Detailed Solution paragraph § 5 on history for students of grade 9, authors Arsentiev N.M., Danilov A.A., Levandovsky A.A. 2016

Question to point VI. List the main points of Russia's relations with the Ottoman Empire during the reigns of Catherine II and Paul I.

In the 18th century, these empires were often at war. Under Catherine II, Russia was clearly winning. As a result of the conflicts of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791, the Ottoman Empire ceded vast territories, including part of the Black Sea coast. In addition, in 1783, the former vassal of the Ottomans, the Crimean Khanate, was annexed to Russia.

Under Paul I eastbound faded into the background foreign policy, revolutionary France became the main enemy. The Ottoman Empire, together with the Russian Empire, joined the II Anti-French Coalition, fighting the army of General Bonaparte in the Middle East.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 1. What are the main goals of the foreign campaigns of the Zus army. What has become main reason Russia's continuation of hostilities against France?

Basic goals:

Prevent a new invasion;

Destroy French hegemony in Europe;

Restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones;

Create a system in Europe that would prevent new revolutions and the coming to power of another aggressive and ambitious usurper like Bonaparte.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 2. Formulate a general assessment of the results of the Vienna Congress (for Russia; for other countries).

The main results of the Congress of Vienna and the Paris Peace Treaty for most of the countries of Europe:

France retained all its lands that belonged to it until 1792 (with the exception of some colonies), but agreed to 700 million francs of indemnity, and as a guarantee of their payment was divided into occupation zones in which the Allied troops were located;

The thrones were returned to the monarchs who lost them during the wars and revolutions of the turn of the century (in addition, the Netherlands, which had no kings, became a kingdom since the 16th century);

The borders were mostly returned to the state of 1792, although sometimes with significant restrictions (for example, all of Norway passed from the possessions of Denmark to Sweden);

However, some states from the time of Bonaparte survived, for example, in the territory of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German nation;

The Vienna system was created international relations;

The Holy Alliance was created as part of the Vienna system.

The main results of the Vienna Congress and the Paris Peace Treaty for Russia:

Russia became the initiator and the main player Holy Union and temporarily becoming a key player in European international politics;

Russia got some new lands former speech Commonwealth as a result of their redistribution, which is sometimes called the "Fourth Partition of Poland";

The destruction of the Republic of 7 Islands in the Ionian Sea was officially recognized, which was actually under the protectorate of Russia (most of its islands were captured by the British fleet in 1809-1810, the French garrison dug in Corfu), it was transformed into the Ionian Republic under the protectorate of Great Britain;

Russia got 100 million francs from the indemnity paid by France;

Russian troops remained in their occupation zone of France.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 3. What were the reasons for the formation of the Holy Alliance? When and for what purpose was it created?

The main reason was the Revolution in France (as well as the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands) and the Napoleonic Wars. The 100 days of Napoleon, when the usurper almost regained the throne with the support of a significant part of the people and the army, were directly prompted to create an alliance.

The Holy Alliance was created in September 1815 with the aim of resisting any revolution and supporting all legitimate monarchies by any means, including military assistance.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 4. What was the role of Russia in the Holy Alliance?

Alexander I became the initiator of the creation of the Holy Union and its most active participant, until his death he actually led it.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 5. What was the Eastern Question? What role did he play in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire?

The Eastern Question is a dispute between European powers over the division of territory. Ottoman Empire, which was clearly weakening and disintegrating, for which it was nicknamed the sick man of Europe.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 1. Using additional literature, put a biographical message about M. I. Kutuzov.

Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov came from a noble family with military traditions: his father Illarion Matveevich rose to the rank of lieutenant general, his mother was the daughter of a retired captain. On the grave, 1745 is indicated as the date of birth of the commander, but latest research comparison of some formulary lists made it possible to move it forward two years.

Mikhail began training in military affairs in 1759 at the Artillery and Engineering Noble School, where his father taught.

He received his baptism of fire in 1764 in the Commonwealth, commanding small detachments in the fight against the Confederates. But he really distinguished himself in the Turkish war, where he ended up in 1770. He participated in many battles, in which he showed personal courage and talent as a commander, thanks to which he rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. The most important of them occurred just before the end of the war. In July 1774, Haji-Ali-Bey landed in Alushta with a landing force, which posed a great danger to the Russian troops. It was Golenishchev-Kutuzov with his grenadier battalion who dropped the landing back into the sea.

In this battle, the future field marshal was seriously wounded in the head and wore a bandage over his eye until the end of his life - the eye was preserved and did not even lose sight, but from exposure to the air it began to tear unbearably. The victory was so important that the empress sent him to Austria for treatment at the expense of the court, where he spent two years and at the same time deepened his military education.

Golenishchev-Kutuzov gradually rose in rank, but did not surrender to the military routine. So in 1785, with the rank of major general, he not only formed the Burg Jaeger Corps, but taught him new tactics developed by him. He took part in the suppression of the uprising in the Crimea.

The future conqueror of Napoleon accepted Active participation and in the second Russian-Turkish war of the times of Catherine II - 1787-1791. He fought many battles under the command of Alexander Vasilvevich Suvorov, from whom he learned a lot. He fought both in the battle of Kinburn and in the assault on Izmail, who later, as a commandant, defended against Turkish attempts to return the fortress. In August 1788, during the assault on Ochakov, he was wounded in the head for the second time (moreover, the bullet traveled almost the same path as the first time). Chief Physician According to legend, Masso’s army then said: “It is clear that fate saves Kutuzov’s head for something extraordinary.”

After the Turkish wars, Golenishchev-Kutuzov also took part in other military companies, but he advanced in his career mainly due to the skills of a courtier. So he entered into the confidence of the last favorite of Catherine the Great, Platon Zubov, and personally brewed coffee for him in the morning, saying that he had perfectly learned this business from the Turks. He remained in favor with Paul I.

After Alexander I came to power, Golenishchev-Kutuzov temporarily fell into disgrace, perhaps because the late emperor was in favor of him. But in 1804 he was again called up for service and appointed commander of one of the two armies sent by Russia against France. After Napoleon's victory over the Austrians near Ulm, this army found itself face to face with the superior forces of the great commander, but with the help of successful maneuvers managed to avoid a collision. However, she, like other allied forces, was defeated at Austerlitz. Today it is believed that Russian and french emperor We did not listen to the advice of Mikhail Illarionovich and therefore were defeated.

After Austerlitz, he served in civilian positions - Kyiv Governor and the Lithuanian Governor-General. But in 1811 another war with Turkey came to a standstill and the emperor appointed an elderly commander as commander of the troops in this theater of operations. Kutuzov won the major battle of Ruschuk on June 22 (July 4), 1811, and thereby ensured victory in the war - just in time to release forces for the war against Napoleon.

It was for his actions in the Patriotic War of 1812 that Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov remained in history. He generally agreed with the plan of Barclay de Tolly and continued the retreat, leaving even Moscow without a fight. But realizing the ideological disadvantage of the retreat, he gave the battle of Borodino, which inscribed one of the most glorious pages in the annals of Russian military history. But most of all, the talent of the commander manifested itself during the retreat of the enemy from Moscow (this stage was no longer registered in Barclay de Tolly's plan). The field marshal was able to send the French along a previously devastated road and thereby ensure their defeat without a major battle (the battle in Maloyaroslavets cannot be considered such), mainly by maneuvers alone.

The field marshal was against the foreign campaign, believing that he was more in the hands of Great Britain than Russia, but as commander in chief he was forced to obey the emperor. On the campaign, he caught a cold, given his age and old wounds, this turned out to be enough - on April 16 (28), 1813, the winner of Napoleon died. The treasury paid 300 thousand rubles of the debt of the late commander (although only in the next 1814).

We think, compare, reflect: question number 2. Prepare an electronic presentation about the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Highlight the places associated with the name of M. I. Kutuzov.

Title: Cathedral of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God

Image: Kazan Cathedral

Text: The cathedral was built in the years 1801-1811 according to the project of the architect Andrey Voronikhin in the Empire style. It is Voronikhin who belongs original solution. The cathedral was oriented according to the canons of Orthodoxy, it had to be placed sideways to the street. Then a majestic colonnade was added to the temple, which makes its side part look like a facade.

Image: Kazan Icon of the Mother of God

Text: The cathedral was originally built for the icon of the Kazan Mother of God. She was considered miraculous. It was in front of her that Mikhail Kutuzov prayed, passing through Moscow on his way from Bessarabia to the army acting against Napoleon.

Image: Kutuzov's grave in the Kazan Cathedral

Text: It was decided to bury Prince Kutuzov, who died during a foreign campaign, in the Kazan Cathedral, which after that became a temple of military glory. In addition to the grave of the commander in 1813-1814, 107 banners captured from the enemy were displayed there.

Image: Monument to Kutuzov in front of the Kazan Cathedral

Text: In 1837, monuments to Mikhail Kutuzov and Mikhail Barclay de Tolly, designed by architect Vasily Stasov and sculptor Boris Orlovsky, were erected on the square in front of the cathedral. The monuments further emphasized the importance of the cathedral as a temple of military glory.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 3. Using additional information, find out how the battle of Leipzig took place, write (in a notebook) a story on the topic “Battle of the Nations” - the decisive battle of the Napoleonic Wars?

The Battle of Leipzig took place on October 16-19, 1813. It was the largest in all history until the First World War. On the side of Napoleon, not only the French fought, but also the troops of the kingdoms of Saxony, Württemberg and Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Warsaw and the Rhine Union, which were also part of the empire. The troops of the entire VI anti-French coalition, that is, the Russian and Austrian empires, the kingdoms of Sweden and Prussia. That is why this battle is also called the Battle of the Nations - regiments from almost all of Europe converged there.

Initially, Napoleon central position between several armies and attacked the nearest Bohemian, consisting of Russian and Prussian troops, hoping to break it before the rest approached. The battle unfolded over a large area, the battles went on simultaneously for several villages. By the end of the day, the Allied battle lines were barely holding. From 3 o'clock in the afternoon they were basically only defending themselves. Napoleon's troops made violent attacks, such as an attempt to break through 10 thousand cavalrymen of Marshal Murat in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe village of Wachau, which was stopped only thanks to a counterattack by the Life Guards of the Cossack regiment. Many historians are convinced that Napoleon could have won the battle on the first day, but he was a little short daylight hours– it became impossible to continue attacks in the dark.

On October 17, local battles took place only for some villages, the main part of the troops was inactive. 100,000 reinforcements were coming to the allies. 54 thousand of them (the so-called Polish Army of General Bennigsen (that is, the Russian army marching from Poland)) appeared on that day. At the same time, Napoleon could only count on the corps of Marshal von Duben, who did not come that day. The French emperor sent a proposal for a truce to the allies and therefore almost did not conduct hostilities that day - he was waiting for an answer. He was not honored with an answer.

On the night of October 18, Napoleon's troops retreated to new, more fortified positions. There were about 150 thousand of them, given that at night the troops of the kingdoms of Saxony and Württemburg went over to the side of the enemy. The Allies sent 300,000 soldiers into the fire in the morning. They attacked all day, but failed to inflict a decisive defeat on the enemy. They took some villages, but only pushed back, and did not crush and did not break through the enemy battle formations.

On October 19, Napoleon's remaining troops began to retreat. And then it turned out that the emperor was counting only on victory, there was only one road left for retreat - to Weissenfels. As was the case in all wars until the twentieth century, the retreat caused the greatest losses.

Only 40 thousand people and 325 guns (about half) returned to France through the Rhine. True, the battle of Hanau also played a role in this, when the corps of the Bavarian general Wrede tried to stop the retreating emperor. The battle was generally successful for Paris, but also cost heavy losses.

Napoleon for the second time in a short time gathered a huge army, and the second time he lost almost all of it. Also, as a result of the retreat after the Battle of the Nations, he lost almost all the occupied lands outside of France, so he no longer had the hope of putting such a number of people under arms for the third time. That is why this battle was so important - after it, the advantage in both numbers and resources was always on the side of the allies.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 4. Use the Internet to find out which historical sources You can learn about the foreign campaigns of the Russian army.

The era of the Napoleonic Wars is fairly well documented. Then a lot of documents were created and that era was relatively recent (by historical standards), therefore, before modern researchers There are many testimonies from that time. The main sources are written.

At that time, people wrote a lot and with pleasure. From the era of the Napoleonic Wars, we have many memories of the participants in the events. Many of them are published today. These are sometimes very colorful and emotional stories. Such memoirs are interesting to read, but they cannot be blindly trusted. Not many participants in something large-scale see the whole picture of what is happening as a whole. Besides, who writes the whole truth about himself without embellishing anything? Especially if memories are created immediately for publication?

A somewhat more objective, though equally emotional, source is letters. Officers and other participants in the events sent them in large numbers to relatives, patrons, etc. The addressees often kept the received letters for a long time as a precious memory - so many of them were kept in private homes until they ended up in archives and museum collections. The letter is usually addressed to one addressee. It is assumed that no one else will read it, because there a person can be more frank than in official memoirs. But people, even without any intention, are not always objective. In addition, human memory complicated thing sometimes distorting even recent memories. A lot of research is being done on this topic today. Therefore, the letters are interesting in themselves, but they, like memoirs, cannot be blindly trusted.

In the state archives of different countries are stored all international documents this era - peace treaties, notes of sovereigns and ambassadors, etc. Also, many reports of officers to the authorities have been preserved in the archives. Most interesting are the reports of the commanders to the monarchs - there the most knowledgeable participants in the events briefly described these events.

But the reports of both commanders and officers of lower ranks were written in order to justify those who wrote them, or to emphasize their merits. The current documentation is much more objective, from orders to various units to commissary accounts that give an idea of ​​the supply. Putting together a coherent picture from such small pieces of the mosaic is incomparably more difficult than reading the report of the commander, but such a picture is much more truthful: after all, if something is not written accurately in the order, nothing but problems will turn out, because in such documents no one embellishes anything.

A separate group is made up of material monuments. The vast collections of museums can tell a lot. In addition, much is still stored by the earth, and new discoveries are made all the time. He will tell a lot about foreign campaigns from weapons to the simplest household items that will tell about the life of soldiers and officers (and in everyday life you can sometimes find the roots of problems that are inexplicable in other ways). This is perhaps the most objective source, but at the same time the most unemotional.

There are many sources about the foreign campaign of the Russian army, but each group has its own shortcomings. The most objective picture is obtained by those researchers who use data from different groups and properly link the data obtained.

The catastrophic outcome for Napoleon of the Russian company of 1812 radically changed the balance of power in Europe. The transfer of armed struggle abroad was dictated by the desire to finally crush the armed forces of France, to deprive Napoleon of any opportunity to unleash new wars. That is why the Russian army was faced with the task of further developing strategic success by transferring hostilities abroad and subsequently to the territory of France itself.

The Russian command, developing a strategic plan for the campaign of 1813, set the following priorities for the troops:

one). To finally complete the defeat of the remnants of the French troops retreating to East Prussia and Poland, to prevent them from connecting with the troops located beyond the Vistula and new formations coming from France;

2). Prevent Napoleon from using the human and material capabilities of these states to strengthen his armed forces;

3). Help the German and Polish peoples to join the common struggle.

On the eve of the crossing of the Neman, the Russian army numbered about 100 thousand people, 533 guns (the main army - 37464, the 3rd Western (Chichagova) 24480. Separate housing(Wittgenstein) 34495.

The Napoleonic army, located behind the Neman, numbered up to 70 thousand people. Its main forces were concentrated on the flanks: in East Prussia and in the Warsaw area. These two disparate groups came under the general command of Murat, so it was ordered to organize defense along the Neman and the Bug. But the very first offensive actions of the Russian detachments showed the complete inability of resistance. Murat, convinced of the aimlessness of the defense at this line, gave the order to withdraw troops beyond the Vistula, strengthen the garrisons of the fortresses of Danzig, Thorn, Modlin and, relying on them, leave the further offensive of the Russian armies.

In order to achieve its goals, the Russian army in the last days of December 1812 went on the offensive in three directions: on Koenigsberg - Danzig, on Polotsk and Warsaw.

The fighting of the Russian troops in East Prussia immediately took on an active character. The light cavalry detachments advanced forward delivered swift and sudden attacks on scattered groups of enemy troops and captured settlements one after another. On January 4, 1813, Russian troops broke into Koenigsberg on the move and, after a short but stubborn battle, captured this large stronghold of East Prussia.

The exit of Russian troops to the Vistula in the Polotsk region and the offensive of large forces directly on Warsaw created a threat of encirclement for the troops stationed in the city. On February 7, Russian troops entered Warsaw.

As a result of the successful actions of the Russian army, the first steps were taken to attract Austria and Prussia to the anti-Napoleonic coalition.

The main goal of Napoleon was to use large water lines - the Vistula and Oder and heavily fortified fortresses, to stop the further advance of the Russian army, disperse its forces and draw it into long, protracted battles to besiege fortresses.

Napoleon needed to buy time to create a new army and push it to the Oder, and if possible, then to the Vistula.

M.I. Kutuzov took into account that the capture of fortresses involved both great sacrifices and a significant expenditure of time, while the garrisons of these fortresses themselves were unable to delay the further advance of the Russian army. Therefore, commander-in-chief. Having allocated an insignificant part of the troops to block the fortresses. The main forces sent for the offensive to the Oder.

Strong mobile (“flying”) detachments stood out from the composition of the main forces of the army. They consisted mainly of cavalry, rangers and horse artillery. The detachments went forward, made deep raids, overtook and destroyed individual groups enemy troops. Following the mobile detachments, the main forces of the Russian army moved.

Thus, by the end of February (in two months), the Russian army advanced from the Neman to the Oder by 750-800 km at an average advance rate of 15-20 km. Advancing on a broad front, she defeated the main forces of the French army stationed here, partially captured them, and partially blocked them in the fortresses. The plan of its further offensive actions provided for further movement to Berlin and Dresden. After major losses french army numbered no more than 40 thousand people. “The superiority of our forces,” wrote Kutuzov, “to which the entire Prussian army is now joining to defeat the common enemy, give us an opportunity to completely defeat this remnant of the enemy troops.”

The plan called for an offensive against Berlin from three directions. From the north, Wittgenstein's troops, having ahead Cossack Corps Platov, cross the Oder between Stettin and Kustrin and advance in three columns (two on Berlin, the third bypassing it on Potsdam). From the south, the main army was to move to Crossen and then advance to the Elbe on Magdeburg.

The main idea of ​​the plan was to isolate a large grouping of French troops concentrated in Berlin by an offensive in two converging directions and destroy it before the arrival of fresh forces from France.

Unfortunately, due to the refusal of the Prussian generals to participate in the attack on Berlin, the plan was not fully implemented.

The headquarters of the Russian army understood that until the army received significant reinforcements, it was risky to cross the Oder with the main forces.

The increase in the active army was mainly due to the replenishment of the Russian army with newly formed troops. New regiments, battalions and squadrons moved towards the army along specially designed routes, its strength was to increase to 180 thousand people (154 thousand infantry and 26 thousand cavalry). Napoleon was preparing a new army with great speed and effort. While part of the French troops sought to hold back the advance of the Russian army, the second, much larger part, was preparing to deliver a strong blow. Within three months, Napoleon drafted more than 200 thousand people into the army, in a short time its number could increase to 300 thousand people. Napoleon sought to achieve superiority in strength and, having concentrated his army behind the Elbe in the Dresden and Leipzig region, to launch an offensive.

Strengthening its forces, the Russian army at the same time did not stop active hostilities. Behind the Oder, extensive active operations were launched by the forward detachments of the Russian army. First major event was the occupation of the capital of Prussia, Berlin, by the Russian army. “Berlin was necessary to occupy,” Kutuzov pointed out.

Firstly, it inspired the German people in their national liberation struggle, instilled confidence in the victory over Napoleon.

Secondly, it made it possible to launch an offensive and quickly reach the Elbe.

Thirdly, it brought the allied armies together to organize joint offensive operations.

On April 4, Chernyshov's detachment attacked General Moran's corps near Lüneburg. After an eight-hour battle, the Cossacks captured the city, captured Moran, the entire headquarters of more than 2,500 people and all the artillery.

While the advanced troops reached the Elbe, far in the rear, on the Vistula, the siege and destruction of the French troops remaining in the fortresses continued.

Having set before the troops the task of capturing these fortresses, the Russian command proceeded from the need, firstly, to completely secure its rear, and, secondly, to release the troops and attach them to the main forces of the army.

Simultaneously with the fighting on the Vistula and the Elbe, work was carried out to prepare for the offensive of the main forces of the Russian and Prussian armies. The reserves received from Russia, the arrival of numerous militia detachments to the army, the rapid formation of the Prussian army made it possible to significantly increase the forces of the allies and bring them up to 250-280 thousand people.

The advance detachments to the Elbe, a significant numerical increase in the army created the possibility of the main forces of the allied army going on the offensive. The primary task of the allied forces was to forestall the enemy in concentrating the main forces in the most important sector. Based on a thorough assessment of the situation and intentions of Napoleon, Kutuzov makes a decision: the troops located in Magdeburg and Berlin, Kalisz and Breslau, move in converging directions beyond the Elbe and concentrate them in the area of ​​Leipzig, Luzen, Altenburg. Wittgenstein was ordered to ferry his troops across the Elbe and Torgau and advance towards Leipzig. Prussian troops crossed the Elbe at Dresden and advanced on Altenburg. The main army, located in the Kalisz region, moved to the Leipzig region.

Excessive stress, continuous, full of hardships, camp life undermined the strength and health of the field marshal. On April 28, he died in a small Silesian town. The sudden death of the commander-in-chief of all the armies during the tense period of the struggle to deliver the peoples of Western Europe from Napoleonic domination, during the period of imminent major events, was a heavy loss for the troops.

After the death of M.I. Kutuzov, the leadership of the army passed to Alexander I, P.Kh. Wittgenstein, M.B. Barclay de Tolly. This could not but affect the command and control of the troops. In the very first clash with the enemy, in the battle of Lützen on May 2, mistakes were made on the part of the command, which led to serious setbacks.

Russian-Prussian troops lost more than 20 thousand people in this battle and retreated behind the Elbe. Napoleon occupied Dresden, and after winning the battle of Bautzen (May 20-21), his troops entered Breslau.

Such an unexpected turn of military events seriously frightened Alexander I and Friedrich Wilhelm III. They offered Napoleon to conclude a truce, and he agreed. A truce was equally necessary for both the Allies and France.

The Plesvitsky truce lasted almost two months. During this time, the troops received reinforcements, replenished with weapons and ammunition. In August 1813, Austria joined the coalition. This increased her strength. The Allies now had an army of over 500,000 men. Napoleon also increased the army to 440 thousand people.

In October 1813 there was biggest battle at Leipzig, which went down in history under the name "Battle of the Nations". The battle of Leipzig decided the outcome of the company in 1813 and the entire war. The anti-French coalition consisted of 300 thousand people (130 thousand Russian troops) and 1300 guns.

The French army had about 200 thousand people.

The situation before the Battle of Leipzig was very unfavorable for the French. Before the battle, Napoleon tried to break the enemy in parts - first the Silesian, then the Northern armies, but, throwing his forces against the individual armies of the allies, he was also defeated in parts. To Leipzig, the allied armies advanced concentrically - from three directions, which led to the strategic and tactical encirclement of the French army. In this situation, Napoleon directs the efforts of his troops against the Bohemian army of the allies.

He believed that other Allied armies would not be able to arrive on the battlefield by this time. The plan of defeating the enemy in parts, which Napoleon had succeeded many times in the past, this time could not be implemented.

The allied command decided (three monarchs were with the Bohemian army) on October 16 to attack the enemy with the forces of the main, Bohemian and approaching Silesian armies.

The battle began at dawn with the advance of Barclay de Tolly's group (84 thousand people). South of Leipzig on the first day of the battle, fierce battles that unfolded on different sectors of the front did not lead to success for either side.

The Silesian Allied army, operating north of Leipzig, fought heavy offensive battles throughout the day. Losses on October 16 reached 30 thousand people on each side. Consequently, on the first day of the battle, Napoleon did not fulfill his plan - to defeat the troops of the Bohemian Allied Army. The attacks of the French army were repulsed, which was of decisive importance for the further course of the struggle, depriving the French army of an offensive impulse.

On the second day, October 17, the fighting took place only on the front of the Silesian army, which began the attack in the morning. Napoleon did not take active steps, he unsuccessfully awaited an answer to the peace proposal sent to the headquarters of the monarchs.

On the third day of the battle, October 18, the allied forces launched a decisive offensive. The main attack came from the south. The Allies had a great superiority in forces. On their part, 285 thousand people participated in the offensive against 170 thousand of Napoleon. The offensive came from different directions, the French troops fought heavy defensive battles, being almost surrounded. By evening, the fighting stopped, the French left several villages. Napoleon, seeing that the battle was lost, gave the order to retreat.

On the fourth day of the battle, October 19, at dawn the allied armies resumed their attacks. The organized retreat of the Napoleonic troops was disrupted. Driven out of Leipzig and attacked while crossing the river, they suffered heavy losses. Losses on both sides reached 140 thousand people: the French lost 60 thousand, the allies 80 thousand people (including 38 thousand Russians).

In the battle of Leipzig, the strategic encirclement could have ended with a tactical encirclement of the French troops, if the allied forces had acted more decisively, had firmer command, well-established interaction between armies and military groups, and had not been inactive on enemy communications.

The French army near Leipzig showed to some extent its former fighting qualities. However, many of the newly recruited troops after the death of the "great army" in Russia did not have sufficient experience. The French commander was unable to implement his famous principle - to beat the enemy in parts, leaning on each part of the troops with superior forces.

Near Leipzig, the allied forces use a concentric form of maneuver - a concentric offensive by four armies. This is the most important feature of the battle of Leipzig. The central position in which Napoleon found himself, and which he often used with great success, this time placed him in extremely difficult conditions, threatening with "cannes".

Having been defeated at Leipzig and then surrendering Paris, Napoleon was forced to abdicate and go into exile on the island of Elba on March 1, 1815, from where he soon fled and, having landed in France with a detachment of 1 thousand soldiers, seized power again. The second reign of Napoleon lasted about 100 days.

Having learned about the seventh coalition that had been created, Napoleon marches with an army of 120 thousand people to Belgium, where the allies formed two armies: the Anglo-Dutch army of 100 thousand people under the command of the English field marshal Wellington and the lower Rhine number of 120 thousand people under the command of the Prussian field marshal Blucher. The French commander hoped to separate the armies and smash them separately.

However, having defeated the Prussians on June 16, 1815 at the battle of Ligny and forced them to retreat, he did not pursue them, did not use the victory for a complete defeat. The Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815) Napoleon prepared against one enemy - the Anglo-Dutch army, and gave it against two. He himself created the conditions for uniting the enemy armies, missed the opportunity to attack him with superior forces. The Anglo-Dutch army, supported at a critical moment by significant Prussian forces, defeated Napoleon's army.

In the battle of Waterloo, Napoleon violated another important position that he adhered to - not to scatter forces. The lack of information about the enemy, the poor organization of intelligence led to the fact that Napoleon incorrectly assessed the situation. During the battle itself, Napoleon used too deep 12-battalion infantry columns, which led to unnecessary losses from the concentration of enemy artillery fire.

The general economic and political state of the country affected the activities of the army and Napoleon.

The main and decisive reason for the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire was the defeat of its troops in Russia in 1812.

In military campaigns after 1812, the Russian army was the core and main support of the coalition army.

In the last period of his activity, when the armies of the coalition countries began to use new tactics based on the action of columns and loose formation, Napoleon opposed them with those methods of battle that he used against troops who fought according to the principles of linear tactics. The French commander in many battles adhered to the same methods, as a result of which some battles resembled one another. Achieving victory, during this period he began to use mainly a frontal attack, trying to make a breakthrough in deep columns. He brought the troops in the last companies in deep columns, achieved victory by the pressure of the closed masses. The enemy brought forward artillery groups against them, sowing death in the ranks of the massed large infantry forces. Failure to understand the changed conditions of the battle led to heavy losses and even to the loss of battles.

1813-14

fighting Russian army to expel Napoleon's troops from the countries of Western Europe. After the defeat of the Napoleonic army in the Patriotic War of 1812 (See Patriotic War of 1812), the Russian government decided to transfer military operations to Western Europe in order to achieve a final victory over Napoleon. Despite the defeat in Russia, Napoleon still had significant forces. The Russian command began hostilities already in December 1812, and by February 1813, Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal M. I. Kutuzov (over 100 thousand people) cleared the territory of Poland from the remnants of the Napoleonic army (80 thousand people) to the Vistula. Then the main forces moved to Kalisz, and the corps of P. Kh. Wittgenstein and F. V. Saken - to Berlin and to the Austrian border. On December 18 (30), the commander of the Prussian corps, General L. York, signed the Tauroggen Convention of 1812, according to which Prussian troops ceased hostilities and withdrew to East Prussia. On February 16 (28) the Kalisz Union Treaty of 1813 was concluded with Prussia , laid the foundation for the 6th anti-French coalition, which was an alliance of reactionary monarchies, but it was supported by the peoples of Europe, who fought for liberation from the Napoleonic yoke.

At the end of March, the Russian-Prussian troops resumed their offensive. In the rear of the French in Germany unfolded partisan movement, the German population met the Russian troops as their liberators. On February 20 (March 4), Berlin was liberated by a Russian detachment. By mid-April, Napoleon managed to concentrate 200 thousand people. against 92 thousand Russian-Prussian troops, commanded by Wittgenstein after the death of Kutuzov, and from May 17 (29) by General M. B. Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon defeated the Allies on April 20 (May 2) at Lützen and May 8-9 (20-21) at Bautzen , after which a truce was concluded on May 23 (June 4), which lasted until July 29 (August 10). Austria acted as an intermediary in negotiations with Napoleon, which ended in failure, after which Austria severed relations with France. France was opposed by Sweden, bound with Russia by an alliance treaty of 1812. Great Britain signed conventions with Russia and Prussia on granting them subsidies. On August 28 (September 9) the Teplitsky alliance treaties 1813 between Russia, Austria and Prussia, soon joined by Great Britain.

By the autumn of 1813, the allied troops numbered 492 thousand people. (including Russians - 173 thousand), united in 3 armies: Bohemian (about 237 thousand) Austrian Field Marshal K. Schwarzenberg, Silesian (about 100 thousand) Prussian Field Marshal G. Blucher and Northern (over 150 thousand) ) Swedish Crown Prince J. Bernadotte. A separate corps (about 30 thousand) was advanced to Hamburg. Napoleon had 440 thousand. army, the bulk of which was in Saxony. In August, the Allies launched a concentric offensive. Napoleon threw his main forces against the Bohemian army and inflicted a defeat on August 14-15 (26-27) in the Battle of Dresden 1813 (See Battle of Dresden 1813). The French troops tried to pursue, but the Russian rearguard on August 17-18 (29-30) in the battle of Kulm threw them away. The Silesian army defeated the troops of J. MacDonald, and northern army- to the troops of Sh. Oudinot. The allies launched a general offensive and on October 4-7 (16-19) in Leipzig battle 1813 (See Battle of Leipzig 1813) defeated Napoleon's army.

Its remnants retreated beyond the river. Rhine. Corps L. Davout was surrounded in Hamburg. The successes of the allies forced Denmark to abandon the alliance with Napoleon, on January 2 (14) to sign the Kiel Peace Treaties of 1814 with Sweden and Great Britain and undertake to enter the war against France. Allied forces began to expel Napoleonic troops from the Netherlands. The most important outcome of the 1813 campaign was the liberation of Germany from the Napoleonic yoke. But, as V. I. Lenin noted, it took place "... not without the help of the robber states, which fought with Napoleon not a liberation war, but an imperialist war ..." (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 35, p. 382).

By the beginning of the 1814 campaign, the allied forces numbered 900,000, of which 453,000 (including 153,000 Russians) were stationed along the right bank of the Rhine; the rest of the forces were in Spain, Italy and in reserve. Napoleon could only oppose them with 300 thousand people, of which 160 thousand deployed along the left bank of the Rhine. In December 1813 - January 1814, the allied forces crossed the Rhine and launched an offensive deep into France. The allied command acted very indecisively, and Napoleon even managed to achieve a number of private successes. Serious contradictions emerged between the allied powers. In order to strengthen the coalition, on February 26 (March 10), the Chaumont Treaty of 1814 was signed, in which the allies pledged not to conclude either peace or an armistice with France without general consent. The secret articles determined the post-war structure of Europe. At the Congress of Châtillon in 1814, the allies once again tried to resolve the conflict with Napoleon peacefully, but he rejected their terms for the return of France to the borders of 1792. ) March. On March 25 (April 6), Napoleon signed his abdication at Fontainebleau and was exiled to Fr. Elbe. Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI, was enthroned. On May 18 (30) the Peace of Paris of 1814 was signed between the Allies and France.

During the campaigns of 1813-14, the Russian army rendered enormous assistance to the peoples of Western Europe in their liberation from Napoleonic domination. It was the main core around which the troops of other coalition members were grouped. However, the reactionary aims pursued by the ruling circles of the allied powers gave the war against Napoleon a contradictory character. K. Marx pointed out: “All the wars for independence that were waged against France are characterized by a combination of the spirit of rebirth with the spirit of reaction ...” (Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 10, p. 436 ).

Lit.: Campaign of the Russian army in 1813 and the liberation of Germany. Sat. documents, M., 1964; Andrianov P., From the Neman to the Rhine. War of 1813 Struggle for the liberation of Europe from the yoke of Napoleon, Od., 1913; his own. War of 1814. From the Rhine to Paris. 1814-1914, [Od., 1914]; Bogdanovich M., History of the war of 1813 for the independence of Germany ..., vol. 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1863; his, History of the war of 1814 in France and the deposition of Napoleon I ..., vol. 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1865; War of Liberation of 1813 against Napoleonic domination, M., 1965.

I. I. Rostunov.

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-14.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Foreign campaigns of the Russian army 1813-14" are in other dictionaries:

Fighting Russian. army for expulsion from the countries of the West. Europe of Napoleon's troops. After the defeat of the Napoleonic army in the Patriotic War of 1812, Rus. Pr in decided to move the military. operations in Europe to achieve graduation. victory over Napoleon.

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814- Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814 - the fighting of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and Austrian troops to complete the defeat of the army of Napoleon I and liberate the countries of Western Europe from the French conquerors. ... ... Encyclopedia of newsmakers

Military operations of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and, from August 1813, the Austrian armies against the Napoleonic troops in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of the troops of the French emperor Napoleon I in Leipzig ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

1813 14 military operations of the Russian army, together with the Prussian, Swedish and, from August 1813, the Austrian armies against the Napoleonic troops in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of Napoleon's troops in the battle of Leipzig and their expulsion ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

1813 1815, military operations of Russian troops together with the allies against the Napoleonic army in Western Europe. The political and strategic situation in 1813 After the catastrophic defeat of Napoleon (see NAPOLEON I Bonaparte) in Russia, military ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Modern Encyclopedia

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army- FOREIGN CAMPAIGNS OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY, the name of the military operations of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and Austrian armies in 1813 14 against the Napoleonic troops in Germany and France, as well as the campaign of the 1st Russian army ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army - (1813–1814) … Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language

In Germany, the war for the liberation of Germany from domination Napoleonic France. The most important prerequisite for the development of O. in. was the victory of the peoples of Russia and Rus. army in the Patriotic War of 1812. In the context of the rapid advance of the Russian. troops on ... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia

In the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. among the peoples Northern Black Sea, Caucasus and Central Asia, the slave system was in decline. It was replaced by a new social economic formation Feudalism. Feudal relations,… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• 1812 in the life of A. S. Pushkin, Nikolaev Pavel Fedorovich. Conscious life A. S. Pushkin fell on a series of uninterrupted wars waged by Russia: the Patriotic War of 1812, the foreign campaigns of the Russian army of 1813-1814, the Russian-Iranian ...

In addition, the Russian forces were seriously weakened during the intensive pursuit of Napoleon, when they suffered no less than the French troops from the cold and lack of food. In the two months of the journey from Tarutino to the Neman, the Kutuzov army lost up to two-thirds of its composition (stragglers, sick, killed, wounded, etc.). But Alexander I wanted to put an end to the source of aggression forever. Actually, thanks to the initiative of the Russian emperor, who took on the noble, but (as further experience showed) ungrateful role of the savior of Europe, the European countries (and above all Germany) were liberated from French domination. The failures revealed the fragility of the Napoleonic coalition. Prussia was the first to join the victorious Russia, betraying the alliance with Bonaparte. In April 1813, M.I. Kutuzov died. By that time, Napoleon managed to concentrate 200 thousand people due to new mobilizations. against the 92,000th Russian-Prussian army. True, in the campaign of 1812, France lost the entire color of its armed forces. Now her army consisted largely of recruits. However, the Russian army also lost a considerable part of its veterans in last year's battles.

Campaign of 1813

First stage

At this stage, the struggle for Germany unfolded, on the territory of which the French sought to delay the Allied offensive and defeat them. In April 1813, Napoleon went on the offensive at the head of a 150,000-strong army and moved towards Leipzig. The French avant-garde pushed the allies back from the city. At this time, on April 20, southwest of Leipzig, the main allied army under the command of Peter Wittgenstein (92 thousand people) attacked the corps of Marshal Ney (the vanguard of the southern column) near Lützen, trying to break the French forces in parts.

Battle of Lützen (1813). Ney defended stubbornly and held his position. Emperor Alexander I and King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia were present on the battlefield. This fettered the initiative of Wittgenstein, who lost a lot of time coordinating his actions with the monarchs. Meanwhile, Napoleon with the main forces arrived in time to help Ney. By personally leading the counterattack, the French emperor managed to split the lines of the allies, threatening them with a bypass from the flank. At night, the Russian and Prussian monarchs gave the order to retreat. The absence of cavalry (who died during the campaign against Russia), as well as the fatigue of recruits exhausted by the long march, deprived Napoleon of the opportunity to effectively pursue the retreating. The damage of Russians and Prussians amounted to 12 thousand people. The French lost 15 thousand people. The battle of Lützen was the first major victory Napoleon in the campaign of 1813. She raised the morale of the French army and allowed her to re-take control of Saxony.

Battle of Bautzen (1813). Napoleon moved east behind the retreating allied army and on May 8-9 gave her the battle of Bautzen. Napoleon's plan consisted of a deep flank coverage of the allied forces, their encirclement and destruction. To do this, the French emperor sent a significant part of his forces, led by Marshal Ney (60 thousand people), to bypass the allied army from the north. With the rest, on May 8, Napoleon crossed the Spree in several places. After a stubborn battle, the French pushed back the Allied army and captured Bautzen. However, the next day, Ney, who reached his original positions, was unable to complete the coverage of the right flank of the Allies in time. This was largely due to the staunch defense of the Russian units under the command of Generals Barclay de Tolly and Lansky. Napoleon, on the other hand, was in no hurry to throw a reserve into battle, waiting until Ney went to the rear of the allies. This gave Wittgenstein the opportunity to withdraw his troops across the Lebau River in a timely manner and avoid encirclement. The lack of French cavalry did not allow Napoleon to develop success. The Allies lost 12 thousand people in this battle, the French - 18 thousand people.

Despite the success at Bautzen, the clouds were gathering over Napoleon. Sweden entered the war against France. Her army was moving from the north along with the Prussians towards Berlin. Preparing for a speech against Napoleon and his ally - Austria. After Bautzen, the Prague Truce was signed. Both sides used it to pull up reserves and prepare for new battles. This ended the first phase of the 1813 campaigns.

Campaign of 1813

Second phase

During the armistice, the forces of the allies increased significantly. Having completed the mobilization, they were joined by Austria, which sought not to miss the opportunity to divide Napoleonic Empire. Thus, the 6th anti-French coalition (England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden) was finally formed. The total number of its troops by the end of the summer reached 492 thousand people. (including 173 thousand Russians). They were divided into three armies: Bohemian under the command of Field Marshal Schwarzenberg (about 237 thousand people), Silesian under the command of Field Marshal Blucher (100 thousand people) and Northern under the command of the former Napoleonic marshal Swedish crown prince Bernadotte (150 thousand people). By that time, Napoleon had managed to increase the size of his army to 440 thousand people, the main part of which was in Saxony. The new Allied tactic was to avoid meeting with Napoleon and to attack, first of all, individual units commanded by his marshals. The situation for Napoleon was created unfavorable. He found himself sandwiched in Saxony between three fires. From the north, from Berlin, he was threatened by Bernadotte's Army of the North. From the south, from Austria, - the Bohemian army of Schwarzenberg, from the southeast, from Silesia - the Silesian army of Blucher. Napoleon adopted a defensive-offensive campaign plan. He concentrated the shock group of Marshal Oudinot for an attack on Berlin (70 thousand people). To strike at the rear of the Berlin grouping of allies, Davout's detached corps (35 thousand people) was intended to stand separately in Hamburg. Against the Bohemian and Silesian armies, Napoleon left barriers - respectively, the corps of Saint-Cyr in Dresden and the corps of Ney in the Katzbach. The emperor himself, with the main forces, was located in the center of his communications in order to come to the aid of each of the groups at the necessary moment. The French campaign against Berlin failed. Oudinot was defeated by Bernadotte's army. Davout, in view of this failure, withdrew to Hamburg. Then Napoleon replaced Oudinot with Nehm and ordered him to launch a new attack on Berlin. The corps holding back the Silesian army was led by Marshal MacDonald. Meanwhile, the Silesian and Bohemian armies launched an offensive against the Katzbach and Dresden.

Battle of the Katzbach (1813). On August 14, on the banks of the Katzbach River, a battle took place between MacDonald's corps (65 thousand people) and the Silesian army of Blucher (75 thousand people). The French crossed the Katzbach, but were attacked by the allies and, after a fierce oncoming battle, were driven back across the river. The Russian corps under the command of Generals Saken and Langeron distinguished themselves in the battle. They struck at the flank and rear of the French, who were driven into the river and suffered heavy losses while crossing. The battle took place in a heavy thunderstorm. This made shooting impossible, and the troops fought mostly with melee weapons or hand-to-hand combat. French losses amounted to 30 thousand people. (including 18 thousand prisoners). The Allies lost about 8 thousand people. The defeat of the French at the Katzbach forced Napoleon to move to the aid of MacDonald, which eased the position of the Allies after their defeat at Dresden. However, Blucher did not use the Katzbach success to go on the offensive. Upon learning of the approach of Napoleon's troops, the Prussian commander did not accept a new battle and retreated.

Battle of Dresden (1813). On the day of the battle of the Katzbach, August 14, the Bohemian army of Schwarzenberg (227 thousand people), following the new tactics, decided to attack the forces of the Russian avant-garde of General Wittgenstein against the corps of Saint-Cyr standing alone in Dresden. Meanwhile, Napoleon's army quickly and unexpectedly came to the aid of Saint-Cyr, and the number of French troops near Dresden increased to 167 thousand people. Schwarzenberg, who even in this situation had a numerical superiority, ordered to go on the defensive. Due to poor communication between the allied units, the order for this came to the Russian army when it had already moved on to the attack. Not supported by their neighbors, the Russians suffered heavy losses and retreated. On August 15, Napoleon, despite the numerical superiority of the allies, went on the offensive and struck at their left flank, where the Austrians stood. They were separated from the center occupied by the Prussians by the Planensky ravine. The Austrians could not withstand the onslaught and were thrown into a ravine. At the same time, Napoleon attacked the center and the right flank of the allies. Shooting was hindered by heavy rain, so the troops fought mainly with melee weapons. The allies hastily retreated, losing about 37 thousand people in two days of fighting killed, wounded and captured. (of which two-thirds are Russians). The damage of the French army did not exceed 10 thousand people. In that battle, the famous French commander Moreau, who went over to the side of the allies, was mortally wounded by a fragment of the cannonball. It was said that he died from a cannon shot fired by Napoleon himself. The battle of Dresden was the last major success the French in the campaign of 1813. However, its significance was nullified by the Allied victories at Kulm and Katzbach.

Battle of Kulm (1813). After Dresden, Napoleon with the main forces rushed to the aid of Macdonald, defeated at the Katzbach, and sent the corps of General Vandam (37 thousand people) to the rear of the demoralized Bohemian army retreating through the Ore Mountains. The Bohemian army was saved from a new defeat by the Russian corps, led by General Osterman-Tolstoy (17 thousand people), who blocked the path of Vandam at Kulm. All day on August 17, the Russians heroically repulsed the attacks of superior French forces. In that battle, the Russian corps lost 6,000 people. Osterman-Tolstoy himself was seriously wounded, having lost his left arm in battle. To condolences, he replied: "It is very pleasant to be wounded for the Fatherland, and as for the left hand, I still have the right one, which I need for the sign of the cross, a sign of faith in God, in which I place all my hope." General Yermolov took command of the corps. On August 18, the main forces of the allied army under the command of General Barclay de Tolly (44 thousand people) came to his aid, and the Prussian corps of General Kleist (35 thousand people) hit Vandamu in the rear. The battle of August 18 ended with the complete defeat of the French. They lost 10 thousand killed and wounded. 12 thousand were captured (including Vandam himself). Allied losses that day amounted to 3.5 thousand people. The Battle of Kulm did not allow Napoleon to develop the Dresden success and seize the initiative. For the battle of Kulm, the Russian participants in the battle received a special award from the Prussian king - the Kulm Cross. A week after Kulm, the defeat of Ney's shock group ended the second French offensive on Berlin. After all these battles, there was a temporary lull. The allies again received large reinforcements - the Polish army led by General Bennigsen (60 thousand people). Bavaria, the largest kingdom of the Confederation of the Rhine created by France, passed into the camp of Napoleon's opponents. This forced Napoleon to switch to defensive tactics. He began to draw up his troops to Leipzig, where he soon fought a battle that decided the fate of the campaign.

Battle of Leipzig (1813). On October 4-7, near Leipzig, a major battle took place between the armies of the allied states: Russia, Austria, Prussia and Sweden (over 300 thousand people, including 127 thousand Russians) and the troops of Emperor Napoleon (about 200 thousand people), entered into history under the name "Battle of the Nations". Russians, French, Germans, Belgians, Austrians, Dutch, Italians, Poles, Swedes, and others took part in it. In early October, only the Bohemian army of Schwarzenberg (133 thousand people) was from the south of Leipzig. Napoleon concentrated 122 thousand people against it, covering the northern direction with the corps of Ney and Marmont (50 thousand people). On the morning of October 4, Schwarzenberg attacked the Napoleonic troops defending the southern approaches to Leipzig. The Austrian commander threw only 80 thousand people into battle. (the vanguard of Barclay de Tolly) against 120 thousand from the French, and he failed to achieve decisive success. Having exhausted the attackers with active defense, Napoleon launched a powerful counteroffensive at 3 o'clock in the afternoon. The strike group under the command of Marshal Murat overturned the advanced Russian-Austrian units and broke through the center of the Allied positions. The French soldiers were already 800 paces from the headquarters, where the Russian emperor was watching the battle. A timely counterattack by the Life Guards of the Cossack regiment under the command of General Orlov-Denisov saved Alexander I from possible captivity. The general breakthrough and triumph of the French was only prevented by the entry into battle of the main reserve - the Russian guards and grenadiers, who on that day snatched the much-needed victory from Napoleon's hands. The French failed to defeat the Bohemian army also because at that moment the Silesian army of Blucher (60 thousand people) arrived from the north to Leipzig, which immediately attacked Marmont's corps. According to the French marshals, the Prussians showed miracles of courage that day. After a fierce oncoming battle, Blucher's soldiers still managed to push the French back from the villages of Mekkern and Wiederich, which changed hands more than once, by evening. From the corpses piled on top of each other, the Prussians built defensive fortifications and swore not to retreat a single step from the captured positions. The total losses in the battle on October 4 exceeded 60 thousand people (30 thousand on each side). The day of October 5 passed in inactivity. Both sides received reinforcements and prepared for a decisive battle. But if Napoleon received only 25 thousand new fighters, then two armies approached the allies - the Northern (58 thousand people) and the Polish (54 thousand people). The superiority of the allies became overwhelming, and they were able to cover Leipzig with a 15-kilometer semicircle (from north, east and south).

The next day (October 6), the largest fire in history flared up. Napoleonic Wars battle. Up to 500 thousand people participated in it from both sides. The Allies began a concentric attack on the French positions, which defended desperately and constantly turned into counterattacks. In the middle of the day on the southern flank, the French even managed to overturn the attacking Austrian lines. It seemed that they would not be able to hold back the furious onslaught of the Old Guard, which Napoleon himself led into battle. But at this decisive moment, the allies of the French - the Saxon troops opened the front and went over to the side of the enemy. There could no longer be any talk of any offensive. With incredible efforts, the French troops managed to close the gap and hold their positions until the end of the day. The next such battle, the Napoleonic soldiers, who were at the limit of their capabilities, were no longer able to withstand. On the night of October 7, Napoleon ordered the retreat to the west along the only surviving bridge over the Elster River. The retreat was covered by the Polish and French units of Marshals Poniatowski and MacDonald. They entered the last battle for the city at dawn on October 7th. Only by the middle of the day did the Allies succeed in dislodging the French and Poles from there. At that moment, the sappers, seeing the Russian cavalrymen breaking through to the river, blew up the bridge across the Elster. By that time, another 28 thousand people had not managed to cross over. The panic began. Some soldiers rushed to escape by swimming, others fled. Someone else tried to resist. Poniatowski, who had received a marshal's baton from Napoleon the day before, gathered combat-ready units and, in the last impulse, attacked the allies, trying to cover the retreat of his comrades. He was wounded, threw himself on his horse into the water and drowned in the cold waters of the Elster.

McDonald was more fortunate. He overcame the turbulent river and got to the other side. The French suffered a crushing defeat. They lost 80 thousand people, including 20 thousand prisoners. Allied damage exceeded 50 thousand people. (of which 22 thousand are Russians). The Battle of Leipzig was Bonaparte's biggest defeat. She decided the outcome of the 1813 campaign. After it, Napoleon lost his conquests in Germany and was forced to retreat to French territory. Nevertheless, the allied command was unable to cut off the path to the west of the defeated French army (about 100 thousand people). She safely passed the territory of the Confederation of the Rhine, defeating the Bavarian army that had crossed her path on October 18 at Hanau (Hanau), and then began to cross the Rhine.

Campaign of 1814

By the beginning of 1814, the Allied forces, ready to attack France across the Rhine, numbered 453 thousand people. (of which 153 thousand Russians). Napoleon could oppose them along the left bank of the Rhine with only 163 thousand people. On January 1, 1814, on the anniversary of the crossing of the Neman, the Russian army led by Emperor Alexander I crossed the Rhine. The Allied winter campaign took Napoleon by surprise. Not having time to gather all his strength, he nevertheless hastened to meet the allied armies, having only 40 thousand people at hand. Thus began the famous campaign of 1814, which, according to many researchers, became one of the best campaigns of Napoleon. With a small army, a significant part of which were recruits, Bonaparte, skillfully maneuvering, was able to hold back the onslaught of the allies for two months and win a number of striking victories. The main fighting of this campaign unfolded in the basin of the Marne and Seine rivers. Successful actions of Napoleon in January - February were explained not only by military leadership talents, but also by discord in the camp of the allies, who did not have a common opinion about further actions. If Russia and Prussia sought to put an end to Bonaparte, then England and Austria tended to compromise. So, Austria actually achieved the goals of the war - the displacement of the French from Germany and Italy. The complete defeat of Napoleon was not part of the plans of the Vienna Cabinet, which needed Napoleonic France to curb the growth of the influence of Prussia and Russia. Played a role and dynastic ties - daughter Austrian emperor Marie Louise was married to Bonaparte. England also did not want the crushing of France, as she was interested in maintaining a balance of power on the continent. London saw Paris as a possible ally in the future struggle against Russia, which was gaining strength. A similar political alignment predetermined the course of hostilities on the part of the allies. So, the Prussian commander Blucher acted, albeit not always skillfully, but nevertheless decisively. As for the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg, he showed almost no activity and in fact gave Napoleon freedom of maneuver. It is no coincidence that the main battles unfolded between Napoleon and Blucher. In parallel with the fighting, a peace congress was held in Chatillon, at which the allies tried to persuade the French emperor to a peaceful resolution of the conflict. But he still preferred to seek peace not at the negotiating table, but on the battlefield. In January, Napoleon attacked Blucher's army, which was marching at the forefront of the allied forces, and dealt it a sensitive blow at Brienne (January 17). Blucher retreated to connect with Schwarzenberg. The next day, Napoleon fought at La Rotierre with a vastly superior Allied army, and then withdrew to Troyes. After these battles, the allies held a council of war, at which they divided their forces. Blucher's army was to advance in the Marne valley. To the south, in the valley of the Seine, the offensive of the main army of Schwarzenberg was supposed. Napoleon, who had received reinforcements by that time, immediately took advantage of this.

Leaving a 40,000-strong barrier against Schwarzenberg, the French emperor moved with a 30,000-strong army against Blucher. Within five days (from January 29 to February 2), Bonaparte won a series of successive brilliant victories (at Champaubert, Montmiray, Château-Thierry and Vauchamp) over the Russian-Prussian corps, which Blücher's strategic fantasy scattered one by one in the Marne valley. Blucher lost a third of the army and was on the verge of complete defeat. This was the peak of Napoleon's success in 1814. According to his contemporaries, he outdid himself in a seemingly hopeless situation. Napoleon's success confused the allies. Schwarzenberg immediately offered to conclude a truce. But inspired by five days of victories, the French emperor rejected the very moderate proposals of the allies. He said that he "found his boots in the Italian campaign." However, his success was also explained by the inaction of Schwarzenberg, who received secret instructions from his emperor not to cross the Seine. Only the persistence of Alexander I forced the Austrian commander to move forward. This saved Blucher from inevitable defeat. Upon learning of the movement of Schwarzenberg towards Paris, Napoleon left Blucher and immediately marched towards the main army. Despite his double superiority, Schwarzenberg retreated, ordering Blucher's army to join him. The Austrian field marshal proposed to withdraw beyond the Rhine, and only the persistence of the Russian emperor forced the allies to continue hostilities. On February 26, the Allies signed the so-called. Treaty of Chaumont, in which they pledged not to conclude either peace or a truce with France without common consent. It was decided that Blucher's army would now become the main one. She again went to the Marne to advance from there to Paris. The Schwarzenberg army, which outnumbered it, was assigned a secondary role. Having learned about Blucher's movement to the Marne, and then to Paris, Napoleon with a 35,000-strong army again moved towards his main enemy. But the second Marne campaign of Bonaparte was less successful than the first. In the fierce battle of Craon (February 23), Napoleon managed to push back the detachment under the command of the hero Borodin, General Mikhail Vorontsov. With their staunch resistance, the Russians made it possible for Blucher's main forces to withdraw to Lahn. Due to the approaching corps from the army of Bernadotte Blucher was able to bring the number of his troops to 100 thousand people. In the two-day battle of Lana, he was able to repel the onslaught of Napoleon's three times smaller army. While the French emperor fought Blucher, Schwarzenberg took offensive action on February 15, pushing back the corps of Oudinot and MacDonald in the battle of Bar sur Aube.

Then Napoleon, leaving Blucher alone, again moved on the army of Schwarzenberg and gave it a two-day battle near Arcy sur Aube (March 8 and 9). Only the caution of the Austrian commander, who did not commit the main forces into battle, allowed Napoleon to avoid a major defeat. Unable to defeat the allies in frontal attacks, Napoleon changed his tactics. He decided to go to the rear of Schwarzenberg's army and cut off her communication with the Rhine. This idea was based on the experience of past wars with the Austrians, who always reacted painfully to the severing of ties with supply bases. True, the entry of the main French forces to the rear of Schwarzenberg opened up an almost free path for the allies to Paris, but Napoleon expected that none of the allied commanders would dare to take such a bold step. Who knows how events would have developed if the Cossacks had not intercepted Napoleon's letter to his wife, where the French emperor described this plan in detail. After its discussion at the headquarters of the Allies, the Austrians immediately offered to withdraw to protect their communications and cover up communications with the Rhine. However, the Russians, led by Emperor Alexander I, insisted on the opposite. They proposed to allocate a small barrier against Napoleon, and to go to Paris with the main forces. This bold move sealed the fate of the campaign. Having defeated the corps of Marmont and Mortier on March 13 at the battle of Fer-Champenoise, the Russian cavalry cleared the way to the French capital.

Capture of Paris (1814). On March 18, the 100,000-strong army of Schwarzenberg approached the walls of Paris. The capital of France was defended by the corps of marshals Marmont and Mortier, as well as parts of the National Guard (about 40 thousand people in total). The battle for Paris lasted several hours. The fiercest fighting took place at the Belleville Gate and at the heights of Montmartre. Here the Russian units distinguished themselves, which basically stormed the French capital. The Russian emperor Alexander I also took part in the battle for Paris. He was engaged in the placement of an artillery battery in the Belleville Gate area. At 5 pm, after fleeing from the city of King Joseph (Napoleon's brother), Marshal Marmont capitulated.

Peace of Paris (1814). The act of surrender of Paris was drawn up and signed by the allies from the adjutant wing of Emperor Alexander I, Colonel M.F. Orlov, who received the rank of general for this. The Allies lost 9 thousand people in this most bloody battle of the 1814 campaign. (of which two-thirds are Russians). The defenders of the French capital lost 4 thousand people. The capture of Paris was a decisive Allied victory. In honor of this event, released special medal"For the capture of Paris". She was awarded to the participants of the foreign campaign of the Russian army. After the fall of the French capital, Napoleon abdicated on March 25 and, by decision of the allies, was exiled to the island of Elba. His empire has ceased to exist. On May 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded between France and the members of the anti-French coalition. The combat losses of the Russian army in the Foreign campaign (1813-1814) exceeded 120 thousand people. The struggle for the liberation of Europe was the bloodiest Russian campaign during the Napoleonic wars.

“Victory, accompanying our banners, hoisted them on the walls of Paris. At the very gates, our thunder struck. The defeated enemy stretches out his hand to reconciliation! No revenge! No enmity! brave warriors, to you, the first culprits of success, belongs the glory of the world! .. You have earned the right to the gratitude of the Fatherland - I declare it in the name of the Fatherland. "These words of Alexander I, uttered after the capitulation of France, drew a line under the difficult decade of wars and cruel trials from which Russia emerged with triumph. "The universe fell silent ..." - so briefly and figuratively described this victory the poet M.Yu.

Congress of Vienna (1815). In 1815, a pan-European congress was held in Vienna to discuss the post-war structure of Europe. On it, Alexander I achieved the accession to his possessions of the Duchy of Warsaw, which served as the main springboard for Napoleonic aggression against Russia. Most of this duchy, having received the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of the Russian Empire. In general, the territorial acquisitions of Russia in Europe in the first quarter of the XIX century. ensured the external security of the East Slavic world. The entry into the empire of Finland pushed the Swedish possessions away from Russian to Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, which made the northwest of the country virtually invulnerable to attack from land. The Polish salient prevented a direct invasion of Russia on central direction. In the southwest, large water barriers - the Prut and the Dniester - covered the steppe spaces. In fact, under Alexander I, a new "security belt" was created in the west of the empire, which then existed for a whole century.

"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

Introduction

Start of overseas trips

Congress of Vienna

3. "100 days" of Napoleon

Holy Union

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

“The Russians could not shamelessly open the glorious book of their history if the page on which Napoleon is depicted standing in the middle of burning Moscow was not followed by the page where Alexander is in the middle of Paris,” wrote one of the most insightful Russian historians S.M. Solovyov.

December 1812, on Christmas Day, Alexander I signed the Manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War and on the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow in honor of the victory. And already on January 1 of the new 1813, the emperor, together with a hundred thousandth army, crossed the Neman - the Foreign Campaign of the Russian army began.

The commander of the Prussian corps of the former Grand Army, General Johann York, judging that the time had come to separate from Napoleon, at his own peril and risk, concluded a convention with the Russians, according to which his corps began to adhere to neutrality. Prussian king at first he ordered York to be removed from command of the corps and brought to trial by a military tribunal, but soon he himself went over to the side of the winners. Thus, Alexander won the first great diplomatic victory: he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia, yesterday's ally of Napoleon. This union became the foundation of a long-conceived Russian emperor sixth anti-Napoleonic coalition.

The purpose of the abstract is to study the course and results of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1815.

highlight the foreign campaign of 1813-1814;

disclose the provisions and decisions of the Congress of Vienna;

to show the role of the Holy Alliance in the post-war arrangement of the world.

1. The beginning of foreign campaigns

On April 16, 1813, Field Marshal Kutuzov died in the small German town of Bunzlau. His death, as it were, summed up the Patriotic War of 1812 and opened the era of the campaign of the Russian army in Europe.

Russian troops were rapidly moving to the West, sweeping out of the way the French troops stationed in Poland and in German lands. In East Prussia, the Russian army defeated MacDonald's corps retreating here. Koenigsberg was soon taken. On February 20, Russian troops entered Berlin. For the second time in history, the Prussian capital was in the hands of the Russian army, Prussia was forced to break the military alliance with Napoleon and signed a peace treaty with Russia, pledging to fight against the former ally. Prussian troops turned against France. The Austrian corps of Schwarzenberg rolled back to the south, and Austria entered into secret negotiations with the Russian top military leaders and concluded a secret truce with Russia and also pledged to take part in the fight against France.

The Russian command strongly supported this liberation upsurge. In their appeals and proclamations to the German people, already in the first days of the entry of Russian troops into Germany, it was emphasized that the Russians came here as liberators, that their goal was not to take revenge on those who supported Napoleon Bonaparte, not to take revenge on the French people, but to provide the peoples of Europe with the opportunity regain independence, revive and strengthen their sovereignty.

These documents found a wide and grateful response among the European population. It is no coincidence that the result of the liberation of the European peoples from the dictates of Napoleon was the deployment of a democratic movement in Europe, the maturation of reformist aspirations, the beginning of deep socio-economic and political change in the German lands, primarily in Prussia, in the Italian lands, and later in France itself.

Meanwhile, Napoleon was feverishly preparing to continue the struggle. In a short time, he managed to assemble a new army of five hundred thousand. But its quality, fighting spirit were already different than those of his former illustrious corps. For the most part, these were youngsters who had not yet been shot, who, however, like his former veterans, still blindly worshiped their idol and recklessly believed him. Napoleon significantly strengthened his army also due to the withdrawal of military units from Spain, where the liberation war against the French invaders was flaring up more and more. In the summer of 1813, the remnants of the French troops were forced to retreat beyond the Pyrenees. Spain became free.

However, Napoleon did not want to hear about any peace with his opponents on the condition of significant concessions on his part. In the summer of 1813, Napoleon went on the offensive. With him were fresh parts, with him were his illustrious marshals. Finally, his organizational talent and military leadership did not fade. Invading East Germany, Napoleon defeated the allies near the cities of Lützen and Bautzen. In mid-August, in a two-day battle, he defeated the combined Russian-Prussian-Austrian army near Dresden.

But these were temporary successes. Now Napoleon was opposed by the armies, governments, peoples of almost all of Europe. The core of this confrontation with France remained the Russian army, which retained its combat strength, its generals, its unbending spirit. All this was vividly confirmed in the three-day "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig on November 4-7, 1813. More than 500 thousand people participated in it on both sides. The main blow of Napoleon was withstood the Russian and German troops, and then went on the counteroffensive. The French were broken. In this battle, Napoleon, despite the stubbornness and courage of his recruits, suffered complete defeat. At the end of December, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. And soon it was decided to move to Paris. After a bloody battle near Paris, the French retreated, on March 18, 1814, the French capital capitulated. Napoleon abdicated.

On the final stage war, during the campaigns of 1813-1814, prominent role Alexander I played in the military and political crushing of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the battle of Bautzen, it was only thanks to Alexander's orders that the Allied troops managed to retreat in an organized manner and save their forces, although the battle was lost. During the battle, Alexander was located so that he saw Napoleon, and he saw him. In the battle of Dresden, he took part in the leadership of the troops and stood under fire, showing personal courage. A cannonball exploded near him, fatally hitting standing next to general.

This was the last battle where he had to experience the burden of defeat. After that came the victories. Alexander I felt more and more confident in the role of a military strategist.

2. Congress of Vienna

In May 1814, the victors dictated to defeated France the terms of a peace treaty. France was stripped of all its conquests in Europe and was left within its pre-war borders. Her acquisitions in the Apennines - in northern Italy and on the Adriatic coast - went to Austria; Belgium and Holland conquered by Napoleon were henceforth united and turned into an independent Kingdom of the Netherlands. The key strategic position in the Mediterranean - the island of Malta - was transferred to England. France lost in favor of England and part of its overseas possessions.

However, this was only the beginning of the political reorganization of Europe. The Kingdom of Poland awaited its fate, German states. If the claims of England and Austria were to some extent satisfied, then Russia and Prussia were still waiting for gratitude from the allies for their contribution to the crushing of Napoleon and for the hardships, losses and destruction suffered.

In the same place in Paris, an agreement was reached on a decision further destinies Europe in Vienna, at the pan-European congress, which took place in the autumn of 1814.

The Congress of Vienna was attended by 2 emperors, 4 kings, 2 princes, 3 grand dukes, 215 heads of princely houses, 450 diplomats. The Russian delegation was led at the talks by the thirty-seven-year-old Emperor Alexander I himself, who was in a halo of military and political glory.

But already in the first days of the Congress of Vienna, European wits quite aptly characterized its work with the following words: "The Congress dances, but does not move." And it was right, because immediately irresistible contradictions arose between the winners, especially between the three most influential powers on the continent - England, Russia and Austria, each of which claimed a dominant role in post-war Europe. No wonder the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, one of the main opponents of the strengthening of Russia on the continent, in one of his conversations said to the French Foreign Minister Talleyrand: "Don't talk about allies, they are gone." The Congress of Vienna gave rise to this new process, which eventually led to Crimean War 1853-1856

Alexander I was indignant at the anti-Russian position of the former allies, and they were already looking to the future, gradually forming a new, this time anti-Russian, coalition.

January 1815, three powers - England, Austria and France - entered into a secret military alliance against Russia. Each of the parties in the event of a military conflict with Russia undertook to field an army of 150,000 fighters. Several other states have joined this treaty. In 40 years, the leading ones will take part in the Crimean War against Russia. However, the beginning of the contradictions between Russia and the European powers began to mature precisely from the Congress of Vienna.

In the course of tense negotiations, personal meetings of the heads of state with each other by February 1815, the Congress of Vienna finally managed to agree on the main positions. The Kingdom of Poland was ceding to Russia, and the emperor expressed his intention to introduce constitutional rule there.

3. "100 days" of Napoleon

Intense negotiations were still going on when, on the night of March 6-7, a breathless courier literally broke into the imperial palace in Vienna and handed the emperor an urgent dispatch from France. She announced that Napoleon Bonaparte had left the island of Elba, landed in the South of France and was moving to Paris with an armed detachment. A few days later, reports came that the population and the army enthusiastically welcomed the former emperor and his arrival in the French capital was expected soon.

The famous "100 days" of Napoleon began. And immediately all disputes, intrigues, secret agreements at the Congress of Vienna ceased. A new terrible danger united potential rivals. England, Russia, Austria, Prussia again created another coalition against Napoleon. On the roads of Northern Europe, military columns again stretched in an endless stream, military carts rumbled.

Before entering into battle with the allies, Napoleon dealt them a severe diplomatic blow: entering the royal palace, he found among the documents of Louis XVIII and secret protocol three powers against Russia. Napoleon immediately ordered that he be delivered by courier to Vienna, hoping thereby to open the eyes of Alexander I to the treachery and hostility of his allies towards Russia. However, Alexander I again in dealing with his political partners he showed generosity. He declared that the new danger to Europe was too great to pay attention to such "trifles", and threw the text of the secret treaty into the fireplace.

After the massacre of Bonaparte, the allied troops entered Paris for the second time. The Second Peace of Paris was concluded, which not only confirmed the decision of the First Parisian world and the Congress of Vienna, but also tightened their articles relating to France. A large indemnity was imposed on her, a number of her military fortresses were occupied by the Allies for three to five years. The country's borders were further curtailed in favor of rivals. According to the decisions of this world, a Russian occupation corps also appeared in France.

4. Holy union

The war, which lasted a full 10 years in Europe, brought huge damage countries of the continent. She grinded in her millstones cities, villages, hundreds of thousands of people from Moscow to Atlantic coast, from the English Channel to the Adriatic, from Normandy to Sicily. It was a real world war of the XIX century. - the forerunner of those world wars that flared up in the world already in the 20th century. And like any total war, it, in the end, caused the horror and confusion of peoples and rulers. And now, after the victory of one side, it seemed that the world could be arranged on permanent, stable grounds, the causes of bloody European dramas could be eliminated. late XVIII- the beginning of the XX century.

The experience of world history shows that these calculations were illusory, but the same experience shows that for some time the peoples and governments, exhausted and frightened by the war, in the first post-war period are ready to develop levers for a peaceful arrangement of the life of peoples and states, to make compromises. world war first decade XIX in. It was precisely at the same time that it became the first world experience in the regulation of international relations, political stabilization on the European continent, guaranteed by all the might of the victorious powers. The Congress of Vienna, its decisions - inconsistent, contradictory, bearing the charge of future explosions - nevertheless, to a certain extent, played this role. But the monarchs were not satisfied with this. Stronger and not only forceful, but also legal and moral guarantees were needed. This is how the idea of ​​the Holy Union of European States appeared in 1815 - the first pan-European organization, the purpose of which should have been to secure the existing order of things, the inviolability of the current borders, the stability of the ruling dynasties and other state institutions with the post-war changes already accomplished and approved in different countries. In this sense, the first European war and its consequences became the forerunner not only of the bloody world wars of the 20th century, but also of the League of Nations after the First World War of 1914-1918. and then the United Nations after World War II of the 20th century. - 1939-1945

Alexander I became the initiator of this union of European states. Already at the time of growing contradictions with Napoleon, fearing a pan-European massacre and senseless death of people, the Russian emperor in 1804, sending his friend Novosiltsev to England, gave him instructions in which he outlined the idea of ​​​​concluding between peoples a general peace treaty and the creation of the League of Nations. He proposed to introduce into relations between states the norms of international law, according to which the advantages of neutrality would be determined, and the countries would undertake obligations not to start a war without first exhausting all the means provided by the mediators. In this document, he advocated a "Code of International Law".

True, Alexander was not so naive as to believe "in eternal peace" and that the European powers would immediately accept these new rules. Yet an important step towards legal regulation international relations was made. Then, however, the soldiers' boots of thousands of armies were trampled on the fields of Europe from 1805 to 1815. these good intentions. And now Alexander I returned to his idea again, but not as an enthusiastic idealist, whose ideas were then teased in London, preparing for a bloody confrontation with the aggressive French military machine, but as a sovereign, behind whom there was a victory in a great war, and he himself was at the head of a huge army in Paris and could, in order to reinforce the proposed new order of things, put 800 thousand soldiers under arms in the form of a guarantee of peace and security.

Alexander wrote the main provisions of the treaty of the Holy Alliance with his own hand. They contained the following articles: maintain ties of fraternal friendship between states, provide assistance to each other in case of destabilization international situation, govern their subjects in the spirit of brotherhood, truth and peace, consider themselves members of a single Christian community. AT international affairs states were to be guided by the gospel commandments. Characteristically, Alexander I not only limited himself to these, purely propaganda, provisions, but at further congresses of the Holy Alliance raised the question of the simultaneous reduction of the armed forces of the European powers, mutual guarantees of the inviolability of territories, the creation of an inter-allied headquarters, the adoption of the international status of persons of Jewish nationality, who were discriminated against in many European countries. And later, at the congresses of the Holy Alliance, questions of a great humanistic sound were raised. The powers unanimously united against maritime piracy and confirmed the decision of the Congress of Vienna to ban the slave trade. European rivers were declared free for navigation without any restrictions.

Thus, the ideas of the Holy Union, which really became a type international organizations already in the 20th century, were filled with the best of intentions, and Alexander I could be pleased with his brainchild. Soon, almost all the countries of Europe, except for island England, joined the Union, but England also actively participated in the work of its congresses and exerted a rather strong influence on their policy.

In essence, the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance created the so-called "Viennese system" in Europe, which, for better or worse, but existed for 40 years, protected European continent from new big wars, although the contradictions between the leading powers of Europe still existed and were quite sharp.

This became apparent immediately after the introduction of the "Viennese system" into life, and its main test was not so much the territorial claims of the powers to each other, but the growth of the revolutionary movement on the continent, which was a logical continuation of the grandiose transformations in the social life of the countries of Europe, begun by the British and continued by the Great the French Revolution. At one time, these revolutions began as a counteraction to obsolete feudal-absolutist regimes, and then developed into the leveling movement of the Levellers (in England), into the Jacobin terror, and ended with the dictatorship of Cromwell in England, Napoleon - in France and turned into at the beginning of the XIX century. in. an all-European war, the seizure of foreign territories, the destruction of the civilizational values ​​of mankind. Under these conditions, the Holy Alliance and its leader Alexander I faced a difficult task - to separate the wheat from the chaff: to support constitutional sentiments and institutions that were truly progressive from the point of view of civilization, to combine them with evolutionary development European states without bloody dramas, annihilating wars, cruel massacres. Here in this, the main issue, the members of the Holy Union looked at things differently.

Fearing the Spanish Revolution of 1820 and remembering the revolutionary horrors of her own country, France demanded immediate and decisive intervention in support of the Spanish monarchy. Alexander I, on the contrary, recognized the events in Spain as lawful and constitutional, since popular movement made its banner the constitution, parliamentarism and the Spanish king himself swore allegiance to the constitution. Now it was a question of protecting the legitimate rights of the king.

Then revolutions broke out in Italy and Portugal. In 1820 there was bloodless revolution in Naples, and King Ferdinand II was forced to promulgate a constitution on the Spanish model and agree to the convocation of Parliament. However, the successes of the southern revolutionaries inspired the northern provinces of Italy, under the rule of Austrian Habsburgs. There began a powerful social movement. The legitimate frame of Europe is cracking at the seams. Austria demanded military intervention and Russia's consent to this. But the liberal-minded Alexander I opposed these violent measures. In addition, it went into effect big politics: Russia was not at all interested in the overwhelming strengthening of Austria in Europe.

Thus, the idea of ​​the Holy Alliance as an absolutely reactionary and counter-revolutionary organization does not stand up to scrutiny. At the Congress of the Holy Alliance in Troppau in 1820, a decision was made on measures of "moral influence" of the revolutionary forces both in Spain and in southern Italy. The Russian delegation advocated political methods for resolving conflicts. Austria was eager to use military force. Other powers, most notably Prussia, supported Austria. Russia eventually had to give in. Austria sent troops to Italy. France sent its army to save the Spanish dynasty beyond the Pyrenees.

So, the good intentions of Alexander I and the organizers of the Holy Alliance were eventually crushed by selfish political interests powers. In addition, dawn new revolution under the banner of the national liberation movement, which since the 20s. 19th century rose over Europe, again inspired horror in the organizers of the "Viennese system". Again loomed the ghosts of Jacobinism, the merciless crushing of thrones. Under these conditions, even the liberals, including Alexander I, hesitated. His disappointment with the transformation of the Holy Alliance was sincere and bitter, and his indignation at the insidious actions of selfish allies was deep and painful. And yet the Russian tsar was slowly but surely moving away from his idealistic ideas about the post-war structure of Europe. Already in the early 20s. on the example of events in Spain, Italy, on the example of the uprising of his own Semenovsky regiment in the center of St. Petersburg, he understood with absolute clarity what an abyss lies between his liberal dreams, cautious constitutional steps and a storm popular revolutions or military riots. The real breath of popular freedom frightened the creator of the Holy Alliance and forced him to drift to the right.

And yet, despite the deep contradictions that tore apart the Holy Alliance from the very beginning of its existence, it largely contributed to the stabilization of the situation in Europe, introduced new humanistic ideas into European practice, did not allow Europe to slide into a new military and revolutionary extremism, although it did not turned into a strong supranational organization. Nevertheless, the European continent for 40 years after the Congress of Vienna lived in relative peace and tranquility. And a great merit in this belonged to the so-called " Vienna system and the Holy Alliance.

The Patriotic War of 1812 lasted only a few months, and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army that followed it lasted less than a year and a half, but these events greatly influenced public sentiment and forever remained in people's memory. And although historians are still debating about the goals of Napoleon's invasion, there is no doubt that Russia fought with him for survival and for the preservation of the country as such.

The position of Grosul Vladislav Yakimovich, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Chief Researcher of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, expressed in the article “Public Sentiment in Russia during the Patriotic War of 1812 and Foreign Campaigns”, published in the sixth issue of the journal “Russian History” for year 2012.

In the Russian press in the years leading up to the war, Napoleon was praised, then scolded, then praised again. The country was filled with rumors, often quite fantastic. Information about Napoleon's military preparations quite often also came from Russian intelligence, which had become much stronger at that time, specially following Napoleon's actions. As the researchers note, the Russian command spent 1811 in feverish preparations for war.

Under these conditions, Alexander I, perhaps more than ever, had to reckon with public opinion and, above all, with representatives of the conservative part of society, to which most of the generals and officers then belonged.

The resignation of Speransky caused delight in the circles of the conservative nobility and raised the authority of the tsar in his eyes.

In August 1812, Alexander I, despite his dislike for Kutuzov, was forced to give in to the general opinion. “The public wanted him to be appointed, I appointed him,” he told his Adjutant General E.F. Komarovsky. “As for me, I wash my hands.”

The king's decision was met with great enthusiasm in wide circles of society and the people. Meanwhile, among the generals, the attitude towards him was ambiguous, sharply critical of him were Prince. P.I. Bagration, M.A. Miloradovich, D.S. Dokhturov, N.N. Raevsky. As soon as the new commander-in-chief continued his retreat, murmurs began to grow in his address. It is not surprising that the decision to give a general battle at Borodino was taken by Kutuzov largely under the influence public opinion and the morale of the troops.

The battle of Borodino entered the popular consciousness as a victory. According to A.P. Yermolov, on this day "the French army was crushed against the Russian." F.N. aptly described the battle. Glinka: "The Russians resisted!". However, when Moscow was abandoned, in the army and society they began to resent both Kutuzov and the tsar himself. Literally in one day, admiration for Kutuzov was replaced by condemnation, the troops stopped shouting “hurray” at his appearance, desertion and looting became more frequent, indicating a temporary decline in the morale of the soldiers.

In Tarutino, the army was preparing to advance, but Kutuzov preferred the tactics of a "small war". Therefore, there was a certain discrepancy between the desires of the army and the actions of the commander in chief. Kutuzov found it increasingly difficult to resist the general desire to take decisive action, he had to listen to the aspirations of the troops and launch an attack on the French avant-garde on October 6. However, Kutuzov himself was irreconcilable.

The exit of the French from Moscow caused relief in Russian society. At the same time, the atrocities of the Napoleonic soldiers and especially the destruction of Moscow were painted in special proclamations.

The fact that Napoleon and part of his army were able to avoid encirclement on the Berezina caused anger in wide circles of Russian society. He fell upon Admiral Chichagov, who was accused of almost treason. He was scathingly ridiculed by I.A. Krylov and G.R. Derzhavin.

Russian troops who found themselves abroad had to establish relations with the local population. In the German lands, Russian troops were generally received well. The Germans themselves compiled and distributed leaflets calling for all kinds of assistance to the Russians, and also released many portraits of Kutuzov, whom all of Europe considered their liberator.

The Russian army was treated quite favorably in France as well. According to the young Major General gr. M.F. Orlov, who was the first to enter Paris, the Russians enjoyed greater sympathy from the population than their allies. As F.N. Glinka, "the Russians conquered the capital of France with their courage, and surprised her with generosity." For their part, officers and soldiers absorbed the public sentiments of foreign countries and took them home with them. Pride and joy of victory organically combined with fresh impressions and observations.

The mood of the army was transmitted to society and quickly spread throughout different cities and provinces, where foreign campaigns aroused the liveliest interest.

The Patriotic War of 1812 and the Foreign Campaigns of the Russian Army of 1813-1814 are undoubtedly the most significant events of the first half of XIX century, which for many years changed the political map of Europe and predetermined further development European peoples. The dominion of Napoleon, who enslaved almost all the peoples of Europe, was undermined in the autumn of 1812 during his Russian campaign, when the whole world saw with surprise how the “greatest military genius”, considered invincible, lost half a million army in six months. The victory over the conqueror, who created and destroyed states with a single movement of his hand, changed kings at his whim and decided the fate of peoples, and whom no one in Europe dared to contradict, struck the imagination of his contemporaries and excites their descendants to this day. The unparalleled courage, heroism and steadfastness shown by the Russian people in the fight against the hordes of Napoleon in 1812 are admired even 200 years later. Russian troops played a decisive role in 1813-1814. during the liberation of Europe.

Events of the war of 1812-1814. and its victorious completion had a huge impact on the development of Russian national culture. The Patriotic War of 1812, during which the patriotic feelings of the people were so clearly manifested, became a catalyst for rethinking national traditions. Russian society embraced an unprecedented patriotic upsurge - the growth of national pride and self-awareness of the Russian people was expressed in the manifestation of interest in the heroic pages national history. The development of the realistic trend in literature and fine arts and the flourishing of the Empire style in architecture and arts and crafts are also associated with the era of 1812.

The heroic self-sacrifice of all classes in 1812 and the feats shown during the war were adequately reflected in poetry, prose, music, painting, monumental and decorative art.

Conclusion

After the liberation of their homeland, the Russian army moved beyond its borders for the final overthrow of Napoleon's rule in Europe. Russian troops carried the liberation of the European peoples from the Napoleonic yoke. Moving through the territory of Germany, the Russian army everywhere met with an enthusiastic reception from the population. According to one of the participants in the campaign, "the name of the Russian became the name of the defender, the savior of Europe."

In October 1814, the Congress of European Powers opened in Vienna. Theoretically, everyone recognized the need to implement the principle of legitimism (legality), which was supposed to be expressed in the restoration of "legitimate" feudal dynasties and pre-revolutionary borders of states.

After Napoleon's second exile, the participants in the Congress of Vienna quickly completed their work, redrawing the map of Europe at their own discretion, contrary to the wishes of the peoples of certain countries, sometimes contrary to common sense. England received the island of Malta and the Ionian Islands. She also captured the Dutch colonies of Ceylon and Guiana. In compensation for the damage caused to Holland, Belgium was annexed to it. Prussia got a significant part of Saxony, Russia - the Duchy of Warsaw. Austria - lands in northern Italy - Venice and Lombardy. Sweden annexed Norway.

In order to preserve the absolutist-feudal order in Europe, the international balance established by the Congress of Vienna, and the fight against revolutionary movement in 1815, on the initiative of Alexander I, the so-called "Holy Union" was created. At his congresses in Aachen (1818), in Troppau and Laibach (1820 - 1821) and in Verona (1822), measures to suppress revolutions in Spain, Naples, Piedmont and Greece were discussed.

On January 1813, a 100,000-strong Russian army entered Europe to liberate its peoples from French domination. In the summer of 1813, an anti-Napoleonic coalition (Russia, Prussia, England, Austria and Sweden) was created, designed to defeat the enemy and restore the status quo in Europe. The first battle of the allies with the 440,000th army of Bonaparte near Dresden ended in failure. However, in the "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig in October 1813, the Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops managed to win. In January 1814, they entered the borders of France, in March Napoleon abdicated, and in May 1814 a peace treaty was signed, according to which France returned to the borders of 1792, and Louis XVIII of Bourbon, who returned from emigration, became its king .

The Vienna agreements were supplemented by the proclamation of the so-called Holy Alliance.

“... The Russian army, which consisted of half of the serf recruits,” wrote the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, - went from Moscow to Paris to help Europe get rid of the conqueror. Around the bivouac fires on the fields of Leipzig and on the heights of Montmartre, Russian officers, comparing these events, thought about the distant fatherland, about its new meaning for humanity, about national identity, about the hidden forces of their people, who were not allowed to unfold in the open before humanity. At home, these thoughts met with a lively response. Meanwhile, the course of the same world events put Russian politics on guard of the newly restored lawful order in Europe. The protective principles of the Holy Alliance that she adopted, while not conducive to national-political movements abroad, did little to actively continue the reform initiatives at home, and patriotic excitement, as it was then expressed, did not strengthen this disposition.

1. Gorsul V.Ya. Public moods in Russia during the Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns // Russian history. - 2012. - No. 6. - S. 117.

Zaichkin I.A. Russian history. - M.: Thought, 2004. - 768 p.

3.History of Russia: textbook. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2012. - 687 p.

4.History of Russia from the beginning of the nineteenth to early XXI century. T. 2. / Ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M.: Astrel, 2009. - 863 p.

5. Domestic history of the nineteenth century: textbook. allowance. - M.: AGAR, 2010. - 520 p.

6. Domestic history of the nineteenth century: textbook. allowance. - M.: AGAR, 2012. - 520 p.

7. Pavlenko N.I. Russian history. - M.: Abris, 2012. - 660 p.

8.Soboleva I. Defeat Napoleon. Patriotic War of 1812. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012. - 560 p.