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Spiritual-knightly or, as they are sometimes called, military-monastic orders appeared immediately after the start of the Crusades. Their appearance is as unusual and mysterious as the Crusades themselves. If we take into account the huge role that they played in the struggle for the Holy Land, as well as their subsequent how glorious, just as tragic fate, then we can say with confidence that we are now touching on one of the most interesting and mysterious topics in the history of medieval Europe. .

If in the Middle Ages chivalry was indeed perceived as a path to Salvation, then, probably, in no other chivalric institution this idea was expressed as clearly as in this one. A knight who made three monastic vows became a member of the spiritual and chivalric order: non-possession, obedience and chastity. Entering the order, the knights often made rich contributions to it. They were forbidden to have wives, and they also had to obey strict military discipline. All this together really turned the life of the members of the order brotherhood into a real, severe feat.

However, in addition to the spiritual and knightly orders in the history of chivalry, there were other formations of the order type. In general, knightly orders can be divided into three categories:

1. spiritual and knightly orders, which operated for the most part during the Crusades, the most important of them are the Order of the Knights Templar, the Order of the Hospitallers of St. John, the Teutonic Order, etc .;

2. honorary knightly orders, which were of a completely secular nature and had the goal of rewarding personal merits, and not any special activity, the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Golden Fleece and others;

3. fictitious and legendary orders of chivalry known only in literature, for example, the order of King Arthur, known as the Brotherhood of the Knights of the Round Table.

The history of honorary secular orders is an important part of chivalric culture. Their heyday falls on the XIV-XV centuries, when the process of general secularization began to gain momentum in Europe. If the spiritual and knightly orders were subordinate to the Pope, then the honorary orders were usually headed by a king or duke and served as an instrument for strengthening their personal power as opposed to the power of the pope. Secular orders are a very interesting topic, directly related to the history of chivalry, but its consideration is already beyond the scope of the Apologia.

After the first Crusade, when the crusaders managed to recapture Antioch and Jerusalem, there was a need for constant protection of the new Latin states formed in the East from the Arabs and Turks. To this goal - the defense of the Holy Land - two orders of chivalry devoted themselves: the Order of the Knights Templar and the Order of the Hospitallers. Below is a brief history of these two orders, as well as the history of the Teutonic Order - as the third most powerful and famous knightly order, the history of which affects, in particular, the history of Ancient Russia.

Order of the Knights Templar. It was founded in 1119 to protect pilgrims traveling in Palestine, but a few years later the order begins military operations in Palestine against Muslims. The headquarters of the order is located in Jerusalem, near the former Temple of Solomon. Hence the name of the order - the Templars, or Templars. (le temple, fr. - temple). In 1129 the order was recognized at a church council in Troyes. Pope Honorius II approves the charter of the order. The active military activity of the order begins, both in Palestine and in other theaters of military operations, for example, in Spain since 1143. The order receives help from various European countries, has numerous branches in Europe, owns lands, and conducts financial transactions. In 1307, by order of the French king Philip IV the Handsome, all the Knights Templar were arrested in France in one night. After the trial of the Templars in 1312, the order was liquidated by decree of Pope Clement V. In 1314, the last Grand Master of the Order, Jacques de Molay, was burned at the stake in Paris.

Order of the St. John the Hospitallers. The Brotherhood of John was founded even before the First Crusade at the hospital of St. John the Merciful in Jerusalem, hence the name of the order. The purpose of the brotherhood was to help the poor and sick pilgrims. It has a wide network of shelters and hospitals, both in the East and in Europe. After the First Crusade, it also assumes the functions of the military defense of the Latin states from the "infidels". The headquarters is located in Jerusalem. After the loss of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Crusaders from Palestine, the Hospitallers establish their headquarters on Fr. Rhodes from 1311

In 1522 the Turks besiege and capture about. Rhodes. Hospitallers leave Fr. Rhodes. In 1530 the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V, grants Fr. Malta near Sicily. The order receives a new name - the Order of Malta. The Hospitallers are building a powerful fleet and are actively involved in naval operations against the Turks in the Mediterranean.

In 1792 in France, during the revolution, the property of the order was confiscated. In 1798, French troops led by Napoleon Bonaparte captured Malta and expelled the Hospitallers from there. The Order of Malta is taken under patronage by Paul I, who establishes the Maltese Cross - the highest award of the Russian Empire. After the death of Paul I in 1801, the order was deprived of patronage in Russia, and from 1834 it acquired a permanent residence in Rome. Currently, members of the order are engaged in providing medical and other assistance to the sick and wounded.

Warband. He grew up from a brotherhood at a German hospital. The founding date of the order is considered to be 1199. In 1225, the Teutonic Order was invited to Prussia, where its headquarters were transferred. From 1229, the order begins the conquest of Prussia, and since then this task has become the main one in its activities.

Reception of knights is carried out mainly only from German lands. In 1237, the Teutonic Order united with the Order of the Sword, after which the conquest of Livonia also began. In 1242, the order was defeated on Lake Peipsi by Alexander Nevsky. In 1245, the order receives permission to conduct a "continuous" Crusade in Prussia. In 1309, the order moved its headquarters to Prussia in the city of Marienburg. In 1410, the troops of the Teutonic Order are defeated in the Battle of Grunwald by the combined forces of Poles, Lithuanians, Czechs and Russians. In 1466, at the conclusion of the Peace of Torun, the Teutonic Order recognizes itself as a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland.

Thus, in the XI - XIII centuries. The Catholic Church acted as the organizer of the Crusades, the purpose of which she announced the liberation from the Muslims of Palestine and the "Holy Sepulcher", which, according to legend, was in Jerusalem. The true purpose of the campaigns was to seize land and plunder the eastern countries, the wealth of which was much talked about in Europe at that time.

As a result of military campaigns in the armies of the crusaders, with the blessing of the Pope, special monastic-knightly organizations were created - spiritual-knightly orders. Entering the order, the knight remained a warrior, but took the usual vow of monasticism: he could not have a family. From that time on, he implicitly obeyed the head of the order - the grandmaster, or grand master. The orders were directly subordinate to the pope, and not to the rulers on whose lands their possessions were located.

Having seized vast territories in the East, the orders launched wide-ranging activities in the "holy land". The knights enslaved the peasants, both local and those who came with them from Europe. Robbing cities and villages, engaging in usury, exploiting the local population, the orders accumulated huge wealth. The looted gold was used to buy large estates in Europe. Gradually, the orders turned into the richest corporations. Soon the order of the Knights Templar became the richest order.

Going on a crusade, large feudal lords and knights often mortgaged their lands and other property in the European offices of the order. Fearing robbery on the way, they took only a receipt in order to receive money upon arrival in Jerusalem. So the Templars became not only usurers, but also the organizers of banking. And it brought them enormous wealth: after all, many crusaders died on the way, not having time to reach Jerusalem ...

Aspects of the detailed history of the creation of spiritual knightly orders and their role in the history of medieval Europe will be covered in more detail and considered in the second chapter of our graduation project.

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In the XI - XIII centuries. The Catholic Church acted as the organizer of the crusades, the purpose of which she announced the liberation from the Muslims of Palestine and the "Holy Sepulcher", which, according to legend, was in Jerusalem. The true purpose of the campaigns was to seize land and plunder the eastern countries, the wealth of which was much talked about in Europe at that time.

In the crusader armies, with the blessing of the Pope, special monastic-knightly organizations were created: they were called spiritual-knightly orders. Entering the order, the knight remained a warrior, but took the usual vow of monasticism: he could not have a family. From that time on, he implicitly obeyed the head of the order, the grandmaster, or grand master.

The orders were directly subordinate to the pope, and not to the rulers on whose lands their possessions were located. Having seized vast territories in the East, the orders launched wide-ranging activities in the "holy land".

The knights enslaved the peasants, both local and those who came with them from Europe. Robbing cities and villages, engaging in usury, exploiting the local population, the orders accumulated huge wealth. The looted gold was used to buy large estates in Europe. Gradually, the orders turned into the richest corporations.

The first was founded in 1119 by the order of the Templars (templars). Initially, it was located not far from the place where, according to legend, the Temple of Jerusalem stood. Soon he became the richest.

Going on a crusade, large feudal lords and knights often mortgaged their lands and other property in the European offices of the order. Fearing robbery on the way, they took only a receipt in order to receive money upon arrival in Jerusalem. So the Templars became not only usurers, but also the organizers of banking. And it brought them great wealth: after all, many crusaders died on the way, not having time to get to Jerusalem ...

The second was the Order of the Hospitallers-St. John. It got its name from the hospital of St. John, who helped sick pilgrims. At the end of the XXI century. the third order of the Teutonic order was formed. Later he moved to the shores of the Baltic Sea, where in 1237 he united with the Order of the Sword. The united Order of the Swordsmen brutally exterminated and plundered the local Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian tribes. He tried to seize Russian lands in the 13th century, but Prince Alexander Nevsky defeated the knightly army on the ice of Lake Peipsi on April 5, 1242.

In the XI - XII centuries. Three orders arose in Spain. They were created by the knights in connection with the reconquista - the struggle aimed at expelling the Arabs from Spain.

In the XIV - XV centuries. European kings, creating centralized states, subjugated the spiritual and knightly orders. So, the French king Philip IV the Handsome severely cracked down on the richest of them - the Knights Templar. In 1307 the Templars were accused of heresy. Many of them were burned at the stake, the property of the order was confiscated, adding to the royal treasury. But some orders have survived to this day. For example, in Rome there is still an order of St. John - this is a reactionary clerical (church) institution.

CHILDREN'S CRUSSES

In the summer of 1212, along the roads of France and Greece, boys from 12 years old and older, dressed in summer clothes, were moving in small groups and whole crowds: in simple linen shirts over short trousers, almost all barefoot and with uncovered heads. Each had a red, even and green cloth cross sewn on the front of his shirt. They were young crusaders. Colorful flags waved over the processions; on some there was an image of Jesus Christ, on others - the virgin with a baby. With sonorous voices, the crusaders sang religious hymns praising God. Where and for what purpose were all these crowds of children sent?

For the first time at the very beginning of the XI century. Pope Urban II called on Western Europe to crusade. This happened in the late autumn of 1095, shortly after the gathering (congress) of churchmen ended in the city of Clermont (in France). The Pope addressed the crowds of knights, peasants, townspeople. monks gathered on the plain near the city, with a call to start a holy war against the Muslims. Tens of thousands of knights and rural poor from France, and later from some other countries of Western Europe, responded to the call of the pope.

All of them in 1096 went to Palestine to fight against the Seljuk Turks, who shortly before that captured the city of Jerusalem, which was considered sacred by Christians. According to legend, there supposedly was the tomb of Jesus Christ, the mythical founder of the Christian religion. The liberation of this shrine served as a pretext for the crusades. The crusaders attached crosses made of cloth to their clothes as a sign that they were going to war with a religious goal - to expel the Gentiles (Muslims) from Jerusalem and other places sacred to Christians in Palestine.

In fact, the goals of the crusaders were not only religious. By the 11th century land in Western Europe was divided between secular and church feudal lords. According to custom, only his eldest son could inherit the land of a lord. As a result, a numerous layer of feudal lords who did not have land was formed. They wanted to get it by any means. The Catholic Church, not without reason, feared that these knights would not encroach on her vast possessions. In addition, the clergy, led by the Pope, sought to extend their influence to new territories and profit from them. Rumors about the riches of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, which were spread by pilgrims (pilgrims) who visited Palestine, aroused the greed of the knights. The popes took advantage of this, throwing the cry “To the East! ". In the plans of the crusader knights, the liberation of the “Holy Sepulcher” was of secondary importance: the feudal lords sought to seize overseas lands, cities, and wealth.

At first, the peasant poor also participated in the crusades, suffering severely from the oppression of the feudal lords, crop failures and famine. Dark, needy farmers, mostly serfs, listening to the sermons of churchmen, believed that all the disasters that they experience were sent down by God for some unknown sins. Priests and monks assured that if the Crusaders managed to win back the “Holy Sepulcher” from the Muslims, then the almighty God would take pity on the poor and ease their lot. The church promised the crusaders forgiveness of sins, and in case of death - a right place in paradise.

Already during the first crusade, tens of thousands of poor people died, and only a few of them made it to Jerusalem with strong knightly militias. When in 1099 the crusaders captured this city and other coastal cities of Syria and Palestine, all the wealth went only to large feudal lords and chivalry. Having seized the fertile lands and flourishing trading cities of the “Holy Land”, as the Europeans then called Palestine, the “Christ warriors” founded their states.

The alien peasants received almost nothing, and therefore, in the future, fewer and fewer peasants participated in the crusades.

In the XII century. the knights had to equip themselves for war under the sign of the cross many times in order to hold the occupied territories.

However, all these crusades failed. When at the beginning of the XIII century. French, Italian and German knights girded themselves with a sword for the fourth time at the call of Pope Innocent III, they did not go against the Muslims, but attacked the Christian state of Byzantium. In April 1204, the knights captured its capital Constantinople and sacked it, showing what all the pompous phrases about saving the "Holy Sepulcher" were worth. Eight years after this shameful event, the Children's Crusades took place. Medieval monk-chroniclers talk about them like this. In May 1212, the twelve-year-old shepherd boy Etienne came to the abbey of St. Dionysius, in Paris, from nowhere. He announced that he had been sent by God himself to lead the campaign of children against the "infidels" in the "Holy Land". Then this little boy went to the villages and cities. In the squares, at the crossroads, in all crowded places, he delivered passionate speeches to crowds of people, urging his peers to get ready on the road to the “Holy Sepulcher”. He said: “Adult crusaders are bad people, greedy and greedy sinners. No matter how much they fight for Jerusalem, nothing comes out of them: the almighty God does not want to give sinners victory over the infidels. Only pure children can receive the grace of God. Without any weapons, they will be able to free Jerusalem from the power of the Sultan. By the command of God, the Mediterranean Sea will part before them, and they will cross the dry bottom, like the biblical hero Moses, and take away the "holy tomb" from the infidels.

“Jesus himself came to me in a dream and revealed that the children would deliver Jerusalem from the yoke of the Gentiles,” said the shepherd boy. For greater persuasiveness, he raised some kind of letter above his head. “Here is a letter,” Etienne argued, “that the savior gave me, instructing me to lead you on an overseas campaign for the glory of God.” Immediately, right in front of numerous listeners, chronicles (chronicles) tell, Etienne performed various “miracles”: he seemed to restore sight to the blind and heal the crippled from ailments with one touch of his hands.

Etienne gained wide popularity in France. At his call, crowds of boys moved to the city of Vendôme, which became the rallying point for the young crusaders.

The naive stories of the chroniclers do not explain where such an amazing religious zeal came from among the children. Meanwhile, the reasons were the same that prompted the poor peasants to be the first to move to the East. And although the movement of the crusaders in the XIII century. It was already discredited by predatory "exploits" and major failures of the knights and was on the wane, yet the people's belief that God would be more merciful if the holy city of Jerusalem could be recaptured was not completely extinguished. This faith was strongly supported by the ministers of the church. Priests and monks sought to extinguish the growing discontent of the serfs against the masters with the help of "charitable deeds" - the crusades.

Behind the holy fool (mentally ill) shepherd Etienne were clever churchmen. It was not difficult for them to train him to create pre-prepared "miracles". Crusader "fever" seized tens of thousands of poor children, first in France and then in Germany. The fate of the young crusaders was very deplorable. 30 thousand children followed the shepherd Etienne.

They went through Tours, Lyons and other cities, feeding on alms. Pope Innocent III, the instigator of many bloody wars undertaken under a religious banner, did nothing to stop this insane campaign. On the contrary, he declared: "These children serve as a reproach to us adults: while we sleep, they joyfully stand up for the Holy Land."

A lot of adults joined the children on the way - peasants, poor artisans, priests and monks, as well as thieves and other criminal rabble. Often, these robbers took food and money from children, which were given to them by the surrounding residents. The crowd of crusaders, like a rolling avalanche, increased along the way.

Finally, they reached Marseille. Here everyone immediately rushed to the pier, expecting a miracle: but, of course, the sea did not part before them. But there were two greedy merchants who offered to transport the crusaders across the sea without any payment, for the sake of the success of the "God's cause." The children were loaded onto seven large ships. Off the coast of Sardinia, near the island of St. Perth, the ships were caught in a storm. Two ships, along with all the passengers, went down, and the remaining five were delivered by shipbuilders to the harbors of Egypt, where the inhuman shipowners sold the children into slavery.

At the same time, 20 thousand German children set off on a crusade with French children. They were fascinated by a 10-year-old boy named Nikolai, taught by his father to say the same thing as Etienne. Crowds of young German crusaders from Cologne moved south along the Rhine. With difficulty, the children crossed the Alps: from hunger, thirst, fatigue and disease, two-thirds of the children died; the rest of the half-dead reached the Italian city of Genoa. The ruler of the city, deciding that the arrival of so many children was nothing but the intrigues of the enemies of the republic, ordered the crusaders to immediately get out. The exhausted children moved on. Only a small part of them reached the city of Brindisi. The sight of ragged and hungry children was so pathetic that the local authorities opposed the continuation of the campaign. The young crusaders had to return home. Most of them died of starvation on the way back. According to eyewitnesses, the corpses of children lay uncleaned on the roads for many weeks. The surviving crusaders turned to the pope with a request to release them from the vow of the crusade. But the pope agreed to give them a respite only for a while until they reach adulthood.

Spiritual and knightly orders

As we have already said, even before the start of the Crusades, on the roads of Europe and the East leading to Jerusalem, one could see shelters for pilgrims. In the middle of the XI century. one of the inhabitants of the Italian city of Amalfi founded at the very end of the journey - in Jerusalem - another shelter: a hospital for sick pilgrims, and named it in honor of St. John the Merciful, Patriarch of Alexandria, who lived in the 7th century. It was this hospital that was destined to give rise to a phenomenon that became almost the hallmark of the European Middle Ages - knightly orders. The oldest of them, known to us by the unofficial nickname "Hospitallers", was called in the documents: "The Order of the Knights of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem."

The monks who served in the hospital were not always able to lead the righteous life of meek brothers. The periodically arising need to protect the sick and the property of the hospital often forced the monks to take up arms. According to some reports, they even struck at the rear of the defenders of Jerusalem during its siege by the crusaders in 1099. After the capture of Jerusalem, the number of such shelters increased, the staff of these institutions, which declared themselves a monastic order, formed almost exclusively from the crusader knights who had taken tonsure, became more and more militant .

Under Raymond du Puy, the first Grand Master, the order becomes knightly. In 1113, Pope Paschal II approved the charter of the order, obliging the monks to fight for the Holy Sepulcher. The Hospitallers, or Joannites, as they were often called by the name of the hospital, were distinguished by a red cloak with a white cross, which we now call the "Maltese". The fact is that after the Europeans were ousted from Palestine, in 1309 the Johnites settled on the island of Rhodes, and from 1522 they moved to Malta, where they exist perfectly to this day.

A similar story happened with another knightly order - "Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon", better known as the "Templars".

At the beginning of the XII century. the poor French nobleman Hugh de Paynes, in the company of eight of his relatives, just like him, who went on a crusade, established an order to protect pilgrims, which they called "Poor Knights". The French crusaders were so poor that they even had to travel together on the same horse (and this image became one of the symbols of the Templars). Most likely, no one would have ever heard about this religious initiative, but Hugh de Paynes and another of the "founding fathers" of the order, Godefroy de Saint-Omer, turned out to be excellent organizers. The popularity of the "Poor Knights" grew all the time, the order was replenished with more and more new members, and in 1128 it was officially recognized at the cathedral in Troyes. Its charter was commissioned to be written by the famous religious figure of that time, St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the founder of the monastic order of the Bernardines. The difference between the Templars was a white cloak with a red cross.

Here is what Archbishop Wilhelm of Tyre, the former Chancellor of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and a major medieval historian, wrote about the creation of the Knights Templar:

“Several noble knights, people of true faith and God-fearing, expressed a desire to live in strictness and obedience, forever abandon their possessions, and, betraying themselves into the hands of the supreme ruler of the church, become members of the monastic order. Among them, the first and most famous were Hugh de Paynes and Godefroy de Saint-Omer. Since the brotherhood did not yet have its own temple or home, the king provided them with temporary shelter in his palace, built on the southern slope of the Temple Mount. The canons of the temple that stood there, under certain conditions, ceded part of the walled courtyard to the needs of the new order. Moreover, King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, his entourage and the patriarch with their prelates immediately provided support to the order by allocating to it some of their land holdings - some for life, others for temporary use - thanks to which members of the order could receive a livelihood. First of all, they were prescribed, in atonement for their sins and under the guidance of the patriarch, “to protect and protect the pilgrims going to Jerusalem from the attacks of thieves and bandits and to take every possible care of their safety.”

Later, at the end of the 12th century, a third order, the Teutonic Order, arose. It appeared in 1190-1191. and, as the name implies, was replenished almost exclusively by immigrants from German lands. The Teutonic Order grew out of the hospital fraternity of the Holy Virgin Mary during the Third Crusade, its members were distinguished by white cloaks with a black cross.

The principles by which the orders lived connected seemingly incompatible roles - a monk and a knight, the humility of the former was surprisingly combined with the militancy of the latter. However, surprisingly, this strange hybrid not only survived, but also turned out to be one of the most successful social inventions of the time. The orders rapidly increased in numbers, and their influence both in the conquered territories and in the Christian world as such grew explosively.

The fact is that the main problem of the crusaders has always been the inconsistency of actions and the lack of a unified command. Therefore, the knightly orders, with their strict hierarchy and impeccable discipline, quickly became the most combat-ready military units of that time, taking an active part in almost all the battles of the Crusades era. In fact, it was they who made up the standing army of the crusaders, whose ranks were replenished by knights arriving from Europe. It was they who were usually entrusted with the protection of fortresses, the maintenance and expansion of which was too heavy a financial burden for both the lords and the monarchy. From the point of view of maintaining constant combat readiness, the orders were an important military trump card. But from a political point of view, the increase in the number of their members was a disaster for the newly formed Latin states, since the orders were an independent military party, the interests of which did not always coincide with the interests of the kingdoms and duchies.

The activities of orders that were not accountable to local authorities were controlled directly by the pope. The orders were headed by the Grand Masters. The whole system was built on the principles of rigid hierarchy and strict discipline. The statutes of the orders were extremely severe. Knights took monastic vows of chastity, poverty and obedience. According to the charter of the Teutons, for example, written on the basis of the charters of the hospitallers and templars, the brothers had to pray at least five hours a day, fast 120 days a year, knightly entertainment (tournaments, hunting) was prohibited. Severe punishments followed for violations of the rules of conduct (for striking a layman, breaking a fast, divulging the secrets of the order, and the like).

Spiritual and chivalric orders had their own fortresses, lands, possessed huge wealth, which made them a significant political force. The fact is that the orders were engaged not only in war, but also pursued an active economic policy.

The Templars, for example, were allowed to engage in financial transactions by special decree of the pope, and soon banking became one of the main occupations in the order. It was the Templars who invented checks, and there was no longer any need to carry the gold coveted by everyone on a dangerous journey. It was enough to deposit the required amount at the nearest templar preceptory, take the same check in return - a small piece of parchment with a fingerprint, and then, having reached the right place, receive your money there with a very small deduction. Due to the fact that the network of commanderies covered almost all of Europe and the Middle East (in the 13th century there were more than five thousand of them, together with dependent castles and monasteries), there were plenty of people who wanted to use these services.

Is it any wonder that over time the Templars became Europe's biggest creditors? According to many historians, it was the wealth of the order and the exorbitant debts of the French crown (and not only it) that became the main reason for the defeat and dissolution of the Order of the Temple at the beginning of the 14th century.

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