annotation

The article investigates the question of how the process of absorption of the planet by a small black hole may look like for an external observer. A hole can be formed as a result of the physical experiments of a civilization, or it can enter the planet from outer space. Having taken a position in the center of the planet, the hole gradually absorbs it. The increased release of energy is facilitated by the planet's magnetic field, which is increasingly concentrated near the hole due to the phenomenon of "freezing" the field lines into the conducting substance and in accordance with the law of conservation of the magnetic flux. The greatest release of energy occurs at the final stage of the absorption of the planet, when a dipole magnetic field with induction at the poles of the order is formed near a hole with a radius of . A field of this magnitude completely controls the movement of the conducting substance and its inflow into the hole occurs mainly in the region of the poles, along the field lines of force. Some part of the magnetic field lines in the region of the poles, near the event horizon, forms a kink almost under . As a result, matter falling at a speed close to the speed of light abruptly changes its direction of motion and experiences a large acceleration comparable to that which would occur when hitting a solid surface. This contributes to the conversion of kinetic energy into thermal energy. As a result, at each magnetic pole of the hole, slightly above the event horizon, a hot spot is formed with a temperature of about . At this temperature, intense radiation of neutrinos with energy occurs, the mean free path of which in the surrounding neutron liquid with a density is about . These neutrinos heat the neutron liquid near hot spots, including those outside the magnetic tubes, which have a radius at the hole's poles. Ultimately, the released thermal energy rises to the surface of the planet through flows of hot matter formed due to the action of the Archimedes force. In the immediate vicinity of the planet, energy is emitted in the form of X-rays from the hot plasma. The resulting gas cloud surrounding the planet is not transparent to X-rays and the energy goes into outer space from the surface of the cloud (photosphere) in the form of light radiation. The calculations carried out in the work showed that the observed total energies of the light emission of supernovae correspond to the masses of the planets 0.6 - 6 masses of the Earth. In this case, the calculated radiation power of a “planetary” supernova during the maximum brightness is 10 36 − 10 37 W, and the time to reach the maximum brightness is about 20 days. The results obtained correspond to the actually observed characteristics of supernovae.

Keywords: black hole, supernova, cosmic neutrino flux, gamma-ray bursts, planetary magnetic field, neutron fluid, star explosion, neutron star, white dwarf, iron meteorites, chondrule formation, panspermia theory, evolution of biospheres.

The phenomenon of a supernova consists in the fact that an almost point source of light radiation suddenly appears in the galaxy, the luminosity of which, upon reaching the maximum brightness, can exceed , and the total energy of light radiation released during the glow time is . Sometimes the luminosity of a supernova turns out to be comparable with the integral luminosity of the entire galaxy in which it is observed. A supernova that exploded in 1054 in our Galaxy in the constellation Taurus and was observed by Chinese and Japanese astronomers was visible even in the daytime.

Supernovae according to some of their features, as a first approximation, are divided into two types. Type I supernovae form a fairly homogeneous group of objects in terms of the shape of the light curve. The characteristic curve is shown in Fig.1. The light curves of type II supernovae are somewhat more varied. Their highs are, on average, somewhat narrower, and the decline of the curve at the final stage can be steeper. Type II supernovae are found mainly in spiral galaxies. .

Rice. 1. Type I supernova light curve.

Type I supernovae flare up in all types of galaxies - spiral, elliptical, "irregular" and are associated with normal stars with solar masses. But as noted in, such stars should not explode. At the final stage of its evolution, such a star turns into a red giant for a short time. Then she throws off her shell with the formation of a planetary nebula and her star remains in place of the star helium core as white dwarf. Every year our galaxy produces several planetary nebulae and only about once every 100 years does a Type I supernova erupt.

Attempts to explain the phenomenon of a supernova as the result of a star explosion are met with known difficulties. So, for example, in supernovae, the brightness maximum lasts about 1-2 days, while according to the calculations of Imshennik V.S. and Nadezhina D.K. when stars explode main sequence maximum shine should last no more than 20 minutes. In addition, the calculated maximum brightness turned out to be hundreds of times less than the observed one.

At the present stage of research, models of exploding stars are being built using the most powerful computers. However, it has not yet been possible to construct a model in which the gradual evolution of a star would lead to the generation of the supernova phenomenon. Sometimes when building such a model in central part the energy of the explosion is artificially laid in the star, after which the process of expansion and heating of the star shell is analyzed.

A massive star should begin to catastrophically shrink (collapse) after exhausting all reserves of nuclear energy sources. As a result, a neutron star can form in its center. In the 1930s, Baade and Zwicky suggested that the formation of a neutron star might look like a supernova explosion. Indeed, during the formation of a neutron star, great energy, because gravitational energy is of the order . So, with the radius of the formed neutron star and mass , where is the mass of the Sun, gravitational energy . But this energy is released predominantly in the form of neutrinos, and not in the form of photons and high-energy particles, as Baade and Zwicky originally assumed. In the inner parts of the neutron star, where the density is greater than the neutrino mean free path is only from the radius of the neutron star, i.e. . Therefore, neutrinos slowly diffuse to the surface and cannot shed the shell of the star.

When constructing models of supernovae based on the collapse of stars, the question remains whether the collapse, i.e. The "explosion" directed inside the star will turn into an explosion directed into outer space. Despite the vastly increased computational power of computers, simulations of the collapse of a massive star always lead to the same result: no explosion occurs. The forces of gravity always win against the forces directed away from the star, and only a "silent collapse" is observed. As noted in "... none of the existing models reproduces the entire complex of phenomena associated with a supernova explosion and contains simplifications."

With regard to type I supernovae, there is a hypothesis that they are a consequence of the collapse into a neutron star of a compact helium star of a white dwarf, the mass of which exceeded (the Chandrasekhar limit). If a white dwarf is part of a close binary system, then the reason for the increase in its mass may be the accretion of matter flowing from the companion star. In this case, the accretion disk becomes a source of X-rays. However, measurements of the X-ray background coming from elliptical galaxies performed using the Chandra orbital observatory showed that the observed X-ray flux is 30-50 times less than expected. Therefore, according to the authors of the study, Gilfanov and Bogdan, this testifies in favor of the hypothesis of the origin of supernovae based on the merger of two white dwarfs with the formation of a mass of more than . But few close pairs of white dwarfs are known, and it is unclear how widespread they are.

In connection with the existing difficulties in explaining supernovae by the external manifestation of exploding or collapsing stars, it is of interest to consider the supernova phenomenon as the process of the planet being swallowed up by a small black hole. This hole can be artificially created on the planet, or it can come to the planet from outer space.

As you know, a black hole is characterized by a certain critical radius obtained by Schwarzschild based on the equations of the General Theory of Relativity (GR):

Where is the gravitational constant, the speed of light, the mass of the black hole. The surface that bounds a region of space with a radius is called the event horizon. A particle located on the event horizon does not have the opportunity to go to "infinity", because overcoming the gravitational field, it completely wastes its energy.

It follows from the solutions of the GR equations that the center of the black hole must contain a singularity in the space-time metric (singularity). In the case of a Schwarzschild black hole, it is a point with infinite high density matter.

If a black hole is in contact with matter, then it begins to absorb it and increase its mass until all matter, such as a planet, is drawn into the hole.

Microscopic black holes can be formed directly on the planet, for example, as a result of experiments on accelerators, during which high-energy particles collide. According to Hawking's theory, a microscopic black hole in a vacuum should evaporate almost instantly. However, so far there are no experimental results confirming these theoretical conclusions. Also, the properties of such holes found in the substance have not been studied. Here they can attract matter to themselves and surround themselves with a shell of superdense matter. It is possible that the black hole does not evaporate, but gradually increases its mass. Black holes can get into matter, for example, when a beam of accelerated particles acts on elements of the accelerator structure or on a special target. It is also possible that in vacuum microscopic black holes live long enough to have time to fly from the beam collision point to the wall of the accelerator chamber. After hitting the holes in the substance, they are gravitationally settling towards the center of the planet.

The rate at which matter falls into a black hole at the event horizon is limited by the speed of light, so the absorption rate of matter is proportional to the surface area of ​​the hole. Due to the small surface area, the growth time of a single microscopic black hole with a mass of the order of the Planck to a dangerous size is very long and many times exceeds the age of the planets. However, a lot of such holes can be produced and, having reached the center of the planet, they can merge into one more massive hole which could pose a threat to the planet. Let initially there are separately existing black holes and each of them has a surface area and mass . When (1) is taken into account, their total surface area is equal to . After N holes have merged into one, the surface area of ​​the total hole is . It can be seen that in the first case , and in the second , respectively, the absorption rate of the substance also increases many times over. In the center of the planet there is an almost point-like region where the free fall acceleration is equal to zero. All black holes gradually accumulate in this area, and they merge due to mutual attraction.

Microscopic black holes can also form naturally when planets are bombarded by cosmic rays. It can be assumed that at some stage of their development, civilizations produce black holes with a total mass many times greater than their mass formed due to the action of cosmic rays. As a result, the growth of a hole in the center of the planet leads to the cessation of its existence. A black hole of significant mass can be created on the planet for the purpose of obtaining energy in a singular reactor. Projects of such devices are already being discussed. There is also some probability of such an event, when a sufficiently massive black hole hits the planet from the surrounding outer space.

You can try to find in space the processes of energy release corresponding to the absorption of the planet by a black hole. In the event that such processes really take place, then this, in particular, may indirectly indicate the existence of other civilizations.

To describe the effects in the vicinity of a black hole, in some cases, it is sufficient to use an approximation based on the Newtonian theory. Newtonian approximations, in particular, were successfully used by Shakura and Sunyaev, as well as by Pringle and Rees, in constructing a model of matter accretion by a black hole.

We will extend the theory to such a region of space near the hole, when the speed of falling matter is close to the speed of light, but still differs from it so much that nonrelativistic approximations lead to correct estimates physical quantities. In order not to take into account the effect of time dilation in a strong gravitational field, the process of falling matter will be considered in the comoving coordinate system.

If a test body with mass is thrown vertically upwards from the surface of a body with mass and radius, then the “escape” velocity can be found from the equality of potential and kinetic energy

Hence, at , we obtain the radius of the body , which coincides with the radius (1) obtained on the basis of general relativity. It follows from (2) that in the Newtonian approximation the gravitational potential of a black hole

Those. All black holes have the same potential.

It should be noted that there is no single definition of a black hole yet. If we proceed from Laplace's definition of a black hole as an invisible object, then in one of the interpretations it means that after passing through the difference in gravitational potentials, the energy of a photon and its frequency tend to zero. Further, it is assumed that the photon has gravitational mass and then from equality it follows that the gravitational potential should be attributed to the black hole. Since further we consider the process of matter falling into the hole, we will proceed from the fact that, in accordance with (3), when using the Newtonian approximation, the gravitational potential of the hole is . This means that in the process of free fall into a black hole of some mass M, work is done in the gravitational field

Which turns into kinetic energy and the speed of fall near the event horizon approaches the speed of light. Some of this energy can be converted into radiation. At a given accretion rate (mass increment ), the power of electromagnetic radiation is determined by the well-known expression:

Where is the coefficient characterizing the efficiency of converting gravitational energy into electromagnetic energy. This coefficient can also be used to take into account the difference in the gravitational potentials of the hole when using different approaches.

It is known that for a non-rotating Schwarzschild black hole with a spherically symmetric fall of matter . The presence of a small-scale magnetic field near a star greatly increases the coefficient of conversion of gravitational energy (4) into radiation angular velocity. There is viscous friction between different parts of the gas, and the gas loses orbital energy, moving to a lower orbit and approaching the black hole. A gas heated by viscous friction becomes a source of electromagnetic (X-ray) radiation. The most intense radiation comes from the lower edge of the disk, where the gas temperature is highest. Accretion disks are characterized by the gravitational energy conversion coefficient.

Kerr obtained a solution to the GR equations for a black hole rotating in a void. A Kerr black hole involves the surrounding space in rotation (the Lense-Thirring effect). When it rotates with the limiting speed of light, the highest conversion coefficient of gravitational energy is achieved. So in the accretion disk , i.e. up to 42% of the mass of the incident matter is converted into radiation. In the case of a Kerr hole, the energy of its rotation is converted into radiation energy.

Thus, under certain conditions, black holes can very effectively convert the gravitational energy of the mass falling into them into electromagnetic radiation. For comparison: during the thermal nuclear reactions in the sun or in an explosion hydrogen bomb.

The author's calculations show that when a planet with a magnetic field is absorbed by a black hole, in accordance with the law of conservation of magnetic flux, a superstrong dipole magnetic field will be formed near the hole. Some field lines at the poles above the event horizon become kinked (Fig. 2). In the area of ​​this break, the conducting substance falling into the black hole, sharply changing the direction of motion, experiences a large acceleration, approximately the same as if the substance collided with a solid surface. As a result of this, a significant part of the energy (4) can be converted into thermal energy and, ultimately, radiated into the surrounding space.

In favor of the "planetary" origin of supernovae, in particular, the following preliminary estimate speaks. Let , then in accordance with (5), from the mass of the planet (or from the kinetic energy (4)) is converted into external radiation. This means that the observed energy of light emission from supernovae from the ratio will correspond to the masses of the planets , where the mass of the Earth. Accordingly, at , the range of masses of the planets will be . We see that at values ​​the range of masses of the planets has quite acceptable values ​​for the existence of life. At the same time, a good mutual correspondence between the masses of habitable planets and the energies of supernova radiation does not look accidental. This suggests that at least some types of supernovae are of "planetary" origin. The above estimates show that in subsequent calculations we can use the coefficient .

It is possible to carry out some other calculations confirming our hypothesis. Figure 1 shows that the type I supernova light curve reaches its maximum approximately 25 days after the start of the flare observation. Further, in this work, we will calculate the time to reach the maximum brightness by calculation, and also calculate the power of the supernova radiation.

Since the rate of matter inflow into a black hole with small dimensions is limited by the speed of light, the process of absorption of the planet by the black hole is stretched in time. It is known from stellar physics that the last stable configuration of a star preceding a black hole is a neutron star, the stability of which is provided by the pressure of a degenerate fermion gas, consisting mainly of neutrons. Therefore, near the event horizon of our compact black hole inside the planet, the highly compressed matter of the planet will be a neutron liquid. At the same time, as the author's estimates showed, with the mass of the hole being equal, the thickness of the layer of neutrons above the event horizon is about 24 mm. Let us now consider the process of neutron liquid inflow into an object with small dimensions. Taking into account (4), we first calculate the possible temperature of the incident matter near the event horizon from the relation

Where is the Boltzmann constant, the rest mass of the neutron. From (6) we find the neutron temperature . This agrees well with the results obtained by Schwartzman. Considering the process of free fall of gas into a black hole, he came to the conclusion that the temperature reached in the process of adiabatic compression corresponds in order of magnitude to the kinetic energy of the fall and can be .

In order for the kinetic energy of the falling neutron liquid to be converted into thermal energy, the matter near the hole must experience a large acceleration. As already noted, in our case, it can occur due to the special structure of the magnetic field near the event horizon, where the lines of force experience a sharp break (Fig. 2).

It is of interest to estimate the real value of the magnetic field of the hole. As is known, the Earth has a significant dipole magnetic field. At the poles of the planet, the induction vector is directed vertically and has a modulus , while the magnetic moment of the dipole is . Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune also have strong magnetic fields in the solar system. Slowly rotating Venus (rotation period 243 days), similar to the Earth in size and internal structure, does not have its own magnetic field. Apparently, for sufficiently large and rapidly rotating planets, the existence of a dipole magnetic field is a common phenomenon. According to existing ideas, the Earth's magnetic field is formed due to the flow of electric currents in a well-conducting core. According to the available research results, the Earth has a solid inner core with a radius , consisting of pure metals (iron with an admixture of nickel). There is also a liquid outer core, which presumably consists of iron with an admixture of non-metals (sulfur or silicon). The outer core begins at a depth of about . According to some calculations, the zone in which the main sources of the magnetic field are located is located at a distance from the center of the planet, here the average radius of the Earth. The conductivity of the earth's core is such that during the flow of matter, the magnetic field is carried away by the matter with little or no slippage (the phenomenon of "freezing").

A black hole is an extremely dense object, so after a while it will descend into the deep parts of the planet and reach its center, where it can merge with other holes. Since the growing black hole inherits the angular momentum of the planet, the axes of rotation of both bodies will be parallel (we will neglect the rotation of the hole within the framework of this article). With this arrangement, due to the “frozen-in” effect, the magnetic field in the process of collapse is drawn to the black hole evenly, from all sides, and it will form its own dipole magnetic field with poles on the axis of rotation (the theory allows the black hole to have a magnetic charge). Under magnetic charge in theory one of the magnetic poles is implied. The neutron fluid surrounding the black hole must also "freeze" the magnetic field due to high conductivity. Thus, according to the calculations of Harrison and Wheeler in neutron stars quite a lot of current carriers, the concentrations of electrons, protons and neutrons are related as . With the help of modern methods of observation, it has been established that dipole magnetic fields with induction are present on neutron stars. It is generally accepted that these fields are inherited from the precursor stars during the collapse, due to the effect of "frost-in".

The possibility that black holes have their own magnetic field is actually confirmed by observations made with the Ibis telescope, which is installed on the European Space Agency's (ESA) Integral satellite. Studies of the space object Cygnus X-1, which is one of the candidates for the title of a black hole, revealed the polarization of radiation emanating from a region with a radius surrounding this object. According to the authors of the study, the observed polarization is a consequence of the presence of a given black hole's own magnetic field.

After studying 76 supermassive black holes at the center of galaxies, researchers at the U.S. The Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy in Bonn concluded that they have superstrong magnetic fields, which are comparable in strength to matter near the event horizon with the action of gravity.

The phenomenon of "freezing" leads to the fact that during the collapse of the planet's core, its dipole magnetic field is gradually concentrated near the black hole in the form of a compact dipole with poles located on the axis of rotation. When the field is formed, the law of conservation of the magnetic flux is fulfilled:

Where is the average magnetic field induction in the planet's core, the cross-sectional area of ​​the core region where the main field is generated, the magnetic field induction at the black hole pole, and the effective area of ​​the black hole's magnetic pole. Using the corresponding area radii, equality (7) can be rewritten as

Based on the existing calculations, we can assume that . It is usually accepted by geophysicists that the average field induction in the core . According to (1), with a mass, the radius of a black hole would be . Therefore, we can accept the radius of the magnetic pole of the hole (we will obtain approximately the same value of the radius further in an independent way). As a result, we obtain an estimate of the magnetic field induction at the poles of the hole . This field is about a million times more field at the poles of neutron stars. In this case, in the immediate vicinity of the black hole, the field strength is somewhat smaller, because the dipole field changes according to the law when the radial coordinate changes.

It is also of interest to estimate the volume energy density of the magnetic field near a black hole from the well-known relation:

Where is the magnetic constant. It is easy to calculate that near the poles at , . We need to compare the obtained value with the volumetric density of the kinetic energy of the inflowing matter

Where , but first we must determine the density of matter .

It is known that near the center of the limiting neutron star, the density of the neutron liquid reaches its maximum value at a star radius of about 10 km and its mass up to 2.5 solar masses (the Oppenheimer–Volkov limit). With a further increase in the mass of a neutron star (), the pressure of the fermion gas is no longer able to restrain the increase in pressure due to gravity, and a black hole begins to grow in its center. Thus, a black hole growing inside the planet by its gravity should create near itself a pressure approximately equal to the pressure in the center of the limiting neutron star, respectively, the substance should have a density of about

Substituting into expression (10) the density , we obtain an estimate of the volumetric density of the kinetic energy of the neutron liquid . It is more than an order of magnitude less than the previously calculated volumetric energy density (9) of the magnetic field . Therefore, in the vicinity of a black hole, the condition will be satisfied. It is known that a strong magnetic field has a significant effect on the process of accretion of conducting matter. At , a magnetic field prevents the conductive substance from moving across the field lines. The movement of matter becomes possible practically only in the direction of the magnetic field. When you try to bring the lines of force of the magnetic field together, a counter pressure arises, and when you try to bend them, the pressure is twice as much: . In the direction perpendicular to the field, matter can only seep very slowly. As a result, the matter moves practically only along the field lines to the magnetic poles and here flows into the star in the form of two narrow streams. In particular, in the case of neutron stars, this leads to the formation of two hot spots at the magnetic poles and to the appearance of the X-ray pulsar effect. .

At densities above, the Fermi energy of nucleons is already so high that the "gas" formed by them actually behaves like radiation. Pressure and density are largely determined by the mass equivalent of the kinetic energy of the particles, and there is the same relationship between them as in the case of a photon gas: .

An important role in the formation of narrow streams of matter near the poles of a star will be played by the Bernoulli effect, which, as you know, leads to the fact that in a fluid flow moving at a speed, the pressure decreases by a value (in our case, ). The pressure in a fluid at rest, as noted above, is equal to . It can be seen that due to the Bernoulli effect, the pressure in the flow decreases significantly. This is compensated by the pressure of the magnetic field, which is directed in such a way that it prevents the field lines of force from approaching. As a result, the magnetic field is compressed into a narrow cylinder (tube) and serves as a kind of conductor for the flow of a conductive liquid. Since the substance inside the tube is in free fall, the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column in the tube is zero. The pressure acts only from the side of the substance surrounding the tube. In this case, the relationship of pressures takes place:

where is the induction of the magnetic field in the tube, the pressure outside the tube. We took this pressure equal to . As a result, at from (11) we obtain the equality:

From here at field induction inside the tube. Previously, based on the conservation of the magnetic flux of a planet like Earth, we in an independent way from (8) we found that the field induction at the black hole poles is . The coincidence of the orders of magnitude of the fields indicates that the real field of the planet is quite sufficient for the formation of magnetic tubes at the poles of the hole with a field satisfying (11) and the narrow flows of matter contained in them, and this coincidence does not look random.

The superstrong magnetic field near the black hole has a high density, which can be found from the relation . With the value of the field induction at the poles calculated above, we obtain and, respectively, . It can be seen that the magnetic field at the poles is approximately equal in density to the surrounding neutron liquid.

Let us dwell in more detail on the reason for the formation of two hot spots at the poles of a black hole. As already noted, it may be specific structure magnetic field at the bottom of the tubes. This structure is formed due to the fact that the magnetic field lines of the planet are approaching the black hole in different areas at different speeds. Let us imagine that initially the force lines of the planet's magnetic field at a distance from the hole are rectilinear and parallel to the axis of rotation of the hole (Fig. 2). In this case, the magnetic field of the hole has already reached such a value that the fall of matter occurs mainly in the region of the poles. Therefore, the field line under consideration, frozen into the substance, will approach the hole faster in the region of the poles than in the region of the equator. As a result, the black hole has such a structure of the magnetic field that part of its lines of force at the base of the magnetic tube, near the event horizon, experiences a kink almost at an angle and the lines of force then diverge away from the tube, going around the hole. Since the magnetic field prevents the movement of the conducting substance across the lines of force, then in the region of their break, the incident substance abruptly changes the direction of its movement and experiences a large acceleration, approximately the same as if it collided with a solid surface. Due to this, a significant part of the kinetic energy (4) is converted into thermal energy and compact hot spots are formed at the poles, the diameter of which is approximately equal to the diameter of the magnetic tube. The reason for the release of heat, in particular, can be the strong electromagnetic radiation of charged particles moving with high acceleration, as well as the appearance of turbulence in the motion of matter.

Rice. 2. Scheme of the formation of the magnetic field of a black hole (sphere) by gradually capturing the magnetic field of the planet. Short arrows show the direction of flow of the conductive substance entraining the magnetic field.

Of great importance in the transfer of thermal energy from the hot spot to the surrounding matter will be neutrino radiation. At temperatures above, the neutrino radiation power increases rapidly. So, in the central part of a newly formed neutron star, the neutrino passes into the energy up to the thermal energy obtained from the gravitational energy.

Let us estimate the neutrino mean free path. The order of magnitude of the weak interaction cross section is , where is the characteristic energy of the process. Here , the Fermi constant. In calculations, it is convenient to express the energy of particles in MeV in this case. Characteristic particle energy in the hot spot region. In our case, at energy , hence . Neutrino mean free path , where is the concentration of particles of the medium through which neutrinos move. We assume that the medium consists of only nucleons, then , where is the rest mass of the nucleon, is the relativistic addition to the mass of the nucleon. As a result, we find that neutrino mean free path . Due to the fact that neutrinos move at the speed of light, thermal energy quickly leaves the hot spot outside the magnetic tube and the matter is heated above the event horizon in a radius equal to . Outside the tube, due to the presence of the transverse component of the magnetic field, the falling velocity of matter is very low. This "saves" the bulk of the thermal energy from falling into the hole. The heated and therefore less dense substance outside the tube immediately begins to float due to the action of the Archimedes force, and a flow of hot substance in the opposite direction probably occurs along the outer edge of the magnetic tube. The floating matter expands and cools, and this reduces the loss of neutrino radiation to the outer space. In the propagation of heat, the high thermal conductivity of the neutron liquid, in which particles move at relativistic velocities, will also be of great importance. It should be noted that if it were many times larger, then a significant part of the energy released in the spot in the form of neutrinos would freely escape into space, respectively, heating the surrounding matter would be less effective. On the contrary, if was much smaller than the radius of the tube, then a significant part of the released heat would fall into the black hole. But it has just the value at which the hole turns into an effective converter of gravitational energy (4) into thermal energy.

The rising gas "bubble", increasing in size, creates a large overpressure inside the planet, which ultimately leads to the appearance of ruptures in the solid inner core and mantle and to the ejection of hot gas jets from the planet. Individual bodies can be ejected from the planet by gases and fall back onto its surface. The surface of these bodies can be very hot and evaporate, emitting in the optical and X-ray range. Due to low thermal conductivity rocks thermal energy slowly penetrates into the internal parts of bodies and their evaporation occurs only from the surface, so the largest of them can exist for quite a long time and give off energy in the form of radiation. The idea of ​​the rate of heat penetration into rock samples is given by the following fact. characteristic time temperature equalization between the surfaces of a flat layer of rock with a thickness proportional to . So, for a day, and for a year. Due to the continuous ejection of hot material from the bowels of the planet, the temperature of its surface can be maintained at a high level for a long time. Calculations have shown that in order to ensure the observed maximum brightness of a supernova, this temperature should be on the order of 14 million degrees. The main part of the planet's volume can remain relatively cold for quite a long time.

In accordance with (4), the photon energy in the region of hot spots will be about half the rest energy of the nucleon, and the photon frequency thermal radiation will be in the gamma range. If we assume that in the hot spots formed, kinetic energy (4) is converted into thermal energy, then this corresponds to the value =0.4. At the beginning of the article, it was shown that approximately such a coefficient follows from the real masses of the planets and the observed energies of the total radiation of supernovae. Coming to the surface of the planet, the thermal energy from the spots eventually goes to "infinity" in the form of radiation. As already noted, jets of hot gas that break through the body of the planet and go into the surrounding space can be of great importance in the transfer of heat from the black hole to the surface of the planet. These gases also throw pieces of rocks with a hot surface onto the surface of the planet. As a result, the total flux of radiation coming out of the planet's surface will be equal to the flux of radiation coming out of hot spots. An observer located directly near the spot can calculate the effective area of ​​the spots based on the known relation :

Where is the total radiation power of two spots, the total area of ​​the spots, the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, the temperature of the spots. However, an observer at "infinity" must also take into account the effect of time dilation when calculating the area of ​​the spots.

It is known that for an infinitely distant observer, the time interval is longer than for an observer located at a small distance from the hole:

You can enter a conditional coefficient of transition from one reference system to another. Since the hot spot is near the event horizon, we can assume that lies in the range , then from (14) we get the range of the corresponding values ​​. For a distant observer, the radiation power of spots is several times less, because . Let the peak power of the supernova radiation, registered by a distant observer, be equal to . Then, in accordance with (13) and (14), in the reference frame associated with the spot, the peak radiation power of the spots is . Accordingly, for the areas of spots in the transition from the remote reference system to the comoving system, we obtain .

The typical supernova emission power at maximum brightness can be found using the data from Table 1, published in the paper and reflecting physical properties 22 extragalactic supernovae. Table 1 shows that out of 22 extragalactic supernovae presented, 20 form a rather homogeneous group of objects, the brightness rise time of which has an average value of 20.2 days with a standard deviation . Supernovae 1961v and 1909a, which deviate significantly from the general regularity, can be excluded from consideration. From Table 1 it follows that out of the 20 remaining objects, at maximum brightness, one object has an absolute magnitude of -18, seven objects -19, eight objects -20 and four objects -21. The absolute bolometric stellar magnitude of the Sun is at the radiation power . There is a known relationship between the radiation flux densities E and magnitudes:

In the transition to absolute stellar magnitudes, , where is the standard distance accepted in astronomy, is the power of the star's radiation. From this, the relationship between the radiation powers of the two objects is obtained:

where , . Therefore, the above absolute magnitudes of supernovae: correspond to the peak radiation powers . To estimate the average value, in this case, it is advisable to use the median. As a result, we obtain that in the reference frame associated with a distant observer, the average value of the peak power over a sample of 20 supernovae is . Using this value, from (13) we find that from the point of view of a distant observer, the total area of ​​two radiating spots . However, for an observer located near the spot, the average radiation power and, accordingly, the total area of ​​two spots . In particular, for , we obtain, respectively, the area of ​​one spot , and its radius , i.e. is about 1 mm.

Table 1

Supernova designation	Type and class	Gloss rise time, days	Shine at the maximum, m		mother galaxy
			See-may size	Absolute value	Designation, NGC	Type	Apparent magnitude, m
1885a	I.16	23	5	-19	224	Sb	4
1895b	I.7	18	8	-21	5253	S0	11
1972e	I.9	19	8	-21	5253	S0	11
1937c	I.11	21	8	-20	IC4182	I	14
1954a	I.12	21	9	-21	4214	I	10
1920a	I.5	16	11	-19	2608	SBc	13
1921c	I.6	17	11	-20	3184	sc	10
1961h	I.8	19	11	-20	4564	E	12
1962m	II.4	20	11	-18	1313	SBc	11
1966j	I.5	16	11	-19	3198	sc	11
1939b	I.17	24	12	-19	4621	E	11
1960f	I.8	19	11	-21	4496	sc	13
1960r	I.8	19	12	-20	4382	S0	10
1961v	II.10	110	12	-18	1058	Sb	12
1963i	I.14	22	12	-19	4178	sc	13
1971i	I.12	21	12	-19	5055	Sb	9
1974g	I.8	19	12	-19	4414	sc	11
1909a	II.2	8	12	-18	5457	sc	9
1979c	II.5	25	12	-20	4321	sc	11
1980k	II.5	25	12	-20	6946	sc	10
1980n	I.10	20	12	-20	1316	E	10
1981b	I.9	19	12	-20	4536	Sb	11

The estimate obtained above is in good agreement with our assumption that the primary radiation comes from two compact hot spots located at the poles of an object with a radius of about 10 mm and is another confirmation that we are most likely dealing with a black hole absorbing planet. Earlier, based on the law of conservation of the planet's magnetic flux (8), we obtained that at , the magnetic field induction at the poles of the hole will be approximately equal to . At the same time, it independently follows from (12) that the value of the field at the poles of the hole will be about . Thus, relations (8), (12), and (13) lead to mutually consistent results, which can be considered a sign of the correctness of the theory.

From (12) it follows that the magnetic field induction in the tubes at the black hole poles is a constant value . Therefore, with the gradual absorption of the planet's magnetic flux by the black hole, the increase in the magnetic flux in the tube occurs due to an increase in its cross-sectional area. This leads to a proportional increase in the area of ​​the hot spot and, consequently, to an increase in the power of the supernova radiation, in accordance with (13).

The primary radiation of the spots, which is a stream of gamma quanta and neutrinos, heats the matter near the spots, causing it to also emit high-energy photons and neutrinos. Neutrinos have the greatest penetrating power, but electromagnetic radiation, diffusing in matter, gradually moves away from the black hole. In this case, the radiation experiences a known gravitational redshift, which is a direct consequence of time dilation:

where is the wavelength near the black hole, at a distance from its center, the wavelength is at "infinity". In particular, at , redshift . According to the existing point of view, the gravitational redshift is only a consequence of the different speed of time at different points of the inhomogeneous gravitational field. The energy of the radiation (photons) does not change when rising in the gravitational field. In our case, this means that a portion of the radiation energy in (13) is conserved as we move away from the black hole. In accordance with (14), the time segment is transformed into a longer segment , which will be expressed in a decrease in the power of the supernova radiation from the point of view of an external observer. But at the same time, the duration of the supernova glow will increase for it by the same number of times. The gravitational redshift does not change the total energy of radiation coming from the vicinity of the black hole. The process of obtaining it by an external observer is only stretched in time by a factor of K. What was said about photons should also be true for the gravitational redshift of neutrinos, which, like photons, have zero rest mass and moving at the speed of light.

As already noted, the black hole will be located in the central part of the planet. In this case, in its vicinity, the formation of a cavity filled with gas with high pressure and high temperature is possible. At some point in time, the gas pressure will reach a critical limit and deep cracks will form in the body of the planet, through which the gas will escape. Explosive release of the first big portion plasma with a temperature , can give rise to a burst of gamma radiation (wavelengths ). Such bursts really exist and their close relationship with supernovae has been discovered. Far into space, incl. and beyond the planetary system of the star, individual fragments and molten fragments of the deep matter of the planet can also be thrown out, subsequently becoming iron and stone meteorites and asteroids. After that, the outflow of hot gas will continue and a gas cloud will begin to form around the planet, gradually increasing in size.

In the spectra of type I supernovae, after passing through the maximum brightness, many lines are found that overlap each other, which creates difficulties in their identification. But, nevertheless, some lines were identified. They turned out to be ionized Ca, Mg, Fe, Si, O atoms, which, as is known, are widely distributed in the matter of stone planets, such as the Earth. Characteristically, there is no hydrogen in the spectrum of type I supernovae. This may speak in favor of a non-stellar (planetary) origin of the primary gas cloud.

The estimates made by the author showed that if an order of magnitude of the planet's mass evaporates, the gas cloud becomes opaque to X-rays. This radiation comes from the central region of the cloud with a radius of the order of the radius of the planet and with a surface temperature of about 14 million kelvins. This temperature follows from the known relation . Here, in accordance with the observational data, the peak radiation power of a planetary supernova is assumed to be . Energy is emitted into outer space in the optical range from the outer shell of a gas cloud (photosphere). At maximum brightness, the calculated radius of the photosphere from the above formula should be about 34 AU. at the surface temperature known from observations.

We have now come close to calculating such characteristics of a supernova as the radiation power and the time it takes for it to reach its maximum brightness. Above, we came to the conclusion that the neutron liquid flows into the black hole in the form of two cones, which near the poles look like narrow jets enclosed in magnetic tubes. In this case, near the contact of the tube with the black hole, a hot spot with a diameter approximately equal to the diameter of the tube is formed. In accordance with this, the total elementary volume at the base of the tubes

Where S is the area of ​​two hot spots, the radial coordinate. Accordingly, the elementary mass in the tubes

Where is the density of the inflowing matter. Let's change , where is the vertical component of the matter velocity. Then the elementary mass:

From (5) and (20) it follows that the total radiation power of two spots in their reference frame

In calculations using this formula, we can assume that . In this case, the values ​​of other parameters = 0.4, the density of matter directly above the spot , the area of ​​two spots , where and K = 10. As a result, we get . Now, based on the actually observed average peak power of supernova light emission, in an independent way, we find the radiation power of spots. It can be seen that practically coincides with the theoretical value obtained from (21). Note that the relation between and does not depend on K, because . A good agreement between the values ​​can be considered a strong confirmation of the correctness of the theory. The resulting relatively small discrepancy between the powers and , in particular, can be explained by some uncertainty of such parameters as and .

It can be assumed that the planet loses about 30% of its mass to form a hot gas cloud. In addition, at = 0.4, 40% of the remaining mass of the planet is lost as light radiation. In this case, for the weakest and most powerful supernovae, the total energies of light radiation are . Taking into account both indicated mass losses, we find that the mass range of the initial planets is . It is generally accepted that the condition of the planet's viability requires that its mass does not enter the region of "Neptunes" with masses . Neptunes have super-dense atmospheres with hurricane-force winds and are considered unsuitable for the evolution of life. Therefore, the upper value of the mass of a habitable planet is quite consistent with this boundary condition. The lower value of the mass does not differ too much from the mass of the Earth, so such a planet, apparently, is able to hold enough dense atmosphere and at the same time have a magnetic field similar in magnitude to the terrestrial field. Thus, the observed average supernova peak power should correspond to a planet with a mass of about . Now we have all the initial data for calculating the rise time of the supernova.

As the black hole grows, the trapped magnetic flux passing through the spots increases. Since the induction of the magnetic flux in the tube is , then with an increase in the magnetic flux through the cross section of the tube, the spot area proportionally increases, which in turn leads to an increase in the brightness of the supernova. It has been observed that approximately half of the light energy of a supernova is released at the stage of brightness increase, and the other half is released at the decaying part of the curve. This, in particular, can be seen in Fig.1. After the passage of the maximum, which lasts 1-2 days, the brightness rapidly decreases by stellar magnitudes, i.e. in time. After that, an exponential decline begins. But the decay region of Type I supernovae is usually more than 10 times longer than the ascending region. In our model, all the energy of a supernova is formed from the gravitational energy (4) of the falling matter. It follows from this that the black hole absorbs approximately half of the mass of the planet in the region of the increase in brightness, and the other half at the stage of the decay of the curve. This means that, having captured half the mass of the planet, the black hole captures almost the entire magnetic flux of the planet, and the cross-sectional area of ​​the tube stops growing. Since the dipole magnetic field of the hole (like the planets) is maintained by the ring current, then with the gradual attenuation of this current, the magnetic flux decreases, respectively, the cross-sectional area of ​​​​the tube also decreases, which leads to a decrease in the brightness of the supernova. The ring current surrounding the tube can be represented with some approximation as a torus with inductance L and active resistance R. In such a closed circuit, the current attenuation occurs according to the well-known exponential law:

where is the value of the initial current (in our case, at ).

It should be noted that the reason for the release of energy in the region of the decay of the supernova light curve is still among the unsolved problems. The segment of the smooth decay of the curve (Fig. 1) for type I supernovae is characterized by high similarity. The radiation power during the decay is well described by the exponent :

Where are the days for all type I supernovae. This simple dependency runs until the end of supernova observations. A record-breaking 700-day decay was observed in a supernova that exploded in the galaxy NGC 5253 in 1972. To explain this section of the curve, in 1956 a group of American astronomers (Baade et al.) proposed a hypothesis according to which the release of energy in the decay section occurs due to radioactive decay nuclei of the isotope californium-254, whose half-life is 55 days, roughly corresponds to the value of the exponent. However, this requires an unrealistically large amount of this rare isotope. Difficulties arise when trying to use radioactive isotope nickel-56, which, decaying with a half-life of 6.1 days, passes into radioactive cobalt-56, which decays with a half-life of 77 days, forming stable isotope iron-56. In this way of explaining, a significant problem is the absence of strong lines of ionized cobalt in the spectra of Type I supernovae after the passage of maximum brightness.

In our model, the exponential decrease in the supernova radiation power is explained by the exponential decrease in the value of the ring current (22), since . Wherein days. The convex section of the curve in Fig. 1 (indicated by the letter ) can be interpreted as follows. At maximum brightness, the magnetic flux of the planet still continues to be captured by the black hole, but the increase in the magnetic flux is already equal to its losses due to the damping of the ring current. On the decline of the convex section of the curve, the remnants of the planet's magnetic field are absorbed. And, finally, after passing through the section, the flow of the magnetic flux to the black hole completely stops and an exponential decline begins, due to the attenuation of the ring current circulating around the tube.

Since the magnetic fluxes in the tubes at the south and north poles of a black hole are equal, let us consider the process of magnetic field capture by a hole in one hemisphere of the planet. Let's select in the central part of the planet a ball with a radius and with an average induction of the magnetic field inside it equal to . Then the magnetic flux passing through the cross-sectional area of ​​the ball perpendicular to the vector passing through the diameter:

where is the section radius. After differentiation, we arrive at the equation:

The mass of one hemisphere with a radius and with an average density of matter:

Hence the relationship between differentials:

From (25) and (27) we get:

The last expression describes the rate of change of the magnetic flux in one hemisphere with a change in mass and actually means the following. If a black hole absorbs a mass from a planet, then together with this mass it will capture the planet's magnetic flux equal to . Further, taking into account that and , where the volume of one hemisphere, we obtain the relationship:

Hence the rate of change of the magnetic flux during the flow of mass from the planet to the black hole:

Obviously, the rate of change of the planet's magnetic flux is equal to the rate of change of the hole's magnetic flux. Equations (30) and (29) are also valid for the values ​​and m of the hole. To see this, we can imagine that the mass and magnetic flux flow in the opposite direction - from the spherical black hole to the planet.

In the case of the black hole we are considering, almost all of its magnetic field is concentrated in tubes at the poles and for it and , where is the cross-sectional area of ​​the tube. As a result, from (29) we arrive at the equation:

where corresponds to the mass that has passed through the tube by the time , when the supernova is already visible through the telescope, the cross-sectional area of ​​the tube at . After calculating the integrals, we arrive at the relation:

or for , and :

From here one can find the time when a supernova reaches its maximum brightness from the point of view of a distant observer. The circumstance that allows us to eliminate the coefficient K:

As already noted, approximately half of the energy of the light emission of a supernova is released at the stage of brightness increase, and the second half at the stage of its decline. This means that the entire magnetic field of the planet will have passed into the black hole by the time approximately half of the planet's mass has been absorbed. The mass, for example, of the Earth's core, where almost all of its magnetic flux is concentrated, is . This is slightly less than half the mass of the planet. But Fig. 2 shows that the flow of matter into the hole occurs mainly in directions close to the axis of rotation. Therefore, by the time of the capture of the entire core, some part of the mantle substance from the subpolar regions will also be captured. It can be expected that after absorbing the entire magnetic field of the planet, the mass that has passed through both magnetic tubes at the poles of the hole can be about half the mass of the planet. If we also take into account that we considered the process of absorption of the planet's matter by a black hole in only one hemisphere, then for a supernova of average brightness . Physically, M 0 is the total mass that has passed through the cross section of one magnetic tube by the time the peak radiation power is reached. The mass corresponding to the beginning of supernova observation can be found as follows. From (13) and (31) the relationship follows:

or after integration:

whence it follows

It is known that for supernovae the brightness amplitude (the difference between the minimum and maximum brightness) is stellar magnitudes. Let the amplitude be equal to the average value of 16 magnitudes. Then from (16) follows and, further from (38) we obtain . After substituting into (35) the numerical values ​​of other physical quantities , and the area of ​​one hot spot from the point of view of a distant observer , we find the time when the supernova reaches its maximum brightness for an external observer of the day. This is in good agreement with the observational data presented in Table 1, where this time is in the range of a day. Due to the properties of the logarithm of the brightness amplitude, 15 and 17 magnitudes also give acceptable values ​​of 17.9 and 20.3 days, respectively.

Thus, the supernova model proposed above, based on the absorption of a planet by a small black hole, is able to explain all the main observed properties of supernovae, such as the total energy of light radiation, radiation power, the time it takes for a supernova to reach its maximum brightness, and also indicates the reason for the release of energy in the decay region. supernova brilliance. In the initial stage of development of a planetary supernova, when the planet breaks up, a cloud of hot plasma with a temperature can apparently be ejected, which will cause a flash of gamma radiation, noted in real supernovae. The theory also explains characteristics light curve (Fig. 1).

It is also of interest to make some estimates regarding the degree of impact of a planetary supernova on the central star. Supernova Radiation Flux Density at a distance at will amount to . This is many orders of magnitude greater than the flux density of its own radiation from the surface of a star such as the Sun (). It follows from the relation that due to the supernova radiation, the temperature of the Sun's surface would increase from to . It is easy to calculate that only during the days near the maximum brightness of a "planetary" supernova, a star similar to the Sun would receive thermal energy , where is the radius of the star. The Sun itself produces this energy in 577 years. It can be assumed that such a high heating leads to a loss of thermal stability of the star. According to existing calculations, ordinary stars can maintain thermal stability only during slow increases in temperature, when the star has time to expand and reduce its temperature. A sufficiently rapid increase in temperature can lead to loss of stability and to the explosion of the star's thermonuclear reactor. According to the existing model, in a star like the Sun, thermonuclear reactions of the hydrogen cycle occur in the region up to 0.3 radius from the center of the star, where the temperature varies from 15.5 to 5 million kelvins. In the range of distances of radii, thermal energy is transferred towards the surface by means of radiation. Above, to the very surface of the star, there is a turbulent convective zone, where thermal energy is transferred due to vertical movements substances. On the Sun, the average velocity of vertical convective motions is . In our case, heating the surface of the star to a temperature of over 100 thousand degrees will slow down the convection rate and increase the temperature of the matter streams descending. As a result, the star will resemble nuclear reactor with partially switched off cooling. With a vertical speed of convective flows, the thermal energy received from a planetary supernova, having passed about , will reach the lower boundary of the convective zone in just .

When the convective layer of the star is heated, due to radiant energy and due to hotter convective flows, on the side of the star facing the supernova, the gas will expand and a bulge will form. The thermal energy received by the star will be converted into gravitational energy. potential energy formed "hump". This will cause an imbalance of gravitational forces inside the star. The deep matter, including the core area, will begin to flow in such a way as to restore the gravitational balance. Viscous friction leads to the fact that the kinetic energy of the flows is converted into the thermal energy of the substance. Due to the fact that the star rotates, the “hump” is constantly moving. Due to this, the flow and release of heat inside the star continues until the supernova shines. As a result, the deep matter of the star in a short time will receive the same thermal energy that the star itself produces over hundreds of years. Apparently, in some cases, this is enough to cause a loss of thermal stability of the star. Some excessive increase in temperature in the depths of the star leads to an increase in the rate of thermonuclear reactions, which in turn leads to an even greater increase in temperature, i.e. the process of burning thermonuclear fuel begins to self-accelerate and cover more and more volumes of the star, which ultimately, probably, leads to its explosion.

If the explosive process begins in the layers located slightly above the core of the star, then it will experience strong compression. In those cases where the star has a sufficiently massive helium core (with a mass less than ), the pressure of the explosion can "push" it to collapse into a neutron star. Due to the fact that the explosion is initially initiated in a limited region of the star, it can have an asymmetric character, as a result of which the neutron star will receive a large impulse. This explains well why a neutron star is literally “shooting out” from the site of a supernova explosion at a speed of about 500 km / s and even up to 1700 km / s (a pulsar in the Guitar Nebula). The energy of the star's explosion will be spent, in particular, on the kinetic energy of the neutron star and the kinetic energy of the ejected gas, which subsequently forms a characteristic expanding nebula. These types of energy are commonly referred to as supernova energy. These types of energy are also supplemented with the energy of a neutrino flux, the radiation of which should accompany the process of collapse of the star's core. In this regard, the total energy of a supernova is sometimes theoretically estimated at or more than joules. Light effects during the explosion of main sequence stars, as already noted, according to the calculations of Imshennik V.S. and Nadezhina D.K. , turn out to be much smaller than that of real supernovae, so the process of thermal nuclear explosion stars can be almost invisible against the background of a planetary supernova explosion.

In those cases where the explosion force of a normal star is not enough to turn the helium core located in its center into a neutron star, this core can be ejected into the surrounding space in the form of a white dwarf. Recently discovered white dwarf LP 40-365 with a very high space velocity of about . This speed cannot be explained by-effect at the merger of two white dwarfs, because both stars die in the process. As another possible reason for the appearance of such a high speed the process of hydrogen accretion by a white dwarf from a companion star in a close binary system is considered. When a certain amount of hydrogen is accumulated, its pressure and temperature reach critical values, and on the surface of the dwarf thermonuclear explosion. Explosions like these are known as nova explosions and can be repeated. But the force of the explosions in this case is relatively small and the dwarf continues to remain in its orbit. These explosions cannot pull the white dwarf out of the binary system and lead to the emergence of such large space velocities as the white dwarf LP 40-365. The discovery of this object may indicate that stars similar to the Sun, contrary to all expectations, can really explode.

As already noted, the ejection of plasma from the planet's core can also be accompanied by the ejection of large debris and molten fragments of the planet, including from the iron core. This, in particular, can explain the origin of iron meteorites, as well as the formation of chondrules - balls of silicate composition present in meteorites, such as chondrites. A meteorite is also known, in which chondrules are balls of iron. According to some reports, this meteorite is stored in the Nikolaevskaya astronomical observatory. Chondrules in our theory are formed when the melt is sprayed with jets of hot gas. In weightlessness, the particles of the melt take the form of balls and, as they cool, solidify. If we take into account that the rate of ejection of matter from the interior of the planet can exceed the rate of escape from the star, then some of the meteorites and asteroids can enter the solar system from planetary systems other stars. Along with fragments meteorite substance objects of non-terrestrial technogenic origin can occasionally fall on the Earth.

In May 1931, in Eton, Colorado, a small ingot of metal crashed into the ground near farmer Foster, who was working in the garden. When the farmer picked it up, it was still so hot that it burned his hands. The Eton meteorite was studied by the American specialist H. Niniger. He found that the meteorite was composed of a Cu-Zn alloy (66.8% Cu and 33.2% Zn). Alloys of similar composition are known on Earth as brass, so the meteorite was classified as a pseudometeorite. Other curious cases of unusual specimens falling from the sky are also known. So on April 5, 1820, a red-hot piece of limestone fell on the deck of the English ship Escher. AT earthly conditions chemogenic and biogenic limestones are formed in the process of sedimentation on the bottom of the seas. The geologist Wichmann, who studied this sample, stated that "this is limestone, and therefore not a meteorite."

There are also reports on the Internet about “strange” finds of objects of artificial origin in geological deposits with an age of tens and hundreds of millions of years. In cases where the reliability of such a find is proven, one can assume an unearthly artificial origin found artifact.

in the cracks large asteroids ejected from the planet, water containing bacteria can survive. These asteroids may play a role Vehicle for bacteria. Therefore, planetary supernovae can contribute to the expansion of life into other star systems, which strengthens the ground for the theory of panspermia. According to this theory, life in space exists almost everywhere, where there are favorable conditions for this, and finds ways to move from one star system to another.

Planetary supernovae, causing the explosion of the parent star, enrich the space environment with elements heavier than helium (metals). This leads to the formation of gas-dust clouds in galaxies. It is known that in these clouds in modern era there are active processes of formation of new stars and planets.

Based on the results obtained in the work, we can conclude that civilizations, initiating planetary supernovae, actually contribute to the spread of life in galaxies, and also reproduce the habitat of life in them. Thanks to this, the chain of life in galaxies is not interrupted. Apparently, this is final goal and the cosmic meaning of the existence of most civilizations. You can read more about this in the author's brochure Black Holes and the Purpose of Biosphere Evolution.

Information sources

1. Accretion (http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1172354 ? text_comp=gloss_graph.msn).
2. Astronomers have discovered a white dwarf that survived a supernova explosion (https://ria.ru/science/20170818/1500568296.html).
3. Blinnikov S.I. Gamma-ray bursts and supernovae (www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1176534/node3.html).
4. Bochkarev N.G. Magnetic fields in space. - M.: Nauka, 1985.
5. Gursky G. Neutron stars, black holes and supernovae. - In the book: On cutting edge astrophysics. - M.: Mir, 1979.
6. Gerels N., Piro L., Leonard P. The brightest explosions in the universe. - "In the world of science", 2003, No. 4 (http://astrogalaxy.ru/286.html).
7. Jacobs J. The Earth's core. - M.: Mir, 1979.
8. Zeldovich Ya.B., Blinnikov S.I., Shakura N.I. Physical foundations structure and evolution of stars. - M.: Ed. Moscow State University, 1981 (www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1169513/index.html).
9. Siegel F.Yu. The substance of the universe. - M.: "Chemistry", 1982.
10. Kononovich E.V., Moroz V.I. General course astronomy. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004.
11. Kaufman W. Cosmic frontiers of the theory of relativity. - M.: Mir, 1981.
12. Casper W. Gravity - mysterious and habitual. - M.: Mir, 1987.
13. Kuzmichev V.E. Laws and formulas of physics. - Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 1989.
14. Müller E., Hilbrand W., Janka H-T. How to blow up a star. - "In the world of science" / Astrophysics / No. 12, 2006.
15. Model of matter accretion onto a supermassive black hole/Lectures on General Astrophysics for Physicists (http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1170612/9lec/node 3 .html).
16. Mizner C., Thorn K., Wheeler J. Gravity, vol. 2, 1977.
17. Martynov D.Ya. General astrophysics course. - M.: Nauka, 1988.
18. Non-Exploding Supernovae: Problems in Theory (http://www.popmech.ru/article/6444-nevzryivayushiesya-sverhnovyie).
19. Narlikar J. Furious Universe. - M.: Mir, 1985.
20. Okun L.B., Selivanov K.G., Telegdi V.L. Gravity, photons, clocks. UFN, vol. 169, no. 10, 1999.
21. Pskovskiy Yu.P. New and supernova stars. - M., 1985 (http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1201870/07).
22. Rhys M., Ruffini R., Wheeler J. Black holes, gravitational waves and cosmology. - M.: Mir, 1977.
23. Rybkin V.V. Black holes and the purpose of the evolution of biospheres. - Novosibirsk, 2014, self-published.
24. Stacy F. Physics of the Earth. - M.: Mir, 1972.
25. The most famous black hole showed astronomers a magnetic field (http://lenta.ru/news/2011/03/25/magnetic/_Prited.htm).
26. Hoyle F, Wickramasingh C. Comets as a vehicle in the theory of panspermia. - In the book: Comets and the origin of life. - M.: Mir, 1984.
27. Tsvetkov D.Yu. supernovae. (http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1175009).
28. Black hole (https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black hole).
29. Shklovsky I.S. Stars: their birth, life and death. - M.: Nauka, 1984.
30. Shklovsky I.S. Problems of modern astrophysics. - M.: Nauka, 1988.
31. Gilfanov M., Bogdan A. An upper limit contribution of accreting white dwarfs the type Ia supernova rate. - "Nature", February 18, 2010.
32. Zamaninasab M., Clausen-Brown E., Savolainen T., Tchekhovskoy A. Dynamically important magnetic fields near accreting supermassive black holes. - Nature 510, 126–128, (05 June 2014).

Black holes are the only cosmic bodies capable of attracting light by gravity. They are also the largest objects in the universe. We're not likely to know what's going on near their event horizon (known as the "point of no return") anytime soon. These are the most mysterious places of our world, about which, despite decades of research, very little is known so far. This article contains 10 facts that can be called the most intriguing.

Black holes don't suck in matter.

Many people think of a black hole as a kind of "cosmic vacuum cleaner" that draws in the surrounding space. In fact, black holes are ordinary space objects, which have an exceptionally strong gravitational field.

If a black hole of the same size arose in the place of the Sun, the Earth would not be pulled inward, it would rotate in the same orbit as it does today. Stars located near black holes lose part of their mass in the form of stellar wind (this happens during the existence of any star) and black holes absorb only this matter.

The existence of black holes was predicted by Karl Schwarzschild

Karl Schwarzschild was the first to apply Einstein's general theory of relativity to justify the existence of a "point of no return". Einstein himself did not think about black holes, although his theory makes it possible to predict their existence.

Schwarzschild made his suggestion in 1915, just after Einstein published his general theory of relativity. That's when the term "Schwarzschild radius" came about, a value that tells you how much you have to compress an object to make it a black hole.

Theoretically, anything can become a black hole, given enough compression. The denser the object, the stronger the gravitational field it creates. For example, the Earth would become a black hole if an object the size of a peanut had its mass.

Black holes can spawn new universes

The idea that black holes can spawn new universes seems absurd (especially since we are still not sure about the existence of other universes). Nevertheless, such theories are being actively developed by scientists.

A very simplified version of one of these theories is as follows. Our world has exceptionally favorable conditions for the emergence of life in it. If any of the physical constants changed even slightly, we would not be in this world. The singularity of black holes cancels ordinary laws physics and can (at least in theory) give rise to a new universe that will be different from ours.

Black holes can turn you (and anything) into spaghetti

Black holes stretch objects that are close to them. These items begin to resemble spaghetti (there are even special term- "spaghettification").

This is due to the way gravity works. AT this moment your feet are closer to the center of the earth than your head, so they are more strongly attracted. At the surface of a black hole, the difference in gravity starts to work against you. The legs are attracted to the center of the black hole faster and faster, so that upper half the body can't keep up with them. Result: spaghettification!

Black holes evaporate over time

Black holes not only absorb the stellar wind, but also evaporate. This phenomenon was discovered in 1974 and was named Hawking radiation (after Stephen Hawking, who made the discovery).

Over time, the black hole can give all its mass into the surrounding space along with this radiation and disappear.

Black holes slow down time around them

As you get closer to the event horizon, time slows down. To understand why this happens, we need to turn to the “twin paradox”, thought experiment, often used to illustrate the fundamentals of Einstein's general theory of relativity.

One of the twin brothers remains on Earth, while the other flies off on a space journey, moving at the speed of light. Returning to Earth, the twin finds that his brother has aged more than he, because when moving at a speed close to the speed of light, time passes more slowly.

As you approach the event horizon of a black hole, you will be moving at such a high speed that time will slow down for you.

Black holes are the most advanced power plants

Black holes generate energy better than the Sun and other stars. This is due to the matter revolving around them. Overcoming the event horizon at great speed, the matter in the orbit of a black hole is heated to extremely high temperatures. This is called blackbody radiation.

For comparison, during nuclear fusion, 0.7% of matter is converted into energy. Near a black hole, 10% of matter becomes energy!

Black holes warp space around them

Space can be thought of as a stretched rubber band with lines drawn on it. If you put an object on the plate, it will change its shape. Black holes work the same way. Their extreme mass attracts everything to itself, including light (the rays of which, continuing the analogy, could be called lines on a plate).

Black holes limit the number of stars in the universe

Stars arise from gas clouds. In order for star formation to begin, the cloud must cool.

Radiation from black bodies prevents gas clouds from cooling and prevents the formation of stars.

Theoretically, any object can become a black hole.

The only difference between our Sun and a black hole is the strength of gravity. It is much stronger at the center of a black hole than at the center of a star. If our Sun were compressed to about five kilometers in diameter, it could be a black hole.

Theoretically, anything can become a black hole. In practice, we know that black holes arise only as a result of the collapse of huge stars, exceeding the mass of the Sun by 20-30 times.

The boundless Universe is full of secrets, mysteries and paradoxes. Despite the fact that modern science has made a huge leap forward in space exploration, much in this vast world remains incomprehensible to the human worldview. We know a lot about stars, nebulae, clusters and planets. However, in the vastness of the Universe there are such objects, the existence of which we can only guess. For example, we know very little about black holes. Basic information and knowledge about the nature of black holes is based on assumptions and conjectures. Astrophysicists and atomic scientists have been struggling with this issue for more than a dozen years. What is a black hole in space? What is the nature of such objects?

Talking about black holes in simple terms

To imagine what a black hole looks like, it is enough to see the tail of a train leaving the tunnel. The signal lights on the last car as the train deepens into the tunnel will decrease in size until they completely disappear from view. In other words, these are objects where, due to the monstrous attraction, even light disappears. Elementary particles, electrons, protons and photons are not able to overcome the invisible barrier, they fall into the black abyss of nothingness, therefore such a hole in space was called black. There is not the slightest inside her bright area, solid blackness and infinity. What lies on the other side of a black hole is unknown.

This space vacuum cleaner has a colossal force of attraction and is able to absorb an entire galaxy with all clusters and superclusters of stars, with nebulae and dark matter to boot. How is this possible? It remains only to guess. The laws of physics known to us in this case are cracking at the seams and do not provide an explanation for the ongoing processes. The essence of the paradox lies in the fact that in a given section of the Universe, the gravitational interaction of bodies is determined by their mass. The process of absorption by one object of another is not affected by their qualitative and quantitative composition. Particles, having reached a critical amount in a certain area, enter another level of interaction, where gravitational forces become forces of attraction. The body, object, substance or matter under the influence of gravity begins to shrink, reaching a colossal density.

Approximately such processes occur during the formation of a neutron star, where stellar matter is compressed in volume under the influence of internal gravity. Free electrons combine with protons to form electrically neutral particles called neutrons. The density of this substance is enormous. A particle of matter the size of a piece of refined sugar has a weight of billions of tons. Here it would be appropriate to recall the general theory of relativity, where space and time are continuous quantities. Therefore, the compression process cannot be stopped halfway and therefore has no limit.

Potentially, a black hole looks like a hole in which there may be a transition from one part of space to another. At the same time, the properties of space and time itself change, twisting into a space-time funnel. Reaching the bottom of this funnel, any matter decays into quanta. What is on the other side of the black hole, this giant hole? Perhaps there is another other space where other laws operate and time flows in the opposite direction.

In the context of the theory of relativity, the theory of a black hole is as follows. The point in space, where gravitational forces have compressed any matter to microscopic dimensions, has a colossal force of attraction, the magnitude of which increases to infinity. A wrinkle of time appears, and space is curved, closing in one point. Objects swallowed by the black hole are unable to resist the force of retraction of this monstrous vacuum cleaner on their own. Even the speed of light possessed by quanta does not allow elementary particles to overcome the force of attraction. Any body that gets to such a point ceases to be a material object, merging with the space-time bubble.

Black holes in terms of science

If you ask yourself, how do black holes form? There will be no single answer. There are a lot of paradoxes and contradictions in the Universe that cannot be explained from the point of view of science. Einstein's theory of relativity allows only a theoretical explanation of the nature of such objects, but quantum mechanics and physics are silent in this case.

Trying to explain the ongoing processes by the laws of physics, the picture will look like this. An object formed as a result of colossal gravitational compression of a massive or supermassive cosmic body. This process has a scientific name - gravitational collapse. The term "black hole" first appeared in the scientific community in 1968, when the American astronomer and physicist John Wheeler tried to explain the state of stellar collapse. According to his theory, in place of a massive star that has undergone gravitational collapse, a spatial and temporal gap appears, in which an ever-growing compression acts. Everything that the star consisted of goes inside itself.

Such an explanation allows us to conclude that the nature of black holes is in no way related to the processes occurring in the Universe. Everything that happens inside this object does not affect the surrounding space in any way with one "BUT". The gravitational force of a black hole is so strong that it bends space, causing galaxies to rotate around black holes. Accordingly, the reason why galaxies take the form of spirals becomes clear. How much time will it take to huge galaxy The Milky Way disappeared into the abyss of a supermassive black hole is unknown. A curious fact is that black holes can appear at any point in outer space, where they are created for this. ideal conditions. Such a wrinkle of time and space levels out the huge speeds with which the stars rotate and move in the space of the galaxy. Time in a black hole flows in another dimension. Within this region, no laws of gravity can be interpreted from the point of view of physics. This state is called a black hole singularity.

Black holes do not show any external identification signs, their existence can be judged by the behavior of others space objects that are affected gravitational fields. The whole picture of the struggle for life and death takes place on the border of a black hole, which is covered by a membrane. This imaginary surface of the funnel is called the "event horizon". Everything that we see up to this limit is tangible and material.

Scenarios for the formation of black holes

Developing the theory of John Wheeler, we can conclude that the mystery of black holes is not in the process of its formation. The formation of a black hole occurs as a result of the collapse of a neutron star. Moreover, the mass of such an object should exceed the mass of the Sun by three or more times. The neutron star shrinks until its own light is no longer able to escape from the tight grip of gravity. There is a limit to the size to which a star can shrink to give birth to a black hole. This radius is called gravitational radius. Massive stars at the final stage of their development should have a gravitational radius of several kilometers.

Today, scientists have received indirect evidence of the presence of black holes in a dozen X-rays. double stars. An X-ray star, pulsar or burster does not have a solid surface. Moreover, their mass more mass three suns. The current state of outer space in the constellation Cygnus, the X-ray star Cygnus X-1, makes it possible to trace the formation of these curious objects.

Based on research and theoretical assumptions, there are four scenarios for the formation of black stars in science today:

• gravitational collapse of a massive star final stage its evolution;
• collapse of the central region of the galaxy;
• black hole formation in progress big bang;
• the formation of quantum black holes.

The first scenario is the most realistic, but the number of black stars with which we are familiar today exceeds the number of known neutron stars. And the age of the Universe is not so big that such a number massive stars could go through the full process of evolution.

The second scenario has the right to life, and there is a vivid example of this - the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A *, sheltered in the center of our galaxy. The mass of this object is 3.7 solar masses. The mechanism of this scenario is similar to the gravitational collapse scenario, with the only difference being that it is not the star that undergoes the collapse, but interstellar gas. Under the influence of gravitational forces, the gas is compressed to a critical mass and density. At a critical moment, matter breaks up into quanta, forming a black hole. However, this theory is questionable, since astronomers at Columbia University recently identified satellites of the Sagittarius A* black hole. They turned out to be a lot of small black holes, which probably formed in a different way.

The third scenario is more theoretical and is related to the existence of the Big Bang theory. At the time of the formation of the Universe, part of the matter and gravitational fields fluctuated. In other words, the processes took a different path, unrelated to known processes quantum mechanics and nuclear physics.

The last scenario is focused on the physics of a nuclear explosion. In clumps of matter, in the process of nuclear reactions, under the influence of gravitational forces, an explosion occurs, in the place of which a black hole is formed. Matter explodes inward, absorbing all particles.

Existence and evolution of black holes

Having a rough idea of ​​the nature of such strange space objects, something else is interesting. What are the true sizes of black holes, how fast do they grow? The dimensions of black holes are determined by their gravitational radius. For black holes, the radius of the black hole is determined by its mass and is called the Schwarzschild radius. For example, if an object has a mass equal weight of our planet, then the Schwarzschild radius in this case is 9 mm. Our main luminary has a radius of 3 km. Average density a black hole formed in the place of a star with a mass of 10⁸ solar masses will be close to the density of water. The radius of such formation will be 300 million kilometers.

It is likely that such giant black holes are located in the center of galaxies. To date, 50 galaxies are known, in the center of which there are huge time and space wells. The mass of such giants is billions of the mass of the Sun. One can only imagine what a colossal and monstrous force of attraction such a hole possesses.

As for small holes, these are mini-objects, the radius of which reaches negligible values, only 10¯¹² cm. The mass of such a crumb is 10¹⁴g. Such formations arose at the time of the Big Bang, but over time they increased in size and today they flaunt in outer space as monsters. The conditions under which the formation of small black holes took place, scientists today are trying to recreate in terrestrial conditions. For these purposes, experiments are carried out in electron colliders, through which elementary particles are accelerated to the speed of light. The first experiments made it possible to obtain quark-gluon plasma in laboratory conditions - matter that existed at the dawn of the formation of the Universe. Such experiments allow us to hope that a black hole on Earth is a matter of time. Another thing is whether such an achievement of human science will turn into a catastrophe for us and for our planet. By artificially creating a black hole, we can open Pandora's box.

Recent observations of other galaxies have allowed scientists to discover black holes whose dimensions exceed all conceivable expectations and assumptions. The evolution that occurs with such objects makes it possible to better understand why the mass of black holes grows, what is its real limit. Scientists have come to the conclusion that all known black holes have grown to their real sizes within 13-14 billion years. The difference in size is due to the density of the surrounding space. If the black hole has enough food within reach of the forces of gravity, it grows by leaps and bounds, reaching a mass of hundreds and thousands of solar masses. Hence the gigantic size of such objects located in the center of galaxies. A massive cluster of stars, huge masses of interstellar gas are abundant food for growth. When galaxies merge, black holes can merge together, forming a new supermassive object.

According to the analysis evolutionary processes, it is customary to distinguish two classes of black holes:

• objects with a mass 10 times the solar mass;
• massive objects, the mass of which is hundreds of thousands, billions of solar masses.

There are black holes with an average intermediate mass equal to 100-10 thousand solar masses, but their nature is still unknown. There is approximately one such object per galaxy. The study of X-ray stars made it possible to find two average black holes at a distance of 12 million light years in the M82 galaxy. The mass of one object varies in the range of 200-800 solar masses. Another object is much larger and has a mass of 10-40 thousand solar masses. The fate of such objects is interesting. They are located near star clusters, gradually being attracted to a supermassive black hole located in the central part of the galaxy.

Our planet and black holes

Despite the search for clues about the nature of black holes, scientific world worries about the place and role of the black hole in the fate of the Milky Way galaxy and, in particular, in the fate of the planet Earth. The fold of time and space that exists at the center of the Milky Way gradually engulfs all existing objects around. Millions of stars and trillions of tons of interstellar gas have already been absorbed into the black hole. Over time, the turn will reach the arms of Cygnus and Sagittarius, in which the solar system is located, having traveled a distance of 27 thousand light years.

The other nearest supermassive black hole is in the central part of the Andromeda galaxy. This is about 2.5 million light years from us. Probably, before the time when our object Sagittarius A * absorbs its own galaxy, we should expect a merger of two neighboring galaxies. Accordingly, there will be a merger of two supermassive black holes into one, terrible and monstrous in size.

A completely different matter is small black holes. To absorb the planet Earth, a black hole with a radius of a couple of centimeters is enough. The problem is that, by nature, a black hole is a completely faceless object. No radiation or radiation comes from her womb, therefore, to notice such mysterious object hard enough. Only from a close distance can one detect the curvature of the background light, which indicates that there is a hole in space in this region of the Universe.

To date, scientists have determined that the closest black hole to Earth is V616 Monocerotis. The monster is located 3000 light years from our system. In terms of size, this is a large formation, its mass is 9-13 solar masses. Another nearby object that threatens our world is the black hole Gygnus X-1. With this monster we are separated by a distance of 6000 light years. The black holes identified in our neighborhood are part of binary system, i.e. exist in close proximity to a star that feeds an insatiable object.

Conclusion

The existence in space of such mysterious and mysterious objects as black holes, of course, makes us be on our guard. However, everything that happens to black holes happens quite rarely, given the age of the universe and huge distances. For 4.5 billion years, the solar system has been at rest, existing according to the laws known to us. During this time, nothing of the kind, no distortion of space, no folds of time near solar system did not appear. Probably, there are no suitable conditions for this. That part of the Milky Way, in which the Sun star system resides, is a calm and stable section of space.

Scientists admit the idea that the appearance of black holes is not accidental. Such objects play the role of orderlies in the Universe, destroying the excess of cosmic bodies. As for the fate of the monsters themselves, their evolution has not yet been fully studied. There is a version that black holes are not eternal and at a certain stage may cease to exist. It is no longer a secret to anyone that such objects are the most powerful sources of energy. What kind of energy it is and how it is measured is another matter.

Through the efforts of Stephen Hawking, science was presented with the theory that a black hole still radiates energy, losing its mass. In his assumptions, the scientist was guided by the theory of relativity, where all processes are interconnected with each other. Nothing just disappears without appearing somewhere else. Any matter can be transformed into another substance, while one type of energy goes to another energy level. This may be the case with black holes, which are a transitional portal from one state to another.

If you have any questions - leave them in the comments below the article. We or our visitors will be happy to answer them.

massive black hole at the center of a spiral galaxy. Credit & Copyright: NASA.

Want to hear something cool? There is a huge black hole at the center of the Milky Way. And not just a huge black hole, but a supermassive black hole with a mass of more than 4.1 million times the mass of the Sun.

It lies just 26,000 light-years from Earth, right in the center of our galaxy, towards the constellation Sagittarius. And, as we know, it tears apart and absorbs not only stars, but also entire star systems that approach it, thereby increasing its mass.

Wait, that doesn't sound cool at all, it sounds more like scary. Right?

Don't worry! You really have nothing to worry about, unless you plan to live for several thousand million years, like I did thanks to the transfer of my consciousness into virtual reality.

Will this black hole swallow the Milky Way?

The discovery of the supermassive black hole (SMBH) at the center of the Milky Way, like the discovery of SMBHs in almost every other galaxy, is one of my favorite discoveries in astronomy. This is one of those discoveries that simultaneously with the answers to some questions gives rise to other questions.

Back in the 1970s, astronomers Bruce Balik and Robert Brown discovered an intense source of radio emission coming from the very center of the Milky Way, from the constellation Sagittarius.

They designated this source Sgr A*. The asterisk means "exciting". You think I'm joking, but no. This time, I'm not kidding.

In 2002, astronomers discovered that the stars were rushing past this object in highly elongated orbits, like comets circling the Sun. Imagine the mass of our Sun. Need colossal force to expand it!

A massive black hole as imagined by an artist. Credit & Copyright: Alain Riazuelo / CC BY-SA 2.5.

Only black holes can do this, and in our case, this black hole is millions of times more massive than our Sun - it's a supermassive black hole. With the discovery of SMBHs at the center of our galaxy, astronomers realized that black holes are at the center of every galaxy. At the same time, the discovery of supermassive black holes helped answer one of the main questions in astronomy: what is a quasar?

It turns out that quasars and supermassive black holes are one and the same. Quasars are the same black holes, only in the process of actively absorbing material from the accretion disk rotating around them. But are we in danger?

In the short term, no. The black hole at the center of the Milky Way is 26,000 light-years away, and even if it turns into a quasar and starts devouring stars, we will not notice it for a very long time.

A black hole is an object of enormous mass that occupies a small region of space. In addition, if you replace the Sun with a black hole with exactly the same mass, then nothing will change. I mean that the Earth will continue its movement in the same orbit for billions of years, only around the black hole.

The same is true of the black hole at the center of the Milky Way. It doesn't suck up material like a vacuum cleaner, it just acts as a sort of gravitational anchor for the group of stars orbiting around it.

The ancient quasar in the representation of the artist. Credit & Copyright: NASA.

In order for a black hole to swallow a star, the latter must move in the direction of the black hole. It must cross the event horizon, which in our case is about 17 times the solar diameter. If a star approaches the event horizon, but does not cross it, then it will most likely be torn apart. However, this happens very rarely.

The problems start when these stars interact with each other, causing them to change their orbits. A star that has lived happily in its orbit for billions of years may be disturbed by another star and thrown out of its orbit. But this does not happen often, especially in the galactic "suburb" in which we are.

In the long term, the main danger lies in the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda. This will happen in about 4 billion years, resulting in the appearance of a new galaxy, which may be called Mlecomed. Suddenly there will be many new interacting stars. At the same time, the stars that were previously safe will begin to change their orbits. In addition, a second black hole will appear in the galaxy. Andromeda's black hole could be 100 million times more massive than our Sun, so it's a pretty big target for stars to die.

So will a black hole swallow our galaxy?

Over the next few billion years, more and more galaxies will collide with the Milky Bear, causing havoc and destruction. Of course, the Sun will die in about 5 billion years, so this future will not be our problem. Well, well, with my eternal virtual consciousness, this will still be my problem.

After the Mlekomed swallows up all the nearby galaxies, the stars will simply have an uncountable amount of time during which they will interact with each other. Some of them will be ejected from the galaxy, and some will be thrown into a black hole.

But many others will be perfectly safe waiting for the time when the supermassive black hole simply evaporates.

Thus, the black hole at the center of the Milky Way is completely and absolutely safe. For the rest of the Sun's life, it won't interact with us in any of the ways above, or consume more than a few stars a year.