We are talking about a discovery that changed the fate of world paleoanthropology. In 1856, in the little-known German town of Neanderthal, bones were discovered that first served to describe a fossil human species. The difficult history of the recognition of Neanderthals by the scientific community is in our material.
Johann Karl Fulroth
https://de.wikipedia.org/
Johann Karl Fulroth was one of those discoverers who, misunderstood by his contemporaries, never lived to see the day of his triumph. Fate treated this German scientist especially unfairly: the dramatic story of his discovery, which made a huge contribution to the development of anthropology, did not receive sufficient publicity. But it was Johann Karl Fulroth who discovered Neanderthals for science.
Ironically, the man whose discovery eloquently rejected the theory of the immutability of species began precisely as a theologian. Fulroth was born on December 31, 1803, and after the death of his parents, at the age of 10, he was brought up by his uncle, a Catholic priest, which probably forced the future discoverer to receive a church education. But, obviously, young Fulroth did not have any passion for theology, because already at the age of 25 he demonstrated to the public his interest in the natural sciences by publishing a work on plant systematics. As a rule, in articles on Neanderthals, it is said that Fulroth was a teacher, which is true, but not entirely complete. It should also be noted that he took an active part in research, publishing more than 60 papers in various fields of natural sciences: zoology, botany, meteorology, but, above all, geology and paleontology. In addition, Fulroth created various scientific communities, and all this together made him a fairly well-known figure in that part of Germany, where in August 1856 workers discovered the bones of a Neanderthal. Therefore, the fact that they decided to give the bones at the disposal of Fulroth was quite natural. The most interesting thing is the wording with which the naturalist was invited to Neanderthal: the workers said that they had discovered the bones of a cave bear. At first, of course, they assumed that they had human remains in front of them, but the unwillingness to take on the sin of desecrating the grave and the visible oddities of the skull turned the human skeleton into a bear. As you can see, even people who are far from science noticed that the remains found do not belong to an ordinary person.
But scientists were not in a hurry to admit it. To understand why, you need to remember the historical context of the discovery.
Skeleton Neanderthal 1
The year 1856 stands in the yard. Three years remain before the publication of Darwin's famous work on the origin of species, and even more before its recognition. In scientific circles, the theological theory of the immutability of species reigns, which clearly does not imply the existence of any other species of man. All this was perfectly understood by Fulroth, who, having examined the bones, came to the conclusion that in front of him was not just a different kind of person, but a different kind of person who lived around the time of mammoths. The vast majority of scientists were clearly not ready for such a turn, but Fulroth was in no hurry to shock them. He collected all the available bones, interviewed the workers in detail and began to test his theory: yes, the remains are clearly human (this was confirmed by a doctor friend), but they differ from the skeleton of modern people: curved femurs, a powerful brow, a flat, sloping forehead ... Meanwhile , newspapers managed to trumpet the news throughout Europe, and Fulroth had to provide a report. He was lucky: the theory of the immutability of species began to lose ground even before Darwin, so he was able to find a colleague in the face of a professional anthropologist, Hermann Schaffhausen. Later they were joined by the English Charles Lyell, Thomas Huxley and William King (who coined the scientific name for the Neanderthal) and the German Carl Fogg. They began to publish articles that spoke directly about the status of the discovery and its age, providing strong evidence. Their opponents, who have so far been taken by number, gave very strange versions in response. So, the anatomist Mayer believed that the bones found belonged to ““ a Mongoloid Russian Cossack, who in 1814 during the war with Napoleon was wounded, crawled into a cave and died.”
The twisted femur allegedly indicates an equestrian warrior, the skullcap - a Mongol.
This version impressed Fulroth and his comrades so much that they asked Mayer if he was joking. But the Bonn anatomist was too ardent a fan of the theory of the immutability of species, so he was not joking. Another adherent of the same views, Professor Rudolf Wagner, believed that the bones belonged to the old Dutchman. The Englishman Blake said that the remains belonged to a mentally retarded person who suffered from dropsy. And this is only part of the theories proposed by scientists to replace Fulroth's explanation. But none of them, of course, had serious evidence. Even the well-known Berlin surgeon and anthropologist Rudolf Virchow put forward the unviable hypothesis that the bones belong to an old disabled man who once suffered from rickets, then arthritis, and, in the meantime, received a head injury. Later, however, he softened a little and took a more neutral position.
Skull Neanderthal 1
An interesting fact is that Darwin in his work did not use the message about the discovery in Neanderthal, although his supporters were the same people as the supporters of Fulroth. The German paleontologist did not live long before recognition: in 1866, similar finds began to appear in other places (moreover, bones of fossil animals were also found next to the remains, which made it possible to speak about their age for sure). But the decisive argument was the remains discovered in Belgium in 1886. These were whole skeletons, the analysis of which quite unequivocally spoke of the independence of Neanderthals as a biological species. The stone tools and bones of ancient mammals found nearby also definitely indicated a significant age of the finds. In 1891, the German anatomist Gustav Schwalbe put an end to years of controversy by publishing The Neanderthal Skull, which contained his (later classic) descriptions of Neanderthals. Their authenticity and solid age have been proven worldwide almost half a century after their discovery. Johann Karl Fulroth could have turned 88 in 1891, but he did not live to see his triumph for 14 years.
Julia Popova
The time of existence is 130 thousand years ago. - 28 thousand years ago
Neanderthal man (lat. Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; in Soviet literature it was also called a paleoanthrope).
A variant of a human specialized for predation. They possessed many completely human features of structure and behavior, but still differed markedly from us - including the significant massiveness of the skeleton and skull. Probably, many features of the Neanderthals of Europe were formed under the influence of the most difficult conditions of the ice age about 70-60 thousand years ago. Interestingly, in some representatives of Homo neanderthalensis, the brain volume exceeded the values typical for modern humans.
Homo neanderthalensis. The reconstruction was made by Oleg Osipov especially for ANTROPOGENES.RU
Neanderthal bones were historically the first hominid fossils to be discovered (the first Neanderthal remains were found in 1829, although the significance of this find was appreciated much later ...). To date, Neanderthals are the most thoroughly studied species of fossil humans. The history of the study of Neanderthals can be found here.
The term "Neanderthal" has not well-defined boundaries. Due to the vastness and heterogeneity of this group of hominids, a number of terms are also used: "atypical Neanderthals" for early Neanderthals (period 130-70 ka), "classical Neanderthals" (for European forms of the period 70-40 ka .), "survival Neanderthals" (existed later than 45 ka), etc.
Homo neanderthalensis.
Neanderthal
Girl. The reconstruction was made by Oleg Osipov especially for ANTROPOGENES.RU
There are also many hypotheses about the causes of the extinction of the Neanderthals (here, for example, one of the latest versions).
According to the latest data, Neanderthals could interbreed with modern humans, and modern non-African populations of Homo sapiens have approximately 2.5% of Neanderthal genes.
3D model of a Neanderthal skull. Made by 3D-project of Sergey Krivoplyasov
especially for ANTROPOGENES.RU
See also:
Neanderthal(lat. Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species from the genus People (lat. Homo). The first people with the features of Neanderthals (proto-Neanderthals) appeared in Europe about 600 thousand years ago. Classical Neanderthals formed about 100-130 thousand years ago. The latest remains date back to 28-33 thousand years ago.
Opening
For the first time, the remains of H. neanderthalensis were discovered in 1829 by Philippe-Charles Schmerling in the caves of Enzhi (modern Belgium), it was the skull of a child. In 1848, the skull of an adult Neanderthal was found in Gibraltar (Gibraltar 1). Naturally, neither find at that time was considered as evidence of the existence of an extinct species of people, and they were classified as the remains of Neanderthals much later.
The type specimen (holotype) of the species (Neanderthal 1) was found only in August 1856 in a limestone quarry in the Neandertal valley near Düsseldorf (North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). It consists of a cranial vault, two femurs, three bones from the right hand and two from the left, part of the pelvis, fragments of the scapula and ribs. The local gymnasium teacher Johann Karl Fulroth was interested in geology and paleontology. Having received the remains from the workers who found them, he drew attention to their complete fossilization and geological position, and came to the conclusion about their considerable age and important scientific significance. Fulroth then handed them over to professor of anatomy at the University of Bonn, Hermann Schaaffhausen. In June 1857, the discovery was announced, this happened 2 years before the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In 1864, at the suggestion of the Anglo-Irish geologist William King, a new species was named after the place of its discovery. In 1867, Ernst Haeckel proposed the name Homo stupidus (i.e., the man is stupid), but in accordance with the nomenclature rules, King's name remained the priority.
In 1880, the jaw of a child of H. neanderthalensis was found in the Czech Republic, along with tools from the Mousterian period and bones of extinct animals. In 1886, excellently preserved skeletons of a man and a woman were found in Belgium at a depth of about 5 m, also along with numerous Mousterian tools. Subsequently, the remains of Neanderthals were found in other places on the territory of modern Russia, Croatia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Iran, Uzbekistan, Israel and other countries. To date, the remains of more than 400 Neanderthals have been found.
The status of the Neanderthal as a previously unknown variety of ancient man was not established immediately. Many prominent scientists of that time did not recognize him as such. Thus, the outstanding German scientist Rudolf Virchow rejected the thesis of a “primitive man” and considered the Neanderthal skull to be just a pathologically altered skull of modern man. And the doctor and anatomist Franz Mayer, having studied the structure of the pelvis and lower limbs, put forward a hypothesis that the remains belonged to a person who spent a significant part of his life on horseback. He suggested that it could be a Russian Cossack from the era of the Napoleonic wars.
Classification
Almost since the discovery, scientists have been debating the status of Neanderthals. Some of them are of the opinion that the Neanderthal is not an independent species, but only a subspecies of modern man (lat. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). This is largely due to the lack of a clear definition of the species. One of the hallmarks of the species is reproductive isolation, and genetic studies suggest that Neanderthals and modern humans interbred. On the one hand, this supports the point of view about the status of Neanderthals as a subspecies of modern man. But on the other hand, there are documented examples of interspecific crossing, as a result of which fertile offspring appeared, so this feature cannot be considered decisive. At the same time, DNA and morphological studies show that Neanderthals are still an independent species.
Origin
Comparison of the DNA of modern humans and H. neanderthalensis shows that they descended from a common ancestor, having split around, according to various estimates, from 350-400 to 500 and even 800 thousand years ago.
Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis)
The probable ancestor of both these species is the Heidelberg man. Moreover, Neanderthals originated from the European population of H. heidelbergensis, and modern man - from the African and much later.
Anatomy and morphology
Men of this species had an average height of 164-168 cm, weight about 78 kg, women - 152-156 cm and 66 kg, respectively. The brain volume is 1500-1900 cm3, which exceeds the average brain volume of a modern person.
The vault of the skull is low, but long, the face is flat with massive superciliary arches, the forehead is low and strongly inclined back. The jaws are long and wide with large teeth, protruding forward, but without a chin protrusion. Judging by tooth wear, Neanderthals were right-handed.
Their physique was more massive than that of a modern person. The chest is barrel-shaped, the torso is long, and the legs are relatively short. Presumably, the dense physique of Neanderthals is an adaptation to a cold climate, because. in connection with a decrease in the ratio of body surface to its volume, heat loss through the skin decreases. The bones are very strong, this is due to the highly developed muscles. The average Neanderthal was much stronger than modern man.
Genome
Early studies of the H. neanderthalensis genome focused on mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) studies. Because mDNA under normal conditions is inherited strictly through the maternal line and contains a much smaller amount of information (16569 nucleotides versus ~3 billion in nuclear DNA), then the significance of such studies was not too great.
In 2006, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and 454 Life Sciences announced that the Neanderthal genome would be sequenced over the next few years. In May 2010, preliminary results of this work were published. Research has shown that Neanderthals and modern humans could have interbred, and every living person (except Africans) carries between 1 and 4 percent of the H. neanderthalensis genes. The sequencing of the complete Neanderthal genome was completed in 2013 and published in Nature on December 18, 2013.
Habitat
Fossil remains of Neanderthals have been found on a large territory of Eurasia, which includes such modern countries as Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, Croatia, Czech Republic, Israel, Iran, Ukraine, Russia, Uzbekistan. The easternmost find is the remains found in the Altai Mountains (Southern Siberia).
However, it should be noted that a significant part of the period of existence of this species fell on the last glaciation, which could destroy evidence of the habitation of Neanderthals in more northern latitudes.
In Africa, traces of H. neanderthalensis have not yet been found. This is probably due to the adaptation to the cold climate of both themselves and the animals that formed the basis of their diet.
Behavior
Archaeological evidence shows that Neanderthals spent most of their lives in small groups of 5-50 people. There were almost no old people among them, because. most did not live to be 35 years old, but some individuals lived up to 50. There is a lot of evidence of Neanderthals caring for each other. Among those studied there are skeletons with traces of cured injuries and diseases, therefore, during the cure, the tribesmen fed and protected the wounded and sick. There is evidence that the dead were buried, and funeral offerings are sometimes found in the graves.
It is believed that Neanderthals rarely met strangers in their small territory or left it themselves. Although there are occasional finds of high-quality stone products from more than 100 km away, they are not enough to conclude that there was trade or even regular contact with other groups.
H. neanderthalensis made extensive use of various stone tools. However, over hundreds of thousands of years, the technology of their manufacture has changed very little. In addition to the obvious assumption that Neanderthals, despite their large brains, were not very smart, there is an alternative hypothesis. It lies in the fact that due to the small number of Neanderthals (and their number never exceeded 100 thousand individuals), the likelihood of innovation was low. Most Neanderthal stone tools belong to the Mousterian culture. Some of them are very sharp. There is evidence of the use of wooden tools, but they themselves have practically not survived to this day.
Neanderthals used a variety of weapons, including spears. But most likely they were used only in close combat, and not for throwing. Indirectly, this is also confirmed by a large number of skeletons with traces of injuries inflicted by large animals, which Neanderthals hunted and which made up the bulk of their diet.
Previously it was thought that H. neanderthalensis fed exclusively on the meat of large land mammals such as mammoths, aurochs, deer, etc. However, later finds have shown that small animals and some plants also served as food. And in the south of Spain, traces of the fact that Neanderthals ate marine mammals, fish and shellfish were also found. However, despite the variety of food sources, getting enough of it was often a problem. Skeletons with signs of diseases caused by malnutrition serve as proof of this.
It is assumed that Neanderthals already had a great deal of speech. Indirectly, this is evidenced by the production of complex tools and the hunting of large animals, requiring communication for learning and interaction. In addition, there is anatomical and genetic evidence: the structure of the hyoid and occipital bones, the hypoglossal nerve, the presence of a gene responsible for speech in a modern person.
Extinction hypotheses
There are several hypotheses explaining the disappearance of this species, which can be divided into 2 groups: those related to the emergence and spread of modern man and other reasons.
According to modern ideas, modern man, having appeared in Africa, gradually began to spread to the north, where by that time the Neanderthal was widespread. Both of these species coexisted for many millennia, but eventually the Neanderthal was completely replaced by modern man.
There is also a hypothesis linking the disappearance of the Neanderthals with climate change caused by the eruption of a large volcano about 40 thousand years ago. This change led to a decrease in the amount of vegetation and the number of large herbivorous animals that fed on vegetation and, in turn, were the food of the Neanderthals. Accordingly, the lack of food led to the extinction of H. neanderthalensis themselves.
PALEOANTROPES
PALEOANTROPES(from paleo ... and Greek anthropos - man), the generalized name of fossil people, who are considered as the second stage of human evolution, following the archanthropes and preceding the neoanthropes. Paleoanthropists are often incorrectly referred to as Neanderthals.
NEANDERTHAL IS NOT AN ANCESTOR TO US
Bone remains of Paleoanthropes are known from the Middle and Late Pleistocene of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The geological age of paleoanthropes is from the end of the Mindelris interglacial to almost the middle of the Wurm glaciation. The absolute age is from 250 to 40 thousand years. Morphologically, paleoanthropes are a heterogeneous group. Along with primitive forms similar to archanthropes, among paleoanthropes there are representatives close to neoanthropes. Paleoanthrop culture - middle and late Acheulean and Mousterian (early Paleolithic). They were mainly engaged in hunting large animals (cave bear, woolly rhinoceros and others). Social organization - "primitive human herd".
Although, in general, paleoanthropes were the forerunners of modern man, not all paleoanthropes are his immediate ancestors. Many of them, due to specialization and other reasons, did not turn into modern humans and died out (for example, the "classical Neanderthals" of Western Europe). Others (for example, the Near Asian paleoanthropes) took the path of progressive evolution and gave rise to fossil people of a modern species.
Where are the oldest human remains found? Remains of ancient Neanderthal man first found in
Where are the oldest human remains found?
I would never have thought that there was so much controversy surrounding the discovery of the most ancient person. Basically, they are of a purely technical nature, that is, the question is raised: can a humanoid creature that did not fully possess the necessary qualities be attributed to the most ancient person? For example, the creature walked upright, made tools, but it did not speak yet.
The first discovery of ancient man
First of all, you need to figure out who is considered a person? A reasonable person must meet at least three characteristics:
- Upright walking.
- The presence of speech.
- The ability to think.
The third characteristic includes the ability to handle fire, the ability to make tools, and the use of hunting skills, etc. Based on these features, scientists single out the highest stage in human evolution and call it Homo sapiens sapiens (reasonable reasonable man ).
It was previously believed that the oldest remains of this species were discovered in 1947 in the Sterkfontein caves of South Africa and this place was called the "Cradle of Humankind".
The latest data on ancient man
In 2011, a group of archaeologists from Germany and Morocco analyzed the remains of humanoid creatures found back in the 60s. The bones were discovered in northern Africa (Morocco) at the paleontological site of Jebel Irhud in one of the caves. The remains found belonged to five individuals, including a child and a teenager. The technology of the time did not allow scientists to thoroughly study the bones, so they thought they had found the skeletons of Neanderthals. With the help of computed tomography, modern archaeologists have reconstructed and created three-dimensional models of the skulls of the discovered people. When comparing them with previously found samples of the skulls of Neanderthals, Australopithecus and erectus, it turned out that the front part is more similar to a modern person.
Thus, their belonging to the genus Homo sapiens sapiens was proved. These relics have been dated to 300,000 years ago. BC e. The finds in southern Africa date back to 195,000 years ago. BC e.
Ancestral bone. Most ancient human remains found in Siberia | Science | Society
The authoritative scientific journal Nature published the work of an international group of scientists, which included six Russians. It is thanks to their enthusiasm that the scientific community has at its disposal a unique find, and with it the most ancient genome of Homo sapiens.
Nobody believed!
This story is full of wonderful coincidences, and just luck. It began with the fact that in 2008 the Omsk artist Nikolai Peristov, who specializes in bone carving, wandered along the banks of the Irtysh in search of working material - the remains of a bison, mammoth and other prehistoric animals. He arranged such sorties regularly: the banks of the river are destroyed, the earth reveals what has been hidden in it for centuries and millennia. That day, Peristov noticed a bone sticking out of the washed layer, threw it into a bag and brought it home. Yes, just in case.
For two years, the bone lay in the artist's vaults, until his friend Alexei Bondarev, a forensic expert from the regional Department of Internal Affairs, paid attention to it. He is a biologist by training, and paleontology is his hobby. Bondarev carefully studied the bone. In appearance, it was clear that this was not an animal, and not even a Neanderthal. With a length of 35 cm, the bone most of all resembled a human femur. But what is the age of this person?
Alexey turned to Yaroslav Kuzmin for help from the Institute of Geology and Mineralogy of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk. He took the find unusually seriously. “To put it simply, he believed that the bone could be very ancient, tens of thousands of years old,” recalls Bondarev. - The fact is that in our area the remains of a man of the Paleolithic era (over 10 thousand years ago) have never been found. And no one expected that they could be found at all. Such scientists did not even come to mind! Archaeologists knew only the ancient sites of Homo sapiens with stone tools and animal bones found on them. In general, it was believed that the first people came to the territory of the Omsk region no earlier than 14 thousand years ago.”
Yaroslav Kuzmin is a well-known specialist in radiocarbon dating (this is one of the methods for determining the age of biological remains). He sent the bone for examination to Oxford University, with which he has been collaborating for a long time. The British were delighted: the analysis showed that the bone material is 45 thousand years old! To date, these are the most ancient human remains dated directly, and not by indirect evidence (i.e.
NEANDERTHAL IS NOT AN ANCESTOR TO US
not according to the environment in which they were found: tools, household items, etc.). The man from Ust-Ishim (nicknamed after the name of the nearest village) is the oldest member of the genus Homo sapiens found outside of Africa and the Middle East. Yes, even in the north, at the 58th latitude! Scientists believe that it was the cold climate that helped this bone survive.
Omsk artist Nikolai Peristov found a sensation on the river bank. Photo: From the personal archive / Alexey Bondarev
Cradle in Siberia
The discoveries didn't end there. Yaroslav Kuzmin connected geneticists to the cause: the precious bone, accompanied by Russian scientists, went to Germany, to the Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology of the Max Planck Society. They know firsthand about sensations from Siberia: it was at this institute that the DNA of the now famous "Denisov" man from a cave in Altai was studied.
German anthropologists confirmed the conclusions of colleagues about the age of the bone, and in addition, they found perfectly preserved DNA in it - the oldest at the moment. It took more than a year to assemble and read the genome. It turned out that the Ust-Ishim man has 2.5% of the Neanderthal genes - just like, in fact, the modern inhabitants of Eurasia. It’s just that his fragments of these genes are longer, foreign DNA is not as widely spaced throughout the genome as ours. Hence the conclusion: the Ust-Ishim lived shortly after the crossing of a man with a Neanderthal, and it happened somewhere 50-60 thousand years ago, along the path of Homo sapiens from Africa to Siberia.
“Now it is clear that the history of the settlement of Asia was somewhat more complicated than previously thought,” emphasizes Yaroslav Kuzmin. - Coming out of Africa, some of our ancestors soon turned north - unlike those who settled in southern Asia. We also managed to find out the diet of the ancient Siberian. He was a hunter. His food was mainly hoofed animals - primitive bison, elk, wild horse, reindeer. But he also ate river fish.
“I think this man looked almost the same as you and me,” adds Alexei Bondarev. - Dress him, comb his hair, put him on the bus - no one will think that this is an ancestor who lived 45 thousand years ago. Well, except that the skin will be darker.
And most importantly, the man from Ust-Ishim turned out to be equally related to Europeans, and Asians, and even the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands - natives who hide from the outside world and do not want to make contact with civilization. They, according to anthropologists, belonged to an early wave of migration from Africa. This means that even if the Ust-Ishim did not leave direct descendants (scientists do not exclude this), Siberia can be safely called one of the cradles of mankind.
15. The remains of the most ancient person were found in
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Stone Age
1. Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three main periods, the Paleolithic period includes
2.5 million - 12 thousand years BC e.
2. Scientists divide the Stone Age into major periods and 2.5 million - 12 thousand years BC. e. refers to
Paleolithic.
3. The period of the lower (early) Paleolithic covers the time
2.5 million - 140 thousand years BC
4. Scientists divide the Stone Age into major periods and 2.5 million - 140 thousand years BC. covers time
Lower Paleolithic.
5. The period of the Upper (Late) Paleolithic covers the time
40-12 thousand years BC
6. Scientists divide the Stone Age into major periods and 40-12 thousand years BC. covers time
Upper Paleolithic.
7. The period of the Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) covers the time
140-40 thousand years BC
8. Scientists-archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three main periods, the period belongs to the Mesolithic
12 - 5 thousand years BC e.
9. Scientists divide the Stone Age into major periods and 12 - 5 thousand years BC. e. covers time
Mesolithic.
10. Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three main periods, the Neolithic period includes
5-3 thousand years BC e.
11. Scientists divide the Stone Age into major periods and 5-3 thousand years BC. e. covers time
12. A sharp cooling on Earth came about
100 thousand years ago
13. A sharp cooling on Earth began about 100 thousand years ago, the melting of the glacier began about
13 thousand years ago.
14. Scientists-archaeologists date the Copper-Stone Age (Eneolithic) to the period
3000-2800 BC
16. The remains of the most ancient man were found in 1974 in Kenya, scientists called him
"man of skill"
Lower Paleolithic.
18. The most ancient people Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus in science received the name
"upright people"
19. Pithecanthropus was one of the oldest people, its remains were first found
on the island of Java.
20. The remains of an ancient man - a Neanderthal were first found in
Germany
21. After the Neanderthals, about 35-40 thousand years ago, a
"wise man"
22. The first dwellings of ancient people were
23. Pebble stone, processed and sharpened on both sides, got the name
24. Man reached the highest level of stone processing in the era
25. An ancient man from the animal world was distinguished, first of all, by the ability
make tools.
26. The most ancient sites of the Stone Age found in the mountains of Karatau belong to
Lower Paleolithic
27. An ancient person who lived in the Middle Paleolithic, scientists call
Neanderthal.
28. An ancient man, whom scientists call the Neanderthal lived during the period
Middle Paleolithic.
29. The most ancient sites of the Stone Age, which belong to the Lower Paleolithic, were found
in the Karatau mountains
30. The formation of "reasonable man" occurs in the era
Upper Paleolithic.
31. "House of Reason", scientists call by location
Cro-Magnon.
32. The origin of religious ideas, the appearance of rock and cave paintings, scientists refer to in the era
Upper Paleolithic.
33. A permanent team of relatives - a tribal community appears during the formation
"Reasonable Man".
34. During the formation of a "reasonable person" a permanent team appears -
tribal community.
35. Scientists attribute the beginning of the formation of plants and animals of the modern type to the era
Mesolithic.
36. One of the main features of the Mesolithic era is the invention
microlites.
37. One of the main features of the Mesolithic era is the invention
bow and arrows.
38. Bow and arrows were invented during the period
Mesolithic.
39. The beginning of the domestication of wild animals, and the domestication of some plants, scientists attribute to the end of the era:
Mesolithic.
40. In the Mesolithic era, a person learned to make thin stone plates, 1-2 cm long, which are called
microliths.
41. In the Mesolithic era, people were often forced to change their habitats due to
animal migrations.
42. The initial collective of people for the joint extraction of food and protection from animals
Primitive herd.
43. For the first time the remains of a “reasonable man” were discovered
in France.
44. Man made the first tools of labor from
45. One of the first occupations of an ancient man
Gathering.
46. On the territory of Kazakhstan, the largest number of Paleolithic sites were found in:
Southern Kazakhstan.
47. The first tool of labor of an ancient man made of stone
48. The first people on the territory of Kazakhstan appeared in the period
Early Paleolithic.
49. The tool of labor of an ancient man, which was used for catching fish
50. Rock paintings first appear in the period
Upper Paleolithic.
51. On the island of Java, archaeologists discovered the remains of an ancient man -
Pithecanthropus.
52. In China, archaeologists discovered the remains of an ancient man -
Sinanthropus.
53. In France, archaeologists first discovered the remains of a "reasonable man" -
Cro-Magnon.
54. People for the first time created new tools of labor: axes with a handle, hoes, millstones in the era
55. One of the features of the Neolithic era is the manufacture
earthenware.
56. Ancient people learned how to make pottery during the period
Neolithic.
57. The first metal that ancient people learned to use:
copper.
58. Man first began to use metal tools in the period:
Eneolithic.
59. The era of the appearance of the first metal products from copper
Eneolithic.
60. The first social division of labor, the replacement of matriarchy by patriarchy, refers to the period
Eneolithic.
61. A bright monument of the Eneolithic time is the settlement of Botai
in the north of Kazakhstan.
62. The word eneolith means
copper age.
63. The primitive loom was invented in the era
64. About the peculiar worldview of the people of the Neolithic era, about their belief in the afterlife, we learn from the ancient
burial grounds.
65. The Neolithic period is sometimes called
"Era of Clay Pots".
66. Producing labor appeared in the era
67. Scientists-archaeologists date the Copper-Stone Age (Eneolithic) to the period
3000-2800 BC
68. Ancient people passed on their knowledge through a picture letter called
pictography.
69. Form of religion, belief in kinship with some animal, which was considered the patron of the family
totemism.
70. Evidence of the existence of the cult of mother earth and maternal clan among ancient people are found
figurines of women.
71. Evidence of the existence of the cult of mother earth and maternal clan among ancient people are found
figurines of women.
72. In the era of the Eneolithic, decay occurs
matriarchal family
Neanderthals have long had a bad reputation. What kind of epithets - "ape-like troglodyte", "caveman", "stupid barbarian" - have not been expressed in his address since 1856, when in the Neandertal valley, located in the vicinity of Düsseldorf (Germany), in a cave filled with silt deposits, the first skeleton of this relative of modern man was discovered. A relative, it should be noted, is largely mysterious, because the Neanderthal is in no hurry to reveal its secrets. And for a century and a half, scientists have accumulated a lot of questions to him.
The very discovery of Neanderthal man is associated with rather vague circumstances, as a result of which the unfortunate "troglodyte" had to defend its "right to life" for almost half a century. Back in 1848, the skull of an ancient man was found on the territory of the Gibraltar fortress during construction work. The workers gave the skull to one of the officers of the garrison - Captain Flint, who later handed over the find to scientists. However, the true meaning of this discovery was understood much later. The scientific world returned to the Gibraltar skull already in those years when scientific disputes raged around another famous find - the remains discovered in the Neanderthal Valley.
The fame of the discoverer of the Neanderthal man was assigned to the German naturalist Johann Karl Fuhlrott (1803-1877), although in fact the remains were found by the workers of the quarry operating in the Neandertal valley. Not attaching any importance to them, the workers threw the bones into the dump, where Fulrott stumbled upon them. The find immediately aroused tremendous interest in the scientific world and, like other great discoveries, at first received an ambiguous interpretation. They tried to attribute the Neanderthal skeleton to the pre-Indo-European inhabitants of these places who lived in the Neandertal valley before the arrival of the Celts, and one of the luminaries of science of that time, the German anatomist and anthropologist Rudolf von Virchow, said that the skull belongs to a mentally handicapped person of the modern type - about this, in his opinion , testified to changes in the bones.
Only a few scientists were able to immediately understand the significance of the discovery. Disputes continued for several years, and only after more and more new skulls and bones with the same characteristic features began to be found, it became clear that we were talking about the closest relative of modern man. For a long time, the Neanderthal was even called the ancestor of modern man. Today it is already obvious that this is not true either: the Neanderthal is a completely independent species of Homo sapiens. Moreover: at a certain historical period, the Neanderthal and our direct ancestor the Cro-Magnon existed side by side! And, finally, one more discovery - and within the Neanderthal species there were significant differences.
Today it has become obvious that within the species Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (“reasonable Neanderthal man”) there were at least two evolutionary lines, of which the first is usually called “early Neanderthals”, or “praneanderthals”, and the second - “classical”, or “Western European » Neanderthals.
Early Neanderthals lived about 150,000 years ago, during the last interglacial period. Their appearance was close to the appearance of a modern person: a vertically elongated face, a round nape, the supraorbital ridge is somewhat softened, the forehead is convex, there are fewer primitive features in the dental system, the brain volume is very significant (1400–1450 cm3) and close to the value characteristic of a modern person ( 1350–1500 cm3). At the same time, numerous finds testify to the great variability of traits in different populations of early Neanderthals.
The age of classical Neanderthals is the last glaciation, i.e. 80–35 thousand years. In contrast to the early Neanderthal, the classical type has a strongly developed superciliary, a wide nose, a flattened nape from above, an angular contour of the occiput, and an occipital ridge. The chin protrusion is either absent altogether, or poorly marked. The size of the brain of a classic Neanderthal ranges from 1350–1700 cm3. There is no doubt that the Neanderthal man had great mental abilities, but this does not at all follow that he was more intelligent than modern man.
They were strong, massively built people, their average height was 155–165 cm. The lower limbs were shorter than those of modern people. A characteristic feature of the classic Neanderthal is that the femur is strongly curved. This feature is unknown neither in modern man nor in the species Homo erectus, and some experts believe that this is a consequence of adverse living conditions: unlike the early Neanderthal, the classical one had to live in a harsh climate. Studies have shown that he was well adapted to the cold.
The most curious thing in this whole story is that it is the early Neanderthal that stands on the evolutionary ladder closest to modern man - Homo sapiens sapiens (representatives of this latter species first appeared only during the last glaciation). But at the same time, the bone remains of early Neanderthals also testify to their family ties with classical Neanderthals!
This problem has not yet found its final solution, and the opinions of experts on this matter often radically diverge. It can be assumed (but no more than that) that the early Neanderthal was a common ancestor for both the classical Neanderthal and the modern human type. It is possible that the two lineages leading from the early Neanderthal to the classical Neanderthal to modern man were in constant contact. This, in particular, is evidenced by the finds of skeletons and skulls with a mixture of human (sapiens) and Neanderthaloid features.
The “Neanderthal Age,” known to archaeologists as the Middle Paleolithic, began about 200,000 years ago and ended about 40,000 years ago. The classic Neanderthal reached its pinnacle during the last glaciation. Scientists determine the maximum number of this species at 1 million individuals. Judging by numerous finds, Neanderthals quite densely populated Europe and western Asia, their habitat extended far to the east - to Uzbekistan. It is likely that some groups of Neanderthals came to America through the “land bridge” across the Bering Strait that existed at that time. Neanderthals came to Europe from the Middle East 45-40 thousand years ago, and this movement was directly related to changing climatic conditions. Archaeologists and anthropologists have found numerous evidence that between 100 thousand and 50 thousand years. BC e. significant climatic fluctuations were observed in the region of the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Average annual temperatures here began to rise, and the cold-loving Neanderthal began to gradually move to Europe.
With the Neanderthal, archaeologists confidently associate the culture of the so-called Mousterian type, which is characterized by a rather large variety of stone tools: axes, strikers, scrapers, scrapers, knives, drills and stone tips. Mousterian culture is perhaps the most curious phenomenon in the history of mankind: it is an example of a culture not created by man in the "classical" sense of the word. And some signs allow us to say that this "non-human" culture already carried the rudiments of humanity!
For a long time, the main mystery of the Neanderthal was the question of whether these "non-humans" had speech abilities. For many years, this problem has been the subject of heated debate among specialists. Today we can say with confidence: yes, we did! This is irrefutably evidenced by a find made by archaeologists in the Kebara cave on Mount Carmel (Israel): a hyoid bone, a fragment of the skeleton of a Neanderthal man who died 60 thousand years ago. This characteristic bone is located at the base of the tongue, and its presence provides anatomists with clear biological evidence that its owner was physically capable of articulate speech.
The same skeleton (known as Kebara 2) revealed to scientists other secrets of Neanderthal man. Anatomists have established that during his lifetime this individual, under some circumstances, broke several ribs. But they were carefully healed! Someone (and who else but fellow tribesmen?) looked after the wounded for quite a long time. This case clearly shows that the Neanderthals, who did not shy away from cannibalism, at least had comradely feelings for their fellow tribesmen and cared for them in the same way as modern people do. And the find in the Kebara grotto is not the only fact of this kind.
In the cave of Shanidar (Iraqi Kurdistan), among the numerous skeletons of Neanderthals found here, the remains of a man of about 40 years of age were found. This man, whom archaeologist Ralph Solecki, head of the excavations at Shanidar, dubbed Nandi, apparently died after falling on rocks 46,000 years ago. Anatomists who examined the skeleton found that Nandi had a birth defect: the right side of his body was underdeveloped. In addition, he lost the lower part of his right arm to the elbow at an early age and suffered from arthritis throughout his life. He also suffered multiple traumatic head injuries and probably had a thorn in his left eye. But the tribesmen did not leave the freak Nandi in trouble, although from a purely animal point of view, he was an obvious burden for them. After all, the tribe did not live in one place - it continuously wandered, stopping only for more or less long-term parking. Nevertheless, the tribesmen took care of Nandi all his life, thanks to which he safely lived to the age of 40 - for a Neanderthal, this is already a venerable old age. Moreover, one of the tribesmen made Nandi amputate a badly damaged right hand, and this already indicates that the Neanderthals had certain medical knowledge and were able to quite consciously perform surgical actions. The wound on the amputated arm healed well, and the unusually strong wear of the front teeth indicates that Nandi later used his teeth at work, thereby partially replacing the lost arm.
The story of Nandi was another confirmation of the fact that very close family ties existed in Neanderthal communities. Another example of this kind is the discovery of the skull of an 11-year-old boy from the Skul Cave (Israel). The age of the find is 95 thousand years. An examination of the skull showed that a few years before his death, the boy received a very severe traumatic head injury - the bones of the skull were pierced. However, the tribesmen in this case also carefully healed the wound, although it was serious and required long-term treatment and absolute rest. And in the name of saving the boy, the tribe risked starving to death! After all, the primitive hunters were fed by the leg, they had to constantly roam after the migrating herds of animals.
These and other examples clearly show that Neanderthals, although they were not people in the modern sense of the word, were in some ways more humane than many of our contemporaries. And, not leaving their attention to the wounded and sick, they also touchingly cared for their dead. So, in Teshik-Tash cave (Southern Uzbekistan), Academician A.P. Okladnikov in 1938 discovered the skeleton of a 10–12-year-old Neanderthal boy, around which many bones and horns of goats were scattered, which once formed a neat fence around the grave. That is, it was a conscious burial, made as a sign of respect and love for the deceased! And in Europe, Neanderthal skulls were found several times, surrounded by stones of the same shape and size. What's this? Really any first religious representations? And from whom - from these humanoid creatures that ate each other's meat?
One of the most remarkable Neanderthal burials was discovered in the already familiar Shanidar cave. In the grave of a man who died 60 thousand years ago, archaeologists found ... pollen from flowers. Paleobotanist Arlette Leroy-Gourhan, having carefully studied the corresponding fragments of the burial, determined by the shape of the distribution of pollen that fresh flowers were placed in the grave! Of course, the plot hardly fits in the mind: "Neanderthals laying flowers on the grave of a comrade." But nevertheless the fact remains. And further research showed that six of the seven plants whose pollen was found in the burial have medicinal properties and are still used in Iraq as traditional medicine! Did the Neanderthals have knowledge in herbal medicine? Why not?
The degree of humanity is largely determined by how people treat the weak and their dead. After all, respect for the mystery of death is also respect for the mystery of life. And Neanderthals more than successfully pass this test of humanity. There are many - from France to Uzbekistan - examples of the fact that these "cave people" with great respect buried old people, and adult men and women, and babies, in whose graves roughly made flint or bone knick-knacks were touchingly placed. And in France (Dordogne), even a burial of a miscarriage was discovered.
What were these strange people - Neanderthals, so little like us and at the same time so close to us? Why did we, and not they, become the "top of evolution"? And why, for what reason, 30 thousand years ago, these rightful owners of the Middle Paleolithic suddenly disappeared from the face of the Earth, making way for representatives of the species Homo sapiens sapiens - that is, you and me?
The mystery of the disappearance of the Neanderthals is one of the most important mysteries of the Stone Age. To date, there is not a single satisfactory theory explaining the disappearance of this human species, which followed its own evolutionary path. Various versions are expressed about this, but four are the most common: Neanderthals died out due to abrupt climate change, as they were a highly specialized species poorly adapted to environmental changes; the cause of the disappearance of the Neanderthals was a general epidemic; the Neanderthals could not stand the competition with the Cro-Magnons and were forced out and exterminated by the latter; Neanderthals intermingled with Cro-Magnons, and today's man is a hybrid of these two species.
None of these theories stand up to scrutiny, but since there is nothing better, various scientists in different countries either adhere to one of the above versions, or express their own hypotheses. The voices of those who have not come to terms with the disappearance of the Neanderthal and are convinced that this ancient species still lives next to us are quite loud. This, in their opinion, is evidenced by countless stories about the notorious Bigfoot and similar creatures that are found in almost all corners of the world. It may be true that the remnants of Neanderthals, having adapted to new conditions and switched to a nocturnal lifestyle, managed to survive to this day?
Meanwhile, the picture of the world in the era of the Middle Paleolithic would be incomplete if we did not say that at that time other varieties of people existed on Earth!
In 1958, a skull was discovered in the Mala Grotto in the Chinese province of Guangdong, which, despite its clearly Neanderthal features, cannot yet be attributed to either of the two known species of Neanderthals. There is an assumption that this person is the result of the evolution of Sinanthropus (Homo erectus). And on the island of Java, famous for its numerous finds of the remains of fossil hominids, two skulls of people were found that differ both from Neanderthals and from the find from the Mala grotto. Apparently, this "Ngandong man" (named after the place of discovery) is a direct descendant of the Javanese Pithecanthropus. We can also mention the "man from Broken Hill" (Zambia), and the skull from the shores of Saldanya Bay (South Africa). Some features clearly distinguish them from Neanderthals and, conversely, show similarities with the East African form of Homo erectus.
Thus, we are again faced with the multilinearity of evolution. Even 150-200 thousand years ago, at least five or six species of Homo sapiens lived on Earth, but only one species developed into a "reasonable Homo" - Homo sapiens sapiens. Why did it happen? What was the further fate of the "dead end" evolutionary branches? Why exactly did they become dead ends?
There is no answer yet.
On this day:
Birthdays 1795 Was born Johann Georg Ramsauer- An official from the Hallstatt mine. Known for discovering and conducting the first excavations there in 1846 of the burial places of the Hallstatt culture of the Iron Age. Days of Death 1914 Died Antonio Salinas- Italian numismatist, art historian and archaeologist. Professor and Rector of the University of Palermo. 1920 Died Alexander Vasilievich Adrianov- Siberian educator, ethnographer, traveler, archaeologist.The Neanderthals disappeared about 30,000 years ago. Prior to that, they lived safely on Earth for a quarter of a million years. Where did they disappear to? Modern research allows to lift the veil of secrecy over this issue.
Cousins
The name "Neanderthal" (Homo neandertalensis) comes from the name of the Neanderthal Gorge in West Germany, where in 1856 a skull was found, later recognized as the skull of a Neanderthal. The name itself came into use in 1858. Interestingly, the mentioned skull was already the third in terms of time of discovery. The first Neanderthal skull was discovered back in 1829 in Belgium.
Today it has already been proven that Neanderthals are not the direct ancestors of man. More like cousins.
For a long period of time (at least 5000 years) Homo neandertalensis and Homo sapiens coexisted together.
Recent studies by the German professor Svante Paabo and Dr. David Reich have shown that Neanderthal genes are present in most people, with the exception of Africans. True, in a small amount - from 1 to 4%. Scientists believe that in the conditions of migration to the Middle East, Cro-Magnons came across Neanderthals and unwittingly mixed with them. The human and Neanderthal genomes are approximately 99.5% identical, but this does not mean that we are descended from Neanderthals.
rituals
Contrary to popular belief, Neanderthals were not underdeveloped semi-animals. This ignorant stereotype is refuted by numerous findings.
A burial found in the grotto of La Chapelle aux Seine in France proves that it was the Neanderthals who were the first to put flowers, food, and toys to the dead. Probably, it was the Neanderthals who played the first melody on Earth. In 1995, a bone flute with four holes was found in a cave in Slovenia, which could play three notes: “do”, “re”, “mi”. Neanderthal rock paintings from the Chauvet cave in France are about 37,000 years old. As you can understand, the Neanderthals were a fairly highly developed branch of the human race. Where did they disappear to?
ice Age
One of the main versions of the disappearance of the Neanderthals is the version that they could not stand the last glaciation and died out due to the cold. As due to lack of nutrition, and for other reasons. The original version of the reasons for the death of Neanderthals was proposed by anthropologist Ian Gillian and his colleagues from the Australian State University. They believe that Neanderthals died out due to the fact that they did not master the skills of sewing warm clothes in time. They were originally better adapted to the cold, and this played a cruel joke on them. When the temperature dropped sharply by 10 degrees, the Neanderthals were not ready for this.
Assimilation + cold
A scientific team led by Professor Tjoerd van Andel from Cambridge in 2004 conducted large-scale studies and gave such a picture of the disappearance of Neanderthals. 70,000 years ago, global cooling began. With the advance of the glaciers, both Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals began to retreat to the south of Europe. Judging by archaeological finds, it was during this period that ancient man attempted interspecific crossing, but such offspring was doomed. The last Neanderthal found in the Pyrenees is 29,000 years old. Physical data: height - about 180 cm, weight - under 100 kg.
Genocide
According to another version, the cause of the disappearance of the Neanderthals could be the first genocide in history. Such a version, for example, is held by anthropologist Stephen Churchill from Duke University (USA)
The genocide was by the Cro-Magnons - the ancestors of modern people. Early Homo Sapiens came to Europe about 40-50 thousand years ago, and after 28-30 thousand years Neanderthals completely died out. These 20,000 years of coexistence between the two species was a period of intense competition for food and other resources, in which the Cro-Magnons won. Perhaps the decisive factor was the ability of the Cro-Magnons to handle weapons.
For the first time, the remains of a Neanderthal were found in 1856 in Germany in the Neandertal valley, near Düsseldorf. The skullcap, a piece of the humerus, and some bones of the limbs differed from the bones of modern humans. In the place of the first find of this creature, he was called a Neanderthal. The Neanderthal had powerful brow ridges that modern humans do not have. His forehead protruded forward, and his skull was flattened in front and convex in the back. The then-famous scientist Rudolf Virchow categorically stated: “This is not an ancestor, but a freak. All its features are the result of pathology, degeneration from syphilis or alcoholism ... ”But after 30 years in Belgium, during excavations in the Spee cave, 2 skeletons were discovered at once. And along with them in the same layer were the bones of the long-extinct woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, and other fossil mammals. And the most amazing thing is that exactly the same chipped stones were found here, as those found by Boucher de Perth. And he considered them tools of ancient man. Science confirmed that the Neanderthal is not a freak, but an ancestor of man. However, Virchow did not recognize him until his death.
True, the Neanderthal could not be called the "first" man. He could in no way be an “intermediate link” between man and ape, because he was closer to modern man than to ape.
The search for the "missing link" continued. The Neanderthal was recognized only as one of the ancestors of modern man, but not the most ancient. Homo sapiens began to branch off from other ancestors 100, and maybe 200-300 thousand years ago. It depends on how you view Neanderthals. Some believe that they were the same species as you and I. Others consider him our ancestor. Few are cousins. It is very difficult to give an exact answer to this question because the best preserved remains were found when they were not yet able to excavate scientifically. Therefore, many finds cannot be accurately dated. Most scientists combine Neanderthals with modern humans into one species. And in fact, if a Neanderthal was dressed in a modern suit, then no one on the streets of Moscow would pay attention to him. He was a little more ponderous than people today, with more primitive features. But he was human. He did a lot, just like modern man. However, there is a point of view that the Neanderthals were a dead end branch.
Neanderthal(lat. Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species from the genus People (lat. Homo). The first people with the features of Neanderthals (proto-Neanderthals) appeared in Europe about 600 thousand years ago. Classical Neanderthals formed about 100-130 thousand years ago. The latest remains date back to 28-33 thousand years ago.
Opening
For the first time, the remains of H. neanderthalensis were discovered in 1829 by Philippe-Charles Schmerling in the caves of Enzhi (modern Belgium), it was the skull of a child. In 1848, the skull of an adult Neanderthal was found in Gibraltar (Gibraltar 1). Naturally, neither find at that time was considered as evidence of the existence of an extinct species of people, and they were classified as the remains of Neanderthals much later.
The type specimen (holotype) of the species (Neanderthal 1) was found only in August 1856 in a limestone quarry in the Neandertal valley near Düsseldorf (North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). It consists of a cranial vault, two femurs, three bones from the right hand and two from the left, part of the pelvis, fragments of the scapula and ribs. The local gymnasium teacher Johann Karl Fulroth was interested in geology and paleontology. Having received the remains from the workers who found them, he drew attention to their complete fossilization and geological position, and came to the conclusion about their considerable age and important scientific significance. Fulroth then handed them over to professor of anatomy at the University of Bonn, Hermann Schaaffhausen. In June 1857, the discovery was announced, this happened 2 years before the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In 1864, at the suggestion of the Anglo-Irish geologist William King, a new species was named after the place of its discovery. In 1867, Ernst Haeckel proposed the name Homo stupidus (i.e., the man is stupid), but in accordance with the rules of nomenclature, King's name remained the priority.
In 1880, the jaw of a child of H. neanderthalensis was found in the Czech Republic, along with tools from the Mousterian period and bones of extinct animals. In 1886, excellently preserved skeletons of a man and a woman were found in Belgium at a depth of about 5 m, also along with numerous Mousterian tools. Subsequently, the remains of Neanderthals were found in other places on the territory of modern Russia, Croatia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Iran, Uzbekistan, Israel and other countries. To date, the remains of more than 400 Neanderthals have been found.
The status of the Neanderthal as a previously unknown variety of ancient man was not established immediately. Many prominent scientists of that time did not recognize him as such. Thus, the outstanding German scientist Rudolf Virchow rejected the thesis of a “primitive man” and considered the Neanderthal skull to be just a pathologically altered skull of modern man. And the doctor and anatomist Franz Mayer, having studied the structure of the pelvis and lower limbs, put forward a hypothesis that the remains belonged to a person who spent a significant part of his life on horseback. He suggested that it could be a Russian Cossack from the era of the Napoleonic wars.
Classification
Almost since the discovery, scientists have been debating the status of Neanderthals. Some of them are of the opinion that the Neanderthal is not an independent species, but only a subspecies of modern man (lat. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). This is largely due to the lack of a clear definition of the species. One of the hallmarks of the species is reproductive isolation, and genetic studies suggest that Neanderthals and modern humans interbred. On the one hand, this supports the point of view about the status of Neanderthals as a subspecies of modern man. But on the other hand, there are documented examples of interspecific crossing, as a result of which fertile offspring appeared, so this feature cannot be considered decisive. At the same time, DNA and morphological studies show that Neanderthals are still an independent species.
Origin
Comparison of the DNA of modern humans and H. neanderthalensis shows that they descended from a common ancestor, having split around, according to various estimates, from 350-400 to 500 and even 800 thousand years ago. The probable ancestor of both of these species is the Heidelberg man. Moreover, Neanderthals originated from the European population H. heidelbergensis, and modern man - from the African and much later.
Anatomy and morphology
Men of this species had an average height of 164-168 cm, weight about 78 kg, women - 152-156 cm and 66 kg, respectively. The volume of the brain is 1500-1900 cm 3 , which exceeds the average volume of the brain of a modern person.
The vault of the skull is low, but long, the face is flat with massive superciliary arches, the forehead is low and strongly inclined back. The jaws are long and wide with large teeth, protruding forward, but without a chin protrusion. Judging by tooth wear, Neanderthals were right-handed.
Their physique was more massive than that of a modern person. The chest is barrel-shaped, the torso is long, and the legs are relatively short. Presumably, the dense physique of Neanderthals is an adaptation to a cold climate, because. in connection with a decrease in the ratio of body surface to its volume, heat loss through the skin decreases. The bones are very strong, this is due to the highly developed muscles. The average Neanderthal was much stronger than modern man.
Genome
Early studies of the H. neanderthalensis genome focused on mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) studies. Because mDNA under normal conditions is inherited strictly through the maternal line and contains a much smaller amount of information (16569 nucleotides versus ~3 billion in nuclear DNA), then the significance of such studies was not too great.
In 2006, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and 454 Life Sciences announced that the Neanderthal genome would be sequenced over the next few years. In May 2010, preliminary results of this work were published. Research has shown that Neanderthals and modern humans may have interbred, and every living person (except Africans) carries between 1 and 4 percent of H. neanderthalensis genes. The sequencing of the complete Neanderthal genome was completed in 2013 and published in Nature on December 18, 2013.
Habitat
Fossil remains of Neanderthals have been found on a large territory of Eurasia, which includes such modern countries as Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, Croatia, Czech Republic, Israel, Iran, Ukraine, Russia, Uzbekistan. The easternmost find is the remains found in the Altai Mountains (Southern Siberia).
However, it should be noted that a significant part of the period of existence of this species fell on the last glaciation, which could destroy evidence of the habitation of Neanderthals in more northern latitudes.
No traces of H. neanderthalensis have yet been found in Africa. This is probably due to the adaptation to the cold climate of both themselves and the animals that formed the basis of their diet.
Behavior
Archaeological evidence shows that Neanderthals spent most of their lives in small groups of 5-50 people. There were almost no old people among them, because. most did not live to be 35 years old, but some individuals lived up to 50. There is a lot of evidence of Neanderthals caring for each other. Among those studied there are skeletons with traces of cured injuries and diseases, therefore, during the cure, the tribesmen fed and protected the wounded and sick. There is evidence that the dead were buried, and funeral offerings are sometimes found in the graves.
It is believed that Neanderthals rarely met strangers in their small territory or left it themselves. Although there are occasional finds of high-quality stone products from more than 100 km away, they are not enough to conclude that there was trade or even regular contact with other groups.
H. neanderthalensis made extensive use of various stone tools. However, over hundreds of thousands of years, the technology of their manufacture has changed very little. In addition to the obvious assumption that Neanderthals, despite their large brains, were not very smart, there is an alternative hypothesis. It lies in the fact that due to the small number of Neanderthals (and their number never exceeded 100 thousand individuals), the likelihood of innovation was low. Most Neanderthal stone tools belong to the Mousterian culture. Some of them are very sharp. There is evidence of the use of wooden tools, but they themselves have practically not survived to this day.
Neanderthals used a variety of weapons, including spears. But most likely they were used only in close combat, and not for throwing. Indirectly, this is also confirmed by a large number of skeletons with traces of injuries inflicted by large animals, which Neanderthals hunted and which made up the bulk of their diet.
Previously, it was thought that H. neanderthalensis fed exclusively on the meat of large land mammals such as mammoths, aurochs, deer, etc. However, later finds have shown that small animals and some plants also served as food. And in the south of Spain, traces of the fact that Neanderthals ate marine mammals, fish and shellfish were also found. However, despite the variety of food sources, getting enough of it was often a problem. Skeletons with signs of diseases caused by malnutrition serve as proof of this.
It is assumed that Neanderthals already had a great deal of speech. Indirectly, this is evidenced by the production of complex tools and the hunting of large animals, requiring communication for learning and interaction. In addition, there is anatomical and genetic evidence: the structure of the hyoid and occipital bones, the hypoglossal nerve, the presence of a gene responsible for speech in a modern person.
Extinction hypotheses
There are several hypotheses explaining the disappearance of this species, which can be divided into 2 groups: those related to the emergence and spread of modern man and other reasons.
According to modern ideas, modern man, having appeared in Africa, gradually began to spread to the north, where by that time the Neanderthal was widespread. Both of these species coexisted for many millennia, but eventually the Neanderthal was completely replaced by modern man.
There is also a hypothesis linking the disappearance of the Neanderthals with climate change caused by the eruption of a large volcano about 40 thousand years ago. This change led to a decrease in the amount of vegetation and the number of large herbivorous animals that fed on vegetation and, in turn, were the food of the Neanderthals. Accordingly, the lack of food led to the extinction of H. neanderthalensis themselves.
