Catherine II was controversial, carried out in the interests of the nobility - the social support of the autocracy.

23 question) Main goals foreign policy . The international position of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II. Foreign policy course of N.I. Panin. Eastern Question: the struggle of European states for influence in the Ottoman Empire. Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 The capture of Khotyn, the battles of Larga and Cahul. Consolidation of Russian troops in Moldavia and Wallachia. Naval battles in the Chios Strait and Chesme Bay. Occupation of the Crimea. Peace talks in Focsani and the reasons for their failure. Bucharest Congress. Diplomatic art of A.M. Obreskov. Continuation of the war. Battle of Kozludzhi. The signing of the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhinsky peace treaty and its conditions. "Greek project" of Catherine II. Inclusion of Crimea into Russia. Establishment of a protectorate over Georgia. Russo-Turkish War 1787-1791 Defense of Kinburn and the Black Sea coast of Russia. The capture of Ochakov by Russian troops. Battle of Focsani and on the Rymnik River. Capture of the fortresses Akkerman and Bendery. Storm of Ishmael. The first victories of the Black Sea Fleet. Iasi Congress and its results. ^ European Direction of Russia's Foreign Policy. The main foreign policy contradictions between Russia and the leading European powers. Russia's Declaration of Armed Neutrality. War with Sweden. Formation of the Russian-Prussian alliance. Attempts of state liberalization in the Commonwealth and the circumstances that led to its divisions. Completion of the reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands with Russia. Severing diplomatic relations with revolutionary France. Russia's entry into the anti-French coalition. Italian and Swiss campaigns of the Russian army. Reasons for the abrupt change foreign policy Paul I. ^ Far East direction. Accession to Russia of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. Activity G.I. Shelikhov and A.A. Baranov. Organization of the Russian-American Company and its foreign policy powers. ^ The results of Russia's foreign policy in the second halfXVIII century. Russian military art. The advantages of the Russian national army over the armies of European states. Rejection of the Prussian military system.

The Peace of Tilsit in 1807 was forced and therefore not lasting. Russia's participation in the continental blockade was so economically burdensome that in 1810 it actually refused to fulfill its obligations. In the same year, Napoleon's attempt to strengthen the alliance with Russia ended in failure by dynastic marriage with the sister of Alexander 1 Anna, which led to a sharp aggravation of relations between the two emperors. Unsuccessful were attempts to agree on the Polish question (Alexander demanded that Napoleon refuse to support the movement of the Poles for independence). In February 1811, Napoleon annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, whose crown prince was married to the sister of Alexander 1 - Catherine. This was followed in April by the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance and the preparations of both countries for the inevitable war intensified. For the war against Russia, Napoleon created a huge army for those times, numbering 600 thousand people and 1372 guns. The French made up only half of the army, and the other half were Prussians, Austrians, Italians, Dutch, Poles, etc. It was truly an "army of twelve languages." On the night of June 12, 1812, Napoleon's army invaded Russia. It was headed by the emperor himself and the famous marshals who conquered all of Europe. Russian troops numbered only 210 thousand soldiers and officers. They were divided into three armies and dispersed along western border. The main force of the Russian troops was l-th army under the command of the Minister of War, General M.B. Barclay de Tolly, located in Lithuania along the Neman River. To the south of it, in Belarus, the 2nd Army of General P.I. Bagration. Army of General A.P. Tormasova was in Ukraine. The Russian command had no idea about Napoleon's plans. The bulk of the generals and military advisers to the tsar believed that he would attack Petersburg. Therefore, it was proposed to give a general battle to the enemy near the border with the forces of the 1st Army, with the support of Bagration's army. It was difficult to plan military operations and the fact that initially Alexander 1 himself took over the functions of the commander-in-chief - a man far from military science. He was soon persuaded to leave the army. But there was no commander in chief. Napoleon, meanwhile, began to implement his strategic plan, which was to move the main forces to Moscow. To do this, it was supposed to prevent the connection of the Russian armies and defeat them in the course of a general battle near the border. After the capture of Moscow, Napoleon did not intend to occupy all of Russia. Having taken her out of the war with a quick blow, he intended to turn Alexander into the same puppet that many European monarchs by that time had become. And then, through the Caucasus and the Orenburg steppes, he was going to deliver a mortal blow to England, depriving her of India. In early August, a major battle took place near Smolensk, which became one of the heroic pages in the history of Russia. Despite the fact that the French managed to take the city, they lost about 20 thousand of their soldiers here. After the Russian troops and civilians left Smolensk, the enemy got only charred ruins. Neither food nor fodder, which Napoleon counted on, could not be captured. The Russian army was saved, it received the first combat experience and was convinced that an "invincible" enemy could be successfully beaten. Soon, at the insistence of the environment, Alexander 1 appointed M.I. Kutuzov. Taking office in August, Kutuzov declared that Barclay de Tolly's actions were correct and retreated even closer to Moscow. Only 110 km from the ancient capital, near the village of Borodino, he decided to give a general battle to Napoleon. The forces of the parties were approximately equal. The Russian army numbered 132 thousand people and 640 guns. Napoleon had 135 thousand people and 587 guns. Napoleon sought to defeat the Russian army and capture Moscow. Kutuzov planned / to undermine the offensive impulse of the enemy and bleed him. The largest battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 began on August 26 at 5.30 am. The enemy sought to break through the center of the Russian troops, bypass their left flank and clear their way to Moscow. The stubborn resistance of the Russian soldiers made this impossible. The fiercest battles unfolded on the Bagration Flushes (they lasted here for more than 6 hours with continuous artillery fire, the flashes were captured by the enemy only in the middle of the day) and on the battery of General Raevsky (here the Russian heroes repulsed the enemy with bayonet strikes several times and only by the end of the day the French managed to capture the central battery). Despite the fierceness of the battle and the apparent success of the enemy, the battle did not bring victory to either side. The losses of both armies on the Borodino field were greater than ever, about 60 thousand French and their allies and 44 thousand Russians. Evaluating this battle later, Napoleon said: “The most terrible of all my battles is the one I fought near Moscow. The French in it showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians proved worthy of being invincible. However, Napoleon's "victory" was pyrrhic. Despite the demand of the king to give a new battle to the French, Kutuzov announced at the military council in Fili on September 1 his decision to leave Moscow without a new battle, in order to save the army. As history has shown, this was the only right decision that saved Russia. On September 2, the Russian army left Moscow. The population of the capital followed her. Napoleon entered the deserted city and handed it over to be plundered French army. Meanwhile, the Russian troops made a brilliant maneuver. Having retreated along the Ryazan road to the east, they suddenly turned to the south and blocked the possible advance of the French to the Tula arms factories and the Kaluga food and weapons bases. During the war, a fierce popular struggle against the invaders unfolded in the country. It became famous for the brave partisans singled out from the army "- D.V. Davydov, A.N. Seslavin, A.S. Figner and others. The peasant struggle caused enormous damage to the enemy. Napoleon wrote that his army loses every day when foraging more soldiers than on the battlefields. The leaders of the peasant partisan movement were E. Chetvertakov, G. Kurin, V. Kozhina. During the month of his stay in Moscow, Napoleon, already realizing his doom, tried three times to start negotiations with Kutuzov and Alexander 1 about peace, but he never received an answer to his letters. Then, on the eve of winter, Napoleon decided to leave Moscow and move the remnants of the army to the not devastated south, trying to gather strength for a new offensive. Before leaving, he ordered the Kremlin, St. Basil's Cathedral and other national shrines to be blown up. Only thanks to the dedication of the Russian patriots, these plans were thwarted.On October 6, the French left Moscow, but the strengthened Russian army stood in their way. em (this city changed hands eight times) forced the French to turn onto the old Smolensk road they had ruined. The enemy retreating to the western borders was pursued by the Russian army and partisans. An early and harsh winter was another strong enemy for the French. " great army> turned into an uncontrollable hungry and frozen crowd. When crossing the Berezina River, Napoleon lost another 30 thousand of his soldiers. Only the miserable remnants of the "great army" managed to cross the border. The emperor himself, leaving his troops, fled to Paris. To the courtiers who met him, he was forced to answer: “There is no more army!” On December 25, Alexander 1 issued a manifesto about the expulsion of the enemy from Russia and the end Patriotic War.

25 question)

One of the most characteristic features The post-war period of the reign of Alexander 1 was a growing social movement, for the first time in the history of Russia, it acquired organized forms. The ideological basis of the activities of the participants in the circles and organizations that appeared in the country was the liberal ideology. Its main provisions were the priority of the personality of a person and his economic and political freedoms over everything else. This ideology was fundamentally new for Russia, where from time immemorial the interest of the state was considered the main thing, and the self-worth of the individual was not recognized. The spread of liberal ideas in Russia began from the time of Catherine 11, who corresponded with the major theorists of liberalism - Rousseau, Volyler 157 and others. However, after the French Revolution, the empress herself began to persecute liberals, rightly fearing for the fate of the monarchy. The second wave of liberal ideas came to Russia during the Patriotic War of 1812 and especially - foreign campaign Russian army, when thousands of young Russian officers saw for the first time that it was possible to live differently, and returned from abroad convinced opponents of autocracy and serfdom. To a large extent, the emergence of liberal sentiments was facilitated by the national-patriotic upsurge of the Russian people, associated with the defeat of Napoleon. Finally, the liberal-reform projects of the tsar himself, discussed by the Unspoken Committee and the entire high society, and then the reforms of M. M. Speransky also led to the fact that the ideas of liberalism increasingly penetrated into the environment of the advanced nobility. AT to a large extent to create secret societies and circles were pushed by the inaction and indecision of the authorities in reforming society. The first secret societies appeared after the end of the foreign campaign of the Russian army. Young officers, eager for change, joined the Masonic organizations in France. They quickly became popular, by the early 1820s. more than 3,000 members of the nobility and intelligentsia were united in almost 220 Masonic lodges, and about half of them were foreigners in the Russian service. The first major secret society was the Union of Salvation (l8161818), whose founder was Colonel of the General Staff A.N. Muravyov, and whose members were S.P. Trubetskoy, S. and. and M. i. Muravyov-Apostles, N. M. Muravyov, M. S. Lunin, P. I. Pestel, I. I. Pushchin and others (30 people in total). The members of the organization considered the destruction of serfdom and the restriction of autocracy as their goals. However, the way to achieve these goals was unclear. From time to time calls for regicide were heard among the members of the society. After the Union of Salvation was dissolved for ideological reasons, the Union of Welfare (1818-1821) was created on its basis. It already numbered about 200 people. The program settings of the Union were set out in the charter, called the "Green Book". Recognizing the need to fight against serfdom and autocracy, the members of the Union more clearly defined the ways to achieve this goal. Considering themselves obligated to help the government in reforming society, they attached paramount importance to the education and upbringing of the population, the development of charity, etc. After the government stopped developing reforms, the Union was dissolved. National secret organizations were also created "<Патриотическое общество,>in Poland, the "Society of United Slavs," in the south of Russia, etc.). In 1821-1822. were formed. The two most famous secret societies are called - Southern (Ukraine) and Northern (Petersburg). The Southern Society, which arose in March 1821, united the officers of the 2nd Army stationed in Ukraine. The members of the society were P. I. Pestel, A. P. Yushnevsky, A. A. and N. A. Kryukov, F. B. Wolf, V. P. Ivashev, A. P. Baryatinsky and others. and the Southern Society consisted of three organizations. The central place among them was occupied by the "indigenous council" in Tulchin, which was headed by Pestel and Yushnevsky. They were also elected directors of the entire society. In addition, there were two more branches in Kamenka (under the leadership of V. L Davydov and S. G. Volkonsky) and in Vasilkov (S. I. Muravyov-Apostol and M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin). Congresses of the governing bodies of the society were held annually at the contract fair in Kiev. At the first such meeting (January 1822 .) Pestel's report was heard on the foundations of the constitutional project he developed. Pestel, in memory of the ancient Russian code of laws, called his program "Russian Truth". This was the first integral republican constitutional project in the history of Russia. Russia was proclaimed a republic. Legislative power was transferred to the unicameral parliament - the People's Council, which was elected by popular vote of men who have reached the age of 20. Executive power - the Sovereign Duma, which consisted of five people, one of which changed annually: Control over the observance of the Constitution was to be carried out by the Supreme Council, which consisted of 120 people elected for life. Class division was eliminated. Civil liberties were proclaimed: religion, speech, press, movement, equality before the court. In the area of national policy Pestel proposed to annex the Far East, Transcaucasia and some other territories to Russia. The right of nations to self-determination was not envisaged (with the exception of Poland). Serfdom cancelled. To provide the peasants with land, it was proposed to divide the entire land fund of the country into two equal parts, of which one should be kept by the landlords, and the other should be transferred to the liberated peasants (and this part was not subject to sale and purchase). The Northern Society was founded in 1821 in St. Petersburg. Its core consisted of N. M. Murav'ev, N. I. Turgenev, M. S. Lunin, S. P. Trubetskoy, E. P. Obolenskii, and I. I. Pushchin. In the struggle between two currents - moderate (N. M. Muravyov) and radical (K. F. Ryleev) - supporters of moderate views won. Their ideas found expression in the "Constitution"," by Nikita Muravyov. According to his program, RUSSIA was to become a constitutional monarchy. It was declared a federation of 15 "powers", each of which had its own capital (for example, the Volkhov power with its capital in St. with the center in Kiev, Ukrainian - in Kharkov, Caucasian - in Tiflis, etc.) In the "powers" power was to be exercised by a bicameral institution - the State Duma (upper house) and the Chamber of Elected Deputies (lower). In the federation, the supreme power belonged to the bicameral (Supreme Duma and the House of People's Representatives) to the Parliament of the People's Council. Elections to these bodies were limited by a high property qualification. The functions of the head of state - the emperor were also limited. He was supposed to become only the "highest official" of the country, having the right to delay the adoption of the law and return it to reconsideration.On the annual salary allocated to him (8 million rubles), the emperor could support the court, but rnye deprived of the right to vote. The table of ranks was destroyed, and all positions in the state became elective. Civil liberties were declared. Serfdom was abolished. However, the bulk of the land remained in the hands of the landowners. Peasants were offered to give two acres of land per capita. They could work for the landowner for hire. Discussions arose among members of the society about how to achieve these goals. The result was the decision on the armed action of the Members of the societies at the time of the change of emperors on the throne. Despite the clandestine nature of the organizations, the authorities had quite a bit of information about their activities. In 1822, a special decree was adopted to ban the activities of all secret societies and Masonic lodges, and from 1823 their persecution began. In the summer-autumn of 1825, when preparations for the performance were in full swing, Alexander 1 not only received more accurate information about the presence of secret officer organizations in the 1st and 2nd armies, but also learned the names of the leaders of the impending rebellion. A few days before his death, Alexander ordered the arrest of a number of participants in the movement. Already after the death of the king, an order was given for the arrest of Pestel, whom informants called "the main instigator." He was arrested on December 13 in Ukraine, just before the uprising in the capital. 160 The death of Alexander became that milestone in the history of Russia, which was followed by the oblivion of many reform projects. for Russia, not only a new reign began, but also a whole era of “stabilization” of the political regime.

26 question)

The abolition of serfdom required changes in the political and spiritual life of the country, their adaptation to new conditions. Along with the preparation of the peasant reform, Emperor Alexander 11 created commissions for the preparation of projects for political reforms and transformations in the field of education. In 1863, a university reform was carried out, which was based on the idea of ​​autonomy for universities in the preparation and implementation of curricula, as well as granting them economic and administrative independence. For the first time, teachers and students high school got the right to decide internal problems. As a result, the quality of education has noticeably increased, and the social activity of students has increased. In 1864 one of the most important zemstvo reforms was carried out (and in 1870 - urban). 201 It was envisaged to create elective bodies local government(county and provincial zemstvos, city dumas), to which issues of primary education, maintenance of schools, shelters and hospitals, land surveying, statistical accounting, urban work, etc. were transferred. It was especially noted that zemstvos and city dumas cannot deal with political issues that remained under the jurisdiction of either the central government or the governors.The creation of local self-government bodies in Russia was a step towards a new political system.In the same year, school reform, which was based on the ideas of democratization of the management of the system of primary and secondary education. In the course of the reform, the network of schools was significantly expanded, and a unified state system for the training of pedagogical personnel was formed. In the autumn of 1864, the most consistent of all the "great reforms" of the 1960s and 1870s began - the judiciary. The court became classless and formally independent of the authorities. Judicial proceedings became public. An adversarial process was introduced with the presence of an accuser (prosecutor) and a defense counsel (lawyer). jury was introduced to decide the question of the guilt or innocence of the accused. In 1865, the authorities announced a press reform. The preliminary censorship for books and magazines was abolished, however, it was retained for newspapers. In 1874 serious changes took place in the army. Instead of recruitment kits, universal military service was introduced. The terms of military service were significantly reduced. The improved system of military educational institutions has made it possible to significantly raise the professional level of personnel training for the army and navy. In 1881, M. T. Loris-Melikov developed a draft of the next political reform, concerning the involvement of elected representatives from local self-government bodies to participate in solving national issues. The king agreed to sign this document, which later some historians began to call<<конституцией Лорис-Мелико­ва». Однако, по роковол случайности, именно в день, назна­ченный для подписания - 1 марта 1881 г., царь-реформатор был убит народовольцами. Либеральные реформы 1860-1870-х П. имели болылое ис­торическое значение для России. Они стали важным шагом на пути построения в стране гражданского общества и пра­вового государства. Реформы были направлены на то, чтобы 202 ввести правовые начала в деятельность органов власти, осно­ванную прежде исключительно на воле императора. Рефор­мы изменили саму общественную атмосферу, породили ожи­дание скорого введения конституционного строя. В то же время преобразования вызвали опасения у консервативных кру­гов, встревоженных масштабом и направленностью перемен. Они полагали, что начатые царем реформы могут привести к потрясениям и стремились ограничить их масштаб. Убийст­во царя-реформатора усилило позиции консерваторов и при­вело к отказу от реформ.

27 question)

The economic prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were formed long before the reform of 1861. The inefficiency of the economic system, which was based on the labor of serfs, was obvious to many rulers of Russia. This was pointed out by Catherine P, Alexander 1, Nicholas 1. Under Alexander 1, serfdom was abolished in the western provinces of the country. By the mid 1850s. The feudal economy experienced particularly difficult times: the decline of many landowners' farms and serf manufactories, the intensification of the exploitation of peasant labor made it necessary to reform the economy. At the same time, the significant and rapid growth of bourgeois economic relations (an increase in the number of capitalist manufactories, the appearance of factories, a stormy industrial revolution, the intensification of the stratification of the peasantry, the intensification of internal trade) required the destruction of the obstacles that stood in its way. However, the decisive argument in favor of revising the foundations of the economy was the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War. In 1856-1857, a series of peasant uprisings swept across the country, on whose shoulders the main hardships of the war fell. This forced the authorities to accelerate the development of the reform. In January 1857, under the chairmanship of Emperor Alexander 11, to discuss measures to arrange the life of the landlord peasants, the Secret Committee began its work, later renamed the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs. However, among the members of the Committee there was no unity in determining the timing and content of the reform. Initially, it was supposed to free the peasants without land (as was done in the Baltic states at the beginning of the century) and to maintain non-economic coercion. However, during the discussion, it turned out that such an option would lead to a social explosion, since the peasants EXPECT not only freedom, but also freedom. Editorial commissions were set up within the framework of the Main Committee, headed by supporters of the liberal version of the reform - Count Ya. I. Rostovtsev and Comrade (Deputy) Minister of Internal Affairs N. A. Milyutin. In 1858, the work of the Committee became known to the general public (previously, such committees worked in complete secrecy), and numerous projects from local noble committees began to come to its address. The key role in counteracting the conservatives was played by the emperor himself, who took a position close to the program of the liberals. On February 19, 1861, he signed the Manifesto and the "Regulations on the Kres: Gyans, VPIIIeDllIX from serfdom." They entered into force after publication, which consisted of an axis two weeks later. The documents dealt with five main issues: the personal liberation of peasants, peasant allotments, peasant duties, the management of liberated peasants, the status of temporarily liable peasants. The redemption operation and the status of the peasant community were also described in detail. Peasants were given the right to have their own property, freely dispose of it, marry at will, enter into any legal transactions, inherit property, etc. Peasants were given land, usually the one on which they had already worked before. But, since the land belonged to the landlords, it was assumed that the peasants would buy it out. Considering that they did not have money for this, the peasants who entered into an agreement with the landlords became temporarily liable until the required amount was paid. Within a certain time they had to fulfill in in favor of the landowner of mining and pay him a sum of money equal in magnitude to the previous quitrent.Higher and lower sizes of per capita allotments were established, different for different regions of the country.Surplus land was cut off in favor of the landowner.In the result, segments appeared, the return of which the peasants demanded until the revolution of 1917 (in the Chernozem region, they accounted for up to half of the pre-reform allotments.) The peasant community, which was collectively responsible for compliance with the agreement, monitored the fulfillment of duties by temporarily liable peasants. The community redistributed land, determined the amount of payments and wages, based on the composition of the family. in lusti from performances both "from below.") and "from above". Therefore, it turned out to be very contradictory and gave rise to new problems: land shortages. yang, the preservation of the labor system, the return of sections, the abolition of redemption payments, the liquidation of the peasant community. A peasant movement developed around these questions. At the same time, the significance of the reform of 1861 can hardly be overestimated. 23 million landlord peasants were released and given land. this measure led to the intensification of the stratification of the peasantry and the beginning of the free migration of its ruined part to the cities. Conditions were created for the formation of a labor market and the rapid development of industrial production. The reform of 1861, despite all its contradictions, was Russia's biggest step towards building an industrial society.

00:05 — REGNUM

Serf nobility

There are only 100 years between the freedom of the nobles and the abolition of serfdom - and what! The era of palace coups, the expansion of the empire, war and peace, reshaped at the Congress of Vienna. Along with the pan-European processes, the nobility itself underwent an internal transformation: from serf thinking to liberal fermentation in the minds of the Decembrists.

“I don’t want to study, I want to get married!” - perhaps, these could be the first words of the Russian nobility.

A consolidated estate with special rights, duties, and a role in governing the country was born under Peter I. Before him, the royal service people were still a different community, socially and legally.

The sovereign-absolutist Peter I strengthened and centralized power. Started to modernize the country. It is more convenient to cut through the Euro-window with the support of the bureaucratic apparatus - permanent, executive, professional. Service to one's overlord was obligatory in feudal-class countries. The Russian emperor made it inevitable for all nobles. Along with "enslavement" in the service, forcing them to study - for greater efficiency.

Those who resisted were punished in the form of taxes and ... the inability to marry. So “I don’t want to study - I want to get married” is not a joke, but the harsh truth of life at the beginning of the 18th century. Upon completion of studies, special documents were issued, “and without such testified letters, they should not be allowed to marry and do not give crown memories”.

According to the first, the upper class was called precisely the nobility.“The estate formed by Peter the Great from the royal officials is called the Polish-German word, - writes Alexander Romanovich-Slavatinsky, professor of state law at the Imperial University of St. Vladimir. — First, the name is applied to ordinary bureaucratic people - nobles and boyar children, and the courtiers are mentioned separately ... The name of the whole estate was established by the nobility in the second half of the 18th century.

The term "civil service" first appears in the decree of 1714, supplementing the decree "On Single Succession". Before that it was like this - "temporary cases and parcels." For a solid occupation, only military service was recognized at all.

Guaranteed employment pleased not all those liable for service. In the work “Nobility in Russia. From the beginning of the 18th century to the abolition of serfdom, we find many examples of the attitude of the estate to its position as serfdom, bondage. The author of the work, a lawyer Romanovich-Slavatinsky who lived in the 19th century, himself still adhered to a similar point of view. He welcomes the expansion of rights in the Catherine era with the words “for the first time in our society a face appears, not a serf”. Although the empress herself was surprised at this approach of the nobility: “Were you serfs and have you been sold until now?”

Rather, it is appropriate to speak here not of the semblance of draft duty, but of a sign of absolutist power. The main person is the autocrat. Not even the first among equals, but the anointed of God, the bearer of sacred power. The rest are his subjects. And of course, no one to the same Peter I (or rather, especially Peter I) would have dared to say a word across. More and more with subservience: "Your Imperial Majesty..." Moreover, the privileged estates received their status and financial privileges not “for a beautiful coat of arms”, but as a result of a “social labor contract” - in return for serving the emperor for the good of the Fatherland.

As Count Mikhail Vorontsov wrote to Elizaveta Petrovna:“We are all your faithful slaves, we cannot live without the mercy and reward of your imperial majesty. And I don’t know a single house of a surname in the state, which would actually support itself without rewarding royal generosity.

The nobles studied, served, curried and sat at home. Since even if someone wanted to go on a foreign voyage, they were allowed to leave only to complete their studies with an indispensable return to their homeland after that. Of the "burning trips", perhaps, only the war and the Great Embassy.

A specialized estate duty was the servile execution of the imperial will - for example, to go where they were sent. According to this "concept" was built and the Northern capital.

"Peter the Great announced 1000 gentry houses that at the end of the Swedish war they would be transferred to St. Petersburg." Lists of forced migrants were compiled. The construction was carried out according to the order: the requirements for buildings were determined by the number of peasant households. But here's the problem - the lack of stormy enthusiasm among those who move. For greater motivation, they decided: "if whose house is not finished, half of their villages will be written off to the treasury."

The nobility was counted according to the report card: in 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, which finally determined the advantage of the rank over the breed (gentility). “And she brought into one social group people of noble origin, rich fortune and the offspring of small, poor officials and officers”. The entire public service was divided into military, civil and court, and in each such category a ladder of 14 steps was installed.

Even places in worship and court ceremonies were henceforth determined by rank. The status of husbands determined the status of their wives. The outfit, the crew, and even the number of servants corresponded to the same grounds. A foreign observer spoke of those times: “There are no gentlemen in Russia, but there are majors, captains, assessors and registrars”.

Child with excellent appetite

The expansion of the rights of the nobility as the ruling class led to the strengthening of serfdom.

The “debt for food” was changing. As a result, such dependent classes were formed: the privileged, dependent on the will of the sovereign and serving, and the peasantry, providing for the needs of the nobility.

There were, in fact, no alternative opportunities for obtaining financial benefits at a compressed pace then. The efficiency of farming has not become a part of the morals, the same with entrepreneurship. Resources were multiplied not intensively, but extensively. The key indicator of wealth is not financial assets, but the number of serfs and land. The monetary content introduced before that did not allow the nobleman - "state employee" to live widely. I had to choose a military career or "serve in civilian life", seeking the location of the first person and "bonuses". So, Catherine's approximate prince Grigory Potemkin received 37 thousand souls in just two years - a whole county town.

“The ownership of serfs began to lose its state character and acquire a civil character” — displayed in the book “Nobility in Russia. From the beginning of the 18th century to the abolition of serfdom,“Peter the Great, under whom local distribution ceased and the granting of populated estates began, favors no longer four arable lands and haystacks, but peasant households. Under the successors, since the establishment of revisions and the poll tax, peasant souls are already complaining ...

The nobility does not yet enjoy freedom from corporal punishment. Not only does he not participate in the local court and administration, but even ... the possession of serfs is only beginning to coincide with it.

The peasants were “timed” gradually, becoming over time a bonus to the lands and estates of the privileged class. Initially, this possession was determined by the state service, that is, only an employee or a nobleman who was legally retired could dispose of the estate and serfs as his property. In addition, not only noble families practically owned peasants, but also representatives of other classes. Subsequently, or rather, in several attempts and decades, they will try to close this privilege exclusively to hereditary nobles. Like peasants to nobles - without reference, whether they are in the service or lead an idle lifestyle.

adolescence

The nobility, united in a kind of group or corporation, grew up and transformed. Outwardly, fenced off by a fence of way of life, morals and rights, it separates itself from the rest of the world, “begins to treat the people as the highest caste to the lowest”. Transformations inside will lead to its future renaming and stratification into higher nobility (aristocracy), middle and lower.

Soon the new class starts teething. Having concentrated the land in their hands, having the labor of the peasants at their disposal, the nobility felt itself to be a major social and political force, but not so much a service one as a landowner. It begins to strive to free itself from compulsory service to the state, but while maintaining all those rights with which the government thought to ensure the working capacity of the gentry.

Humility or barter, silent sabotage - there were plenty of ways to "slope" from the state service before the introduction of "leave" was invented. Ivan Pososhkov, the first theoretical economist, a contemporary of Peter the Great, a peasant, wrote about such examples: “... In Oyster I will eat a nobleman, I have already grown old, but I have never been in the service with any one foot. To please some with gifts, but whom he cannot please with gifts, then he will pretend to be a serious illness, or he will impose foolishness on himself, and let him go through his beard in the lake ... " And the nobleman Timiryazev from Alekseevsky district, under his own name, sent his man to the service.

Other common methods are also known: entry into the merchant class, admission to the yard to the landowners, moving from one city to another, “just to hide your noble title”, and “postponement” due to study (“so, for example, in 1715 in 180 people signed up for the Slavic-Latin Academy for this purpose, according to another source - 280 people).

Courtiers also shied away from service. “For the poor nobles, of course, it was more difficult to leave the service than for the rich”- as Pososhkov noted, all the rulers of the noble rank helped people of their level and did not dare to say a word of prohibition to them, “and they have power and boldness only over the most insignificant people”.

Having replaced milk teeth with molars, the nobility speaks of the need to shorten the service life, tearing them away from home and household. This does not happen immediately - only after the death of Peter the Great.

Step by step, but the process has begun. Under Anna Ioannovna, the period of compulsory service was limited to 25 years.

Under Elizaveta Petrovna, for a comfortable service and accelerating a career, the custom that appeared even before that appeared was to enroll children of 2-3 years old in regiments, in which they were successively promoted to subaltern ranks, until, when they reached adulthood and received a high rank, they did not enter active regimental service.

In 1762, the upper class received official freedom from service. And enters the first class - privileged.

Catherine II in her Notes wrote about the events of that morning, January 17, 1762:“After three weeks after the death of the Empress, I went to the body for a memorial service. Walking through the hallway, I found here Prince Mikhail Dashkov weeping and beside himself with joy, and, running to me, said: “The sovereign is worthy in order for him to erect a golden statue; he gave freedom to all the nobility, ”and with that he goes to the Senate to announce it there. I said to him: “Were you serfs and have you been sold until now?” What is this liberty? .. Vorontsov and the Prosecutor General thought to do a great deed, reporting to the Sovereign in order to give free rein to the nobility, but in fact they begged for nothing more than that everyone was free to serve and not to serve ... All the nobles great was the joy of this permission to serve or not to serve, and for that hour they completely forgot that their ancestors acquired the honors and property that they use by their service.

liberty

The permission of Peter III to grant liberties to the nobles was announced in the Senate on January 17, 1762. Almost a month later, on February 18, the document itself “On granting liberties and freedom to all Russian nobility” appears (the traditional short name is the Manifesto on Liberty to the Nobility):

"Noble Thoughts, - stated in the Manifesto - rooted in the hearts of true Russian patriots boundless fidelity and love for Us, great zeal and excellent zeal in Our service, and therefore We do not find the need for compulsion to service, which has been needed until now.

Nobles were exempted from compulsory service. Members of the rank could retire under certain conditions. Those who retired “from all affairs” or from military service to civilian service were promoted by one rank with a certain length of service (one year and three years, respectively). Foreign voyage has now become possible for those who have retired. It was even allowed to serve other monarchs “with such an obligation that when need calls, then the nobles outside our state would come to their Fatherland ... with all possible speed to fulfill our will under the penalty of the sequester of his estate”.

The nobles accepted the Manifesto of Peter III with enthusiasm. The Senate, in its entirety, went to the emperor with a request for permission to build a golden statue of him. The Moscow nobility asked the senators for permission "to bring the lowest and slavish all-subject to his majesty thanksgiving". Odes were composed, for example, "as a token of gratitude for the unprecedented and merciful granting of liberty to the Russian nobles".

The eyewitness Bolotov writes in his Notes:“Everyone jumped up almost for joy and, thanks to the sovereign, blessed the moment at which he was pleased to sign this decree ... Until now, the All-Russian nobility was tied hand and foot; it was bound to serve unfailingly; and their children…”

And The magazine “The Painter” characterizes the views of the county nobility in an interesting way:“... Yes, the devil heard it, God forgive me, what kind of liberty is this? They gave freedom, but nothing can be done with this freedom; it is impossible to take away the land from a neighbor ... Today, only the will, that you can leave the service, and go overseas. And even though it was impossible to leave the service then, yes, there were doctors for this: you take them a lamb in a piece of paper, but to another judge, they will leave you for illnesses.

Why the elites wanted liberties is understandable. Why Peter III, who needed their loyalty, went for it - can also be explained. In theory. But it’s more difficult to refer to sources: since no one “held a candlestick” when compiling the document, there are many versions about the reasons for the adoption of the document, the authors of the idea and the compilers of the text itself.

According to historian Mikhail Kiselyov, the mysteriousness of the Manifesto is explained by the fact that preparatory draft materials that are reliably related to its creation have not yet been discovered.

This issue was studied by Georgy Vernadsky, Nikolai Rubinstein, Sergei Polsky. There is an opinion that the freedom of the nobility to serve or not was discussed at the end of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, and did not become the insight of Peter III or his entourage. But, they say, then the favorite of the Empress Ivan Shuvalov could act as an opponent of liberties.

Count Roman Vorontsov, the head of the Legislative Commission, is often called the author and designer of the project, where the chapter on the nobles and their advantage of part III of the draft Code was discussed while Peter's daughter was still alive. The count, being the father of the favorite of the emperor Elizabeth, actively participated in the development of the document during the accession of Peter III. He was granted the general-anshef. It is interesting that Ekaterina Dashkova, an associate of Catherine II and a representative of the opposite political camp, was also Vorontsov's daughter.

Another version of the origin of the Manifesto attributes the idea to Peter III himself. Teacher, and later librarian led. book. Petr Fedorovich Jacob Shtelin in his notes reported:“The most remarkable thing that he (Peter III) did in the first days of his reign was the destruction of the Secret Chancellery and the granting to the Russian nobility of the freedom to serve or not to serve, to leave the state, and so on. He often spoke about these two main subjects and about religious tolerance, being the Grand Duke.

Almost a month passed from the moment the will of Peter III was announced in the Senate to the signing of the formalized document.

In the final version, there were not only liberties, but actually restrictions - the preservation of some elements of compulsory service for the nobility. In particular, the right of the monarch to call a nobleman back into service; a ban on military personnel leaving service during a military campaign and three months before it; leaving under the Senate and ongoing office in the provinces several people from retired nobles; the condition that nobles from the lower ranks less than a chief officer could only be retired after 12 years of service; control, from the age of 12, the education of noble children and the introduction of compulsory education for those of them who have no more than a thousand souls of peasants (they were supposed to be trained in the gentry cadet corps).

In addition, the Manifesto on Liberty to the Nobility contained a very interesting and instructive conclusion:“We hope that all the noble Russian nobility ... will be encouraged not to leave ... For all those who did not have any service anywhere ... we, as if they are essentially negligent about the good in common, despise and destroy, we command all our loyal subjects and true sons of the Fatherland ... »

A spoonful of restrictions on liberties did not spoil the holiday, but the sediment, as they say, remained. Austrian diplomat Mercy Argento writes about this:"The general joy of the Russian nobility about the privileges granted in the future was greatly reduced by the difficulties that were encountered in the required detailed explanation of the main manifesto."

Husband and wife, but one liberty

Catherine II received a resonant but controversial document from her defeated husband. At the very beginning of the reign, the manifesto seemed to have been forgotten. But in the fall of 1762, Ekaterina Alekseevna wrote to Count Nikita Panin: “I forgot just now to tell you that there is not a lot of murmuring among the nobility about the non-confirmation of their liberties and it is necessary not to forget to make an attack”. Having omitted the details of the activities of the created commission, the opinions of historians about whether the provisions of the manifesto of 1762 were sabotaged or carried out under Catherine ( "were realized in the practice of the Senate and the clerical work of the King of Arms") it can be concluded that a legal document that accurately confirmed the course for liberty and expanded the rights of the nobility appeared only in 1785.

"The charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility" brought together and secured all its privileges, providing significant benefits in comparison with others.

“For the first time, a person appears in our society, and not a serf - a person who cannot be subjected to any punishment without a trial, whom even a court cannot subject to corporal punishment; who cannot be deprived of property without a trial, - writes Romanovich-Slavatinsky.

The personal advantages of the nobility over other classes, in addition to, in fact, confirming freedom from compulsory service, included: freedom from corporal punishment, including for nobles of lower ranks, from paying taxes and standing troops, the right to land ownership and other property rights, the right to occupy crafts and some trade operations, the protection of noble dignity and the abolition of the confiscation of noble estates. For the first time, the right to organize noble assemblies in provinces and districts was granted. But the most important personal right of the nobility - the nobility par excellence - was the ownership of serfs.

“The Empress finally completes the estate, turns it into a privileged and noble one, to which serfs belong on the rights of full private ownership.”

“If you want to be beautiful, join the hussars” (K. Prutkov)

In fairness, it should be noted that the civil service actually, and not legally, remained mandatory. And it's not just about the ideas of noble service or ambitions that beckoned into the golden cage of the sovereign's service.

The official position of the "party and government" did not encourage freedom from duties. Catherine II, having read in the testimony of the arrested Novikov that, having served only six years, he retired 24 years old as a lieutenant, wrote irritably: “It can be said that he did not serve anywhere, and the young man retired, therefore, he did not fulfill his duty by serving either the sovereign or the state”. So not everyone went to their estates "to the village, to my aunt, to the wilderness, to Saratov." The device worked. The system reproduced correctly.

The military career was considered the most prestigious. At first, the nobles disdained the civil service. For a long time, nothing could change the situation. “For some 20 prime ministers and second majors, captains, sergeants, sergeants, corporals and soldiers, one titular adviser or collegiate assessor will hardly meet”. As the culturologist Yuri Lotman wrote, the military field even in Pushkin's time seemed so natural for a nobleman that the absence of this feature in the biography should have had some special explanation, for example, illness or physical disability. Most civil servants or non-serving nobles had at least a brief period in their biography when they wore a military uniform. It is enough to pay attention to the environment of Alexander Pushkin to make sure that only a few never wore a uniform.

Both in civil and military service (where it was possible for people of the non-noble estates to make a career with varying degrees of success), the nobles enjoyed advantages. At the end of the 18th century, a nobleman who had served for three years could receive a rank, for which a non-nobleman had to “pull the soldier’s strap” for 12 years with excellent abilities, merit, and at the same time being “not ugly”. Privates, before being promoted to the non-commissioned officer rank, nobles had to serve for three months, and non-nobles could be introduced to non-commissioned officers only after four years of service.

A difficult age

The outwardly fully formed estate continues its internal search for itself, its identity. There comes a "difficult" transitional age. The views of the nobility sometimes diverge from the point of view of the "elders":“Peter III freed me from compulsory service, Paul I considered it necessary to return to it; Catherine II freed from corporal punishment, Paul I began to subject them; Fedor Ioannovich bestowed serfs, Alexander II took them away ... "

But in the 19th century, internal value fermentation also began in the minds, salons and squares.

Having satisfied the basic material needs that read liberal authors, as they say, in the original, the elites changed in content. Not all of them, slowly (perhaps too carefully and slowly), but they thought more boldly, in the fashion of the century. The coming nineteenth century has become a time of social, legal, intellectual, institutional, economic restructuring within the entire European continent. The main institutions of modern society are beginning to take shape: civil society, social security and social equality, democracy and mass culture.

The generation at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries differed from their great-grandfathers in their liberality. In a relatively short period, the path was passed from secular salons and university circles to political unions and parties, which, claiming to actively participate in the activities of government institutions, came into inevitable conflict with the government.

There was a time and a trend for social activities and creativity. Poetry and literature in Russian developed.“They also raise the rank of people of the pen. Despite the military spirit of the government system of Emperor Nicholas (I), the peaceful pursuits of a civil official begin to enjoy great honor in society, and the people of the pen even begin to take precedence over the people of the sword.

“... The view of the civil service as a very respectable profession is changed only by those noble generations who have passed through the universities.

These noble university generations, the enfants terribles of their class, bring into it a protest against the privilege, the demand for the equalization of the rights of the social classes.

Without trying to narrow down the extremely extensive and debatable issue of the causes and symptoms of fatal events, here is a quote from the same Romanovich-Slavatinsky: "The nobility is currently going through its crisis". This conclusion, let me remind you, is contained in the book of 1870!

Then another rhetorical question flies after him: “What will this new position of the nobility consist of? But he himself finds the answer: "... Life will answer this question and resolve it in accordance with its fatal requirements".

Revolution

threw away

crumbling

mourned a thousand births,

because he knows:

a new architect is coming -

portholes of tomorrow's cities.

unbreakable,

Hey twentysomethings!

Catherine the Great ruled the Russian Empire for 34 years. During her reign, the territory and population of the country increased significantly. Significant progress has been made in foreign policy. Russia has gained more weight and influence in international affairs, including in relation to European states. But the most striking feature of this era was the expansion of the rights of the nobility to unthinkable limits. In history, it is difficult to find a similar example of an elite with such unlimited privileges. The reign of Catherine II is called the golden age of the nobility.

Accession to the throne

The path to the Russian crown turned out to be very thorny for the future empress. Catherine came to power as a result of a palace coup under difficult and confusing circumstances. Her husband Peter the Third was little capable of governing the state and served as an obstacle on the way to the throne. After his mysterious death, Catherine concentrated power in her hands. But, from the point of view of the subjects, she was a foreign princess involved in the murder of her husband. The position of the empress seemed precarious and unreliable. The main support and protection for her was the court guard who organized the coup. The need to obtain support from the army elite determined the policy of Catherine in relation to the entire nobility.

Enlightened Monarchy

The Empress read the works of Voltaire and was familiar with European liberal ideas. She believed that reasonable laws, effective law enforcement agencies and concern for the education of citizens can lead the state to prosperity and well-being. The idea of ​​an enlightened monarchy assumed the preservation of the class system, the main force of which was the nobles. In addition, the autocrat was not questioned.

Carried away by the principles of the French enlighteners, Catherine realized how far the reality of the Russian Empire was from them. With all the desire to smooth out social contradictions in society, she was forced to act to please the estate, on which her power depended. That is why the golden age of the nobility came during the reign of Catherine. The Palace Guard was a huge political force, sometimes deciding who would sit on the throne.

Changing position of nobles

The fundamental principle of the relationship between the monarch and the nobles was to perform military service in exchange for the possession of estates. The duties of a representative of the noble class to the sovereign were by their nature similar to the dependence of a serf on a feudal lord. Until the time of Peter the Great, inclusive, the service began at the age of 15 and was practically lifelong. The nobleman did not have the right to choose between military and civilian careers.

Gradually there was a destruction of these ancient principles. The process of their abolition reached its climax when the reign of Catherine II came. The golden age of the nobility marked the beginning of the existence of the first completely free and independent stratum of society in Russia.

Changes after the death of Peter the Great

Gradually, amendments were made to the legislation, making the position of the feudal estate more and more convenient and profitable. The nobles were allowed to temporarily leave the performance of their duties to the state and return to the estates in order to personally manage economic affairs. One of the sons in each noble family received the right not to enter the service and devote himself entirely to solving issues related to the estate. The age at which representatives of the feudal class began to fulfill their duty to the monarch was increased from 15 to 20 years. The nobles were given the choice between military and civil service. The exclusive right of the noble class to own land and serfs was confirmed. There was an opportunity to receive a resignation after 25 years of service.

Manifesto of Peter III

Far-sighted Catherine sought to enlist the support of the nobility even before her accession to the throne. She could largely manipulate the reigning spouse, and under her influence, he signed a manifesto abolishing compulsory public service for representatives of the feudal class. Catherine confirmed the main points of this document a few months after her coronation. The golden age of the nobility was called the era that began from the moment of the proclamation of liberties that had no analogues in the past. But the estate from the generosity and mercy of the autocrat remained strong.

Economic situation

The Empress officially declared that there was no need to force the nobles to fulfill their duties to the state. In her opinion, the patriotism and devotion to the monarch, inherent in the representatives of this estate, guaranteed their voluntary entry into the service. This statement is not entirely true. The real reason was that often the estates gave small incomes and did not provide their owners with a decent standard of living. For many nobles, public office was the only alternative.

bundle

It is worth noting that the Empress contributed to the enrichment of a narrow circle of her proxies and favorites. For example, the organizers of the palace coup, which opened the way for her to the Russian throne, received ranks, large sums of money and land. Thanks to royal generosity, some of those close to him became owners of fantastic fortunes. The reign of Catherine the Great is called the golden age of the nobility, but not all representatives of this class received economic benefits in this era. Some of them did not have serfs at all. The Liberty Manifesto did not affect their financial situation.

Serfs

The golden age had its downside. The welfare of the feudal class was based on the free labor of serfs. The expansion of the privileges of the nobility was accompanied by the restriction of the rights of forced farmers. The only judicial instance for the serfs was their landowner. He had the authority to sentence to exile in a settlement in Siberia or even life hard labor. It was forbidden to file complaints against the landowner under pain of punishment with a whip. The position of serfs differed little from classical slavery, although the legislation did not openly recognize this.

Humanistic ideals and reality

Catherine the Great considered such a system of social organization to be inhuman. She repeatedly thought about possible ways to limit serfdom. However, these plans directly contradicted the interests of the elite. The economic source of the golden age of the nobility was serfdom. The good intentions of the empress collided with harsh reality, and she was forced to abandon her humanistic plans. The support of the aristocracy was for Catherine the highest priority, and the years of her reign became the heyday of serfdom.

Complaint about the liberties of the nobility

In 1785, a document was published confirming all the privileges previously received and expanding them. First of all, the liberation of the noble class from compulsory public service and its exclusive right to own land and peasants were secured. In addition, from that time on, the title of nobility was inherited, and it was possible to lose it only by decision of the Senate for committing a serious crime. Exemption from the poll tax was added to the list of privileges. Only those who were equal in origin could judge a nobleman. It was forbidden to apply corporal punishment to representatives of the noble class and to confiscate their estates. They had the right to address requests and complaints directly to the sovereign. Nobles were allowed to travel abroad and even enter the service of foreign monarchs.

Representatives in administration

It is worth emphasizing the introduction of local self-government. In the golden age of the Russian nobility, practically all representatives of power in counties and cities were elected or appointed from this class. The aristocracy in Russia finally turned into a closed corporation, isolated from the rest of the population.

Food export

The golden age of the nobility coincided with the widespread rise in the price of grain and bread. Russia's participation in the European market system mainly consisted in food supplies. The export of bread has become an exceptionally profitable occupation. This circumstance stimulated the landowners to increase the area under crops and intensify the exploitation of the labor of serfs in order to obtain additional income. The economic situation contributed to the continuation of the golden age of the nobility.

End of an era

After the death of Catherine the Great, Paul came to the throne, with whom she had a difficult relationship due to the murder of his father Peter the Third. He made attempts to limit the liberties and privileges granted to the noble class. The golden age of the nobility has not yet ended, but its peak was already behind. In an effort to make this estate the main pillar of the autocracy, Catherine endowed him with enormous rights and turned him into a serious political force.

1. Decree on "lesson years":
a) prohibited the free passage of peasants from one
owner to another
b) set a five-year term for the investigation of fugitives
peasants
c) determined the transition of peasants to another landowner only on St. George's Day
d) established an indefinite search for runaway peasants

a) the liberation of Moscow from the interventionists
b) election by the Zemsky Sobor for the reign of Mikhail Romanov
c) returning from the captivity of Filaret and becoming a co-ruler under Mikhail Romanov
d) accession to the throne of Alexei Mikhailovich

3. The main direction of Russia's foreign policy

throughout the 17th century.
a) the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea
b) obtaining access to the Black Sea
c) relations with the Commonwealth
d) relations with Turkey

4. What event is referred to in the lines of A. S. Pushkin?

"Severe was in the science of glory
She was given a teacher: not one
Lesson unexpected and bloody
Asked her Swedish paladin "
a) about the withdrawal of Denmark from the war with Sweden
b) about lifting the siege of Riga by the Polish troops
c) about the defeat of Russian troops near Narva
d) about the Prut campaign

5. The highest church body under Peter I:

a) Monastery order
b) Chief Magistrate
c) Governing Senate
d) Synod

6. Russia became an empire after:

a) Azov campaign
b) suppression of the uprising led by K. A. Bulavin
c) Prut campaign
d) Northern War

7. Strengthening the role of the noble guard in 1725-1762.

in public affairs:
a) contributed to the strengthening of autocracy
b) became one of the reasons for the ease and frequency of palace coups
c) led to the limitation of the absolute power of the Russian emperors
d) led to conflicts and upheavals

8. All privileges given to the nobility after the death of Peter I were confirmed in the reign:

a) Elizabeth Petrovna
b) Catherine II
c) Peter III
d) Paul I
e) Peter II

9. Strengthening the power and arbitrariness of the landowners over

peasants during the reign of Catherine II
led to
a) copper riot
b) an uprising led by K. A. Bulavin
c) an uprising led by S. Razin
d) a peasant war led by
E. I. Pugacheva

10. Of the listed events belong to the reign of Catherine II:

a) secularization of church lands
b) cancellation of the decree on single inheritance
c) restoration of the powers of the Governing Senate
d) "Charter to the nobility"
e) provincial reform
f) "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility"
g) "Charter to the cities"
h) formation of the Office of Secret Investigation
i) introduction of freedom of enterprise
j) convening the Legislative Commission

11. Set the correct match:

1) 1632-1634 a) Russian-Turkish war
2) 1700-1721 b) Russia's participation in the war for
"Polish heritage"
3) 1733-1735 c) Smolensk war
4) 1768-1774 d) Northern War

12. Set the correct match:

1) B. Godunov
2) Alexey Mikhailovich
3) V. V. Golitsyn
4Peter 1
a) Crimean campaigns

b) Prut campaign

c) Azov campaigns
d) establishment of the patriarchate

e) Cathedral Code

f) the reunification of Ukraine with Russia

13. Set the correct match:

1) Simon Ushakov a) architect
2) A. F. Zubov b) poet
3) A. P. Sumarokov c) icon painter
4) Mr. R. Derzhavin d) portrait painter
5) F. S. Rokotov e) engraver
6) M. F. Kazakov f) author of tragedies and comedies

14. Indicate in what chronological order the successors of Peter 1 ruled Russia:

1) Peter 3,
2) Anna Ioannovna,
3) Peter 2,
4) Elizaveta Petrovna
5) Catherine I

1. B.
2.B.

3.B.
4.in
5.G.
6.G
7.B.
8.A.
9. G
10.A;D;D;F;K.
11.1-C;2-D;3-B;4-A.
12.1-D;2-D;3-A;4-B,C.

13.1-C;2-D;3-E;4-B;5-D;6-A.

14.1-5;2-3;3-2;4-4;5-1

Prussia, Austria and Russia:

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Bessarabia

V.V. Rastrelli, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov are:

Russian architects of the 18th century

Russian writers

Russian theatrical figures of the 18th century

V.I. Bazhenov, F.I. Shubin, F.G. Volkov are:

Russian writers of the 19th century

Russian travelers of the 18th century

Russian theatrical figures of the 19th century

Figures of Russian culture of the XVIII century

Choose the correct answers (2). Terms related to the sphere

international trade:

muridism

Protectionism

favoritism

Mercantilism

The main condition for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna was:

exemption of nobles from compulsory military service

concentration in the hands of the empress command of the guards

appointment of an heir

Joint reign of the empress with the Supreme Privy Council

Choose the correct answers (2). Privileged Estates XVIII

centuries were:

Conditions are:

a document that defines the procedure for the service of officials

document confirming the privileges of the nobility

Decree of Peter I on the succession to the throne

Conditions for limiting royal power proposed by Anna Ioannovna

Choose the correct answers (2). The provisions of the "Charter

nobility":

Confirmation of all privileges given after the death of Peter I

Creation of noble societies in provinces and districts

the right to have their own armed detachments to protect the estates

repeal of the decree on single inheritance

The highest body of state power in Russia, created in the 18th century:

Boyar Duma

Zemsky Sobor

State Council

Choose the correct answers (2). Measures of Paul I in relation to

nobility:

The introduction of a tax on nobles to support the local administration

restoration of the obligatory service of the nobility

The possibility of applying corporal punishment to nobles

the abolition of the right of nobles to make requests and complaints to the autocrat

At the beginning of the 18th century, the position of a profitmaker appeared in Russia. What is summer

Means

a person who cares about increasing the income of landowners

a person who takes into account all receipts for the maintenance of the royal family

A person obliged to invent new taxes or duties

Bank employee

The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century is:

Autocratic absolutism

parliamentarism

totalitarianism

democracy

In the early years of the reign of Alexander I, the author of the project

government reforms were:

S.Yu.Witte

P.A. Stolypin

M.M. Speransky

A.D. Menshikov

Reign of Alexander I (years):

The State Council, created in 1810 by Alexander I according to the project

M.M. Speransky, possessed:

legislative functions

Advisory functions

investigative functions

supervisory functions

The main idea of ​​the project of reforms of the political system of M.M. Speransky

Introduction of the principle of separation of powers

strengthening the power of the autocracy

establishment of a multi-layered system

establishment of a democratic republic

The project of separation of powers, the introduction of representative bodies,

Equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle

The state structure was developed:

MM. Speransky

N.N. Novosiltsev

A.A. Arakcheev

YES. Guriev

Draft Russian constitution "Charter of the Russian Empire"

created under the direction of:

MM. Speransky

N.N. Novosiltseva

A.A. Arakcheeva

D.A Gurieva

The ministerial system of central government introduced by Alexander I

based on the principle:

collegiality

unity of command

electivity

self-nomination

The dates 1801, 1825, 1855, 1881 refer to:

the process of liberation of peasants from serfdom

The beginning of the reigns of Russian emperors

public administration reforms

stages of the industrial revolution

The dates 1649, 1803, 1861, 1881 refer to history:

Development of the peasant question

solutions to the Eastern question

development of social thought

literature, art

Dates 1812, 1853-1956 1877-1878 connected with:

foreign policy developments

stages of the liberation of the peasants

development of literature, art

working class speeches

The industrial revolution in Russia began in (years):

30-40s 19th century

1920s

50s of the 19th century

60s of XIX century

The essence of the industrial revolution in Russia is the transition:

from slave labor to feudalism

from feudal labor to capitalist

From manual labor to machine

from mechanized to automated

The essence of the decree of Alexander I on the "free cultivators":

the abolition of serfdom in the Baltics

emancipation of the serfs

increase in allotments of land to state peasants

The liberation of serfs under an agreement with the landowner

As part of Russia after the defeat of Napoleon in 1812-15. entered (entered):

Bessarabia

The main goal of the project of economic transformations of M.M. Speransky

Development of market relations

development of foreign trade

strengthening the role of the state

liquidation of the landownership

The first codification of Russian legislation was carried out in

(decades of the century):

In the 20-30s of the XIX century, Nicholas I

at the beginning of the 19th century by Alexander I

at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Paul I

in the 50s Alexander II

The key idea of ​​the constitutional draft "Constitution" by N.M. Muravyov:

constitutional monarchy

Republican system

parliamentary system

presidential system

The key idea of ​​the constitutional project "Russian Truth" by P.I.Pestel:

Republican state system

aristocratic republic

parliamentary system

absolute monarchy

The main goal of the Decembrists is:

strengthening of serfdom

strengthening autocratic power

restoration of monarchical regimes in Europe

The abolition of serfdom and the elimination of autocracy

The essence of the ideology of autocracy in the early 30s of the XIX century (after

defeat of the Decembrists under Nicholas I):

The theory of official nationality (the formula "autocracy, Orthodoxy,

nationality")

introduction of a constitutional monarchy

establishment of a parliamentary system

democratization of the country

The famous III branch of His Imperial Majesty's own u1042

office was engaged in:

support of creative intelligentsia

Surveillance of writers, reprisals against dissidents

fight against foreign agents

fight against industrial espionage

During the reign of Nicholas I, the darkest and most hopeless time of the nineteenth

in. Russian literature:

degrades

trying to hold his ground

Rising and growing

comes to a complete standstill

The essence of Slavophilism is:

Historical identity of Russia

Russia is part of Western civilization

Russia is part of the eastern civilization

Russia does not have its own civilizational identity

The essence of the ideology of Westernism is:

The future of Russia lies in the Europeanization of the country

Russia is a special civilization

Russia is a Eurasian civilization

Russia is an intermediate civilization that does not belong to either Western or Eastern civilizations.

An oath on Sparrow Hills in Moscow to fight the autocracy for freedom,

for the liberation of the people gave:

M.A. Bakunin and P. Lavrov

Tkachev and S. Perovskaya

A.I. Herzen and N.I. Ogarev

N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov

The creation of a separate corps of gendarmes and the participation of Russian troops in

The suppression of revolutions in Europe in 1848 belong to the period

board:

Nicholas I

Nicholas II

Catherine II

Alexander I

N.M. Karamzin, V.A. Zhukovsky, K.P. Bryullov are:

Russian architects of the 18th century

Figures of Russian culture of the XIX century

Russian travelers of the 18th century

founders of Moscow University

V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky are:

Russian architects of the 18th century

Russian artists of the 19th century

Russian theatrical figures of the XVIII-XIX centuries

Russian writers-democrats of the 19th century

The need to abolish serfdom, introduce a free press,

reforms of the court on the basis of publicity and competitiveness were discussed

at group meetings:

bakunin

Tkachevtsy

Petrashevtsy