The formation of the Mongol state and the Mongol conquests

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state.

2. Creation of the Mongolian state.

3. The main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state

By the end of the 12th century, several large unions of Mongol tribes roamed over a vast area from the Great Wall of China to Southern Siberia, from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to the Amur.

Ethnonym " Mongol" in the shape of « mengu", "mengu-mo", "mengu-wa" - first found in the Chinese chronicles of the Tang Dynasty. So the Chinese called a group of "barbarians" (all the steppe peoples) who roamed their northern borders, which obviously reflected their self-name. The Chinese called the northern Mongolian tribes "black" Tatars , and the nomads adjacent to the Great Wall of China "White" Tatars . There is also such a concept as "wild" Tatars, applicable to peoples engaged in hunting and fishing and living in the most remote northern regions of Mongolia. From this it can be assumed that during this period the Tatars dominated the steppe. The steppe peoples included nomads three tribes (Manchu, Mongolian, Turkic), but all these nomads called themselves the general concept of "Tatals", hence the "Tatars". As they moved away from China, the influence of settled peoples on nomadic peoples had a weaker effect or was completely absent.

natural conditions Mongolia (steppes, mountain pastures) from ancient times determined the main occupation of the Mongols - nomadic cattle breeding, that is, the Mongols - nomads nomads. In the steppes of Central Asia, nomadic pastoralism emerged from the primitive complex agricultural-cattle-breeding-hunting economy.

Chinese Chan Chun described the habitats of the Tatar-Mongol as "a giant valley, the size of which is 7-8 months of travel in length and width, ... abounding in water and grass," where people and herds "today go, tomorrow they stand, where there is water and grass." In the XI century. a long period of drought has ended. This contributed to the shift of the boundaries of the steppe zone to the south to the Gobi desert, the growth in the number of livestock and especially the population.

The main element of Mongolian society was the clan headed by the steppe aristocracy (bagaturs, noyons3). The clan jointly owned nomadic lands, performed religious rites. In the minds of most of the Mongols, the notion of collective responsibility for each member of the clan was stable. Joint farming and nomadism was called smoking (the camp-kuren was arranged around the yurt of the tribal elder and could number up to a thousand wagons, i.e. families)

Natives of the clan, who did not want to accept the rules of behavior and life within the team, became "people of long will." These people united in organized detachments under the leadership of military leaders. "People of long will" along with the Mongolian clans were a powerful force in the steppe.

The Mongols had tribal associations, which by the indicated time were not so much ethnic as political communities. Each of these associations had its own leader - Khan . As a rule, the khans at the indicated time were already hereditary rulers, although the electoral system of the era of military democracy continued to exist, when the khan as a military leader was chosen by representatives of the tribal aristocracy. Sources indicate that in the XI-XII centuries. in Mongolian society, the steppe nobility stood out - “noyons”, people of the “white bone”. They bore special titles: "Bogatyr", "Sharpshooter", "Strongman", "Wise", etc.

From the second half of the XII century. the rivalry of individual aristocratic families for power, for the distribution of pastures, the removal of other people's herds and the kidnapping of brides of "foreign bone" intensified. Iranian scientist, vizier of the Mongolian Ilkhans, Rashid ad-Din (12471318) reports: “Each tribe had a sovereign and an emir. Most of the time they fought and fought each other, quarreled and robbed each other.”

As a result of tribal enmity, as well as China's traditional policy of pitting nomads against each other to prevent their unification, robbery, theft, arbitrariness, lawlessness, and adultery have become commonplace. Thus, the need for political unification became obvious.

Even at the end of the XII century. Temujin (1154/1162(?) -Aug. 25, 1227), the son of Khan Yesugei, stood out among the Mongols, who experienced many disasters after the death of his father: childhood in the struggle of small nomads; in his youth he was a prisoner in China, where he learned a lot, including learning about weaknesses Celestial. He gathered young warriors ("people of long will"), who formed horde(team) and lived on military booty. They fought with their neighbors and accepted into their ranks everyone who was ready to submit to their way of life. Soon all the peoples of the Mongols submitted to the horde, and Temujin was proclaimed at the kurultai in 1206 (the year of the Tiger / Leopard) kaan , i.e. Genghis Khan ("Ocean Khan" - "Lord of the World"; in Turk. - Tengis Khan).

In the issue of unification, 2 trends emerged:

Most of the aristocracy preferred to unite at the level tribal confederation while maintaining their real power on the ground. But this could not ensure socio-political stability, because. tribal unions in Mongolia fell apart as quickly as they arose. This trend was driven by Jamukha , supported by the Tatars.

trend towards a highly centralized state the supporter of which was Genghis Khan, supported by the Mongols.

In a difficult war, Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, almost completely exterminating them. Jamukha was executed. He persuaded the steppe aristocracy to create a state. Then Genghis Khan began the unification of the steppes. The internal struggle was very fierce and more difficult for the Mongols than subsequent external conquests.

These were typical steppe wars, after which the prisoners were boiled in cauldrons, "equated to the axis of the cart", pregnant women were ripped open. In Mongolian legends about this struggle it is written: “The starry sky used to turn. They didn’t lie down on the bed here, the mother wide earth shuddered - that’s what a pan-lingual strife was going on. Genghis Khan himself said that "the highest pleasure for a man is to defeat his enemies, drive them in front of him, take everything from them, see the faces of their loved ones in tears, squeeze their daughters and wives in the arms."

2. Creation of the Mongolian state

From 1206, the history of Mongolian statehood begins, which initially had an imperial tendency. The military character of the state was manifested in the oath taken to the Great Khan. The power of the Khan was also figuratively manifested in the rituals that accompanied the accession to the power of the Great Khan: the nearest nobles laid a sword in front of him, and he asked: “Is each of you ready to do what I command, go where I send, kill whom I will I order?" The nobles answered: "Ready." Then the Khan said to them: "From now on, let the word of my mouth be my sword."

The power of the Great Khan was also manifested in the fact that he was the ruler over life, death and property of each subject.

Factors hindering the peaceful development of the state:

During the process of centralization, nomadic pastoralism fell into decline, i.e. the basis of the economy. This pushed them to seize new herds and pastures from their neighbors.

The entire male population was mobilized into the army, trained in the art of war, aimed at war as the most effective means of acquiring material well-being.

Carrying out plans for aggressive campaigns, Genghis Khan, first of all, took up the military-administrative structure of the state.

The territory of Mongolia was divided into two parts: the left wing and the right wing, between which was the territory of Genghis Khan's own nomad camp. Such a division of the territory dates back to the time of the Huns and other tribal associations - the ancestors of the Mongols. Their experience greatly influenced the process of organizing the Mongol Empire.

Each of the three large districts (right and left wings and the center) was divided into "darkness" (10 thousand people), "thousands", "hundreds" and "tens". The territorial division corresponded to the principle of manning the army, headed by tenth, sotsky, thousandths and temniks. Military leaders were appointed not on the basis of kinship or nobility (although both were always taken into account), but on the basis of political structures the principle of meritocracy, i.e. of the best warriors that played huge role in strengthening the combat capability of the army. Companions of Genghis Khan were at the head of the territories, nukers and noyons .

Thus, Genghis Khan, having shown himself earlier as an outstanding commander, now showed himself as a talented organizer and politician. He turned the earlier warring tribes into a single powerful horde, placing it on a solid foundation. His domestic and foreign policy was aimed at protecting the interests of the noyonism. The administrative system also served these purposes. Under Genghis Khan, the city of Karakorum, the center of crafts and trade, became the capital of the empire.

Such a military-administrative structure of the state reflected the process of replacing former kinship ties with new administrative-territorial ones. Members of the former tribal collectives turned into vassals dependent on military leaders.

The positions of noyons (temniks, thousanders, centurions) were hereditary, but they did not have the right to own the nomad camp and the population that roamed on this land (they could not transfer or sell).

Relatives and closest associates of Genghis Khan received destinies and subjects for personal use. The latter were not included in the thousands and carried duties only in favor of their masters.

Such a mobile system of government was brought to life by the peculiar conditions of the aristocracy, which was looking for enrichment through military adventures and made it possible for Genghis Khan to mobilize the required number of soldiers at any time.

In addition to the power of the Khan, the Mongols were still subject to the harsh ancient law Great Yasa , which prescribed to each of the Horde members the observance of the basic rules of behavior and attitude towards their neighbors: deceit, failure to help a comrade in a war, strife between friends and any quarrels were especially severely punished.

Thus, the principles of the Mongol state laid down by Genghis Khan became the basis of the Mongol Empire. You can talk about " the dual nature of the "steppe empires" . Outwardly, they looked like despotic conquering states, because. were created to extract a surplus product outside the steppe. From the inside, these empires remained based on tribal ties without taxation and exploitation of pastoralists. The strength of the ruler's power was based on his ability to organize military campaigns and redistribute income from trade, tribute and raids on neighboring peoples.

3. Main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.

The history of the Mongolian state is the history of conquests. Reasons for the Mongol conquests:

The nomadic nobility lived by robbing their own people and neighboring peoples. Thus, robbery, primarily of non-Mongolian peoples, is the main source of enrichment for the nobility and the main reason for the Mongol conquests. From the Great Wall of China to the Hungarian border - a grassy-steppe space;

Genghis Khan was faced with the task of distracting the nobility from separatist tendencies, and keeping the created empire from rapid collapse. This could be achieved by plundering Eurasia;

In the conditions of the Mongolian state, it was necessary to divert attention populace from a worsening situation. So, from the sources you can find out that many Mongol warriors and cattle breeders did not have horses. A nomad without a horse in the conditions of the XIII-XIV centuries was neither a warrior nor even a shepherd. The impoverishment of the vast majority of the Mongols was a widespread phenomenon. At times, vagrancy was not only widespread among them, but also took on a huge scale.

In terms of the scale of expansion and the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it can only be compared with the invasion of the Huns.

With a relatively small army, the Mongol expansion was carried out like a fan in 3 directions:

southeastern - China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Java.

southwestern - Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, the Arab Caliphate.

northwestern - Russia, Europe.

The first blow Genghis Khan brought down southbound , on the state of the Tanguts, Xi-Xia and Jin. The first blows against the Tangut state were delivered in 1205; in 1207 and 1209 - the second and third campaigns against the Tanguts. As a result of the victories of the Mongols, the Tanguts were forced to make peace with them and pay a large indemnity. Since 1211 campaigns against the Jurchens (in 1215 Beijing was taken).

In 1218 it was announced western hike, which was preceded by victories over the Kara-Khitans and the tribes of Southern Siberia. The main goals of the western campaign were rich territories and cities. Central Asia(the state of Khorezmshah, Bukhara, Samarkand), which was conquered in 1222. The development of this direction led the Mongols to the Caucasus, to the southern Russian steppes.

Thus, Northern China (1211-1234) and Central Asia were hit hardest when Mongol expansion was on the rise. Northern China literally turned into a desert (a contemporary wrote: “Traces of terrible devastation were visible everywhere, the bones of the dead made up whole mountains: the soil was loose from human fat, the rotting of corpses caused diseases”).

AT Central Asia everything that resisted was subjected to a "general massacre" ("katliamm"). Rashid ad-Din wrote that Genghis Khan gave the order to kill any living creature from any kind of people and any breed of cattle, wild animals and birds, not to take a single prisoner and no prey. Here, most of the cities were subjected to a "general massacre."

By 1233, some areas were conquered Iran and about the same time -

1236 - completed the conquest Caucasus;

1256 The Mongols re-invaded Iran as a result of which the valleys of Western Asia turned into a desert;

1258 - fell Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad was taken, the most Big city on earth, which also suffered a "general slaughter".

Only the Mameluks managed to defeat the Mongol detachment in Palestine (1260), thereby protecting Egypt from the Mongol invasion. It was a victory comparable to the victory of Charles Martel over the Arabs at Poitiers, because. it marked a turning point in repelling the wave of invasion.

Starting with the conquest of Russia (1237), we can talk about the gradual attenuation of the Mongol expansion. At the turn of the expansion, between 1237 and 1241. The Mongols invaded Europe. Their onslaught, as in Asia, was cruel and intimidating. Having devastated Russia, southern Poland and a significant part of Hungary, in Silesia they destroyed the army of German knights (1241) near the city of Legnica, west of the Oder River.

From Western Europe, the Mongols began to retreat in 1241/42, despite the fact that all the battles of 1241-1242. have been won. Khan Batu (Khan of the Golden Horde from 1243 to 1255; grandson of Genghis Khan) did not meet powerful organized resistance in Europe. Apparently, only the problems associated with the choice of a successor to Genghis Khan (after the death of Khan Ogedei) forced the leaders of the Mongols to turn east after this victory. Khan Batu understood that he could not keep Poland, Hungary and the lands of the southern Slavs under his rule. By 1243, all the Mongol armies were withdrawn beyond the Carpathians. From Hungary, they managed to collect tribute only once.

In the 40s. 13th century Batu Khan created the Tatar-Mongolian state Golden Horde (Western Siberia; northern Khorezm; Volga Bulgaria; Crimea; steppes from the Volga to the Danube). Capital Cities : Sarai-Batu (Old Saray; modern Astrakhan region); Sarai-Berke (from the 1st half of the 14th century; New Saray; modern Volgograd region). The Russian principalities were in vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. From the 15th century the empire broke up into Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimean and other khanates.

The extreme western limits of the invasion turned out to be german city Meissen and the countryside in Austria, where the Mongol detachment killed up to a hundred peasants.

Under Khubilai (1278-1294; 5th Great Khan), Mongol expansion reached extreme southern and eastern points: prolonged conquest of Vietnam, unsuccessful campaigns in Japan, unsuccessful invasion of the island of Java (resolute resistance of the people). Thus, the Mongol Empire could only exist as long as it was at war:

only conquests held it together.

Reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests: Reasons for internal order:

The military and diplomatic talent of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan himself was remarkable for his amazing ability to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and willingly used Chinese and Muslim-Turkic "specialists" in his army. He organized a magnificent "service of informants", and merchants of all nationalities and religions delivered a lot of information to him, whom he encouraged in every possible way. Genghis Khan also succeeded in the cold-blooded, thoughtful use of diplomatic measures and military force in accordance with the circumstances. All these qualities allowed Genghis Khan, his gifted sons, grandchildren and military leaders to continuously win victories over the next enemy.

ideological justification the conquests of Genghis Khan was the idea of ​​his being chosen by the Eternal Sky as the khan of all peoples;

The social homogeneity of Mongolian society and the relative weakness of antagonism within it;

The presence of cavalry. In the steppe, a man is inseparable from a horse and a saber (“human centaur”). Horses were decorated with blankets made of human skin, and the skulls of dead enemies were hung from the saddles. In the steppe you have to kill first - otherwise they will kill you → you need to train in the ability to kill every day.

Under the command of Genghis Khan was an excellently organized and disciplined army; it consisted of horse archers and had exceptional mobility (up to 150 km per day) combined with superiority in long-range weapons. (Army of Genghis Khan≈129 thousand, Batu≈142 thousand); if a warrior fled from the battlefield, a dozen were punished; 10 people retreated - a hundred were punished. The army created by Genghis Khan was a decisive factor in the success of the relatively small ethnos of the Mongols.

The Mongol conquests, which crushed the civilization of the Middle Ages, became possible thanks to a fundamental discovery - Mongolian bow("saadak"). It was a complex killing machine, glued together from bone and wood of various kinds. An arrow from this bow pierced any armor for 400 meters. The Mongols taught children 3 years to the bow, gradually increasing its size.

A variety of tactics used depending on specific conditions:

mercy tactics in surrender; the tactics of encircling several detachments of a large area and moving towards their center, surrounding and squeezing the enemy;

The empire of Genghis Khan united the military forces of the largest part of the nomads of Central Asia (not only Mongolian, but also many Turkic, Manchu, Tungus, etc.).

Numerous, solidarity, submission to the power of one khan, who was the sovereign ruler over life and death, the person and property of all his subordinates.

Causes of the external order

The fragmentation of the conquered territories, the rulers of which were afraid to arm the people against the Mongols;

The betrayal of the merchants, which was a cosmopolitan force (informers, spies, guides for military detachments);

Crowd tactics (forward civilians, then Mongol warriors).

Consequences of the Mongol conquests

Describing the consequences of the Mongol conquests, Yelü Chutsai, who literally saved China from extermination, wrote: "The heavenly network was torn, the earth's axis was broken, human justice disappeared."

As a result of the conquests by Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, an empire was created, unprecedented in size (from Korea in the East to Syria in the West; including the territory of Central Asia, China, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Iran). The cities of Russia were burned and taxed; devastating raids were made on Hungary, Drake, Moravia and Poland.

The consequences of the invasions were different for different regions: they were the most difficult for Central Asia (huge human losses, destruction of the irrigation system). They were heavy for China, especially northern. But here we can also talk about assimilation:

Khubilai's heirs learned the basics of Chinese culture, including language and writing. In particular, the whale. lang. the biography of Genghis Khan was translated (only this translation has survived to this day). But for the indigenous population, they remained strangers;

In the XIV century. the rulers of various parts of the Mongol Empire adopted Buddhism or Islam. This meant that in fact they were subjugated by the cultures in which they lived - Chinese, Persian or Arabic.

If we talk about Russia, then here we should talk, first of all, about the grave consequences in terms of spirituality. In present time there is a controversy: “Was there a yoke?”. Most major historians are supporters of the traditional point of view that the Mongol invasion played a completely negative role in the history of the Russian people. Others: Consequences both negative and positive. Thirdly, the consequence was the formation of an empire and an imperial space.

Metaphor: nomads are not only children, but also fathers of the desert. This fully applies to the Mongols, especially in relation to Northern China, Central Asia.

The territory of Mongolia was largely affected (after the creation of the empire, the population of Mongolia decreased sharply; the color of the Mongolian population settled throughout the continent). The aggressive policy slowed down not only the progressive development of the conquered countries, but also the development of the productive forces and culture of Mongolia itself. The Mongol Empire, created by fire and sword, on the blood of enslaved peoples, torn apart by internal contradictions, did not have a single economic base, in the end, fell under the blows of the conquered peoples.

Tului (youngest son; ruler of central and western Mongolia).

The purpose of the enterprise is to present something like a mapped reference book on geopolitical changes in Mongolian Eurasia in the 13th-14th centuries: who, where and when ruled; how were the borders of states and regions; what territories passed from hand to hand and by whose labors (and how) all this happened. And then in existing literature(even the most detailed - in Grousset) much is missed.
This handbook presents its material in the form of maps with detailed textual commentary attached, adding lists of rulers. Reading such a reference book in a row would be, perhaps, pointless (unless the reader is already a ready-made fan of the Mongol Empire); but from it the user can, with details inaccessible to him from other publications, find out "who, where, when" rules, fought, lost and won within Pax Mongolica.

1) Map 1: The Mongol Empire in 1227

2) maps 2-3: The Mongol Empire in 1248: internal division and general situation

The text of the commentary to the cards 1-2 cm.

The text of the commentary to the map is 3 cm.

3) Map 4: The Mongol Empire at the beginning of 1252

The text of the commentary to the map is 4 cm.

4) cards 5-6: Empire under Monke Khan :

Map 5: The Mongol Empire in 1257.

Dark purple and light purple, respectively, are the indigenous and vassal lands of the official extraordinary (before 1260-61) possession of Hulagu.

Map 6: Empire at the time of Monque's death.

The text of the commentary to the cards 5-6 cm.

5) For tables of rulers in a highly expanded form, see

Comments on cards 1-2

Structure of the Mongol Empire in 1248

The "Great Mongol State" (Eke Mongol Ulus, the official self-name of the Mongol Empire) was a rather complex formation in structure and itself consisted of several possessions-uluses. These were:
- 1) Indigenous (Idzhagur-in) ulus, which included the Mongol proper and some surrounding lands, which Genghis transferred into hereditary possession to his youngest and beloved son Tolui. The "extraterritorial" imperial capital of the khans, Karakorum, was also located on the territory of Idzhagur-in ulus. As a result, if the khan was not from the family of Tolui himself, a kind of dual power set in in the ulus: an alien Genghisid was established in Karakorum, to whom all the Toluid princes were now subordinate as a kind of "acting" head of their house. This was precisely the situation on the eve of the death of Khan Guyuk, since he was the son of Ogedei.
- 2-4) hereditary uluses of three other clans of Genghisids, originating from the rest of the sons of Genghis Khan, i.e. Uluses of Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei.
- 5) possession of the Uyghur yidkut in Eastern Turkestan with centers in Beshbalyk, Kara-Khodzho (Turfan) and Khami. Nominally, it was the so-called. the "fifth ulus" of the empire (Chinggis Khan gave such an honor to the Uighurs because they voluntarily submitted to him immediately after his election as the great khan), but in reality they were just a semi-autonomous administrative appendage to the khan's possessions; looked after him from Gansu.
- 6) the territories that were part of the direct "official administration" of the khan, regardless of which branch of the Genghisids held this post. These were: Northern China, Tibet and Tangut, as well as the hereditary possessions of the brothers of Genghis Khan, covering the lands north of the Yellow River and further in the Amur basin.
One of the Genghisids who held the post of Great Khan merged under his direct control the Root ulus, the "official lands" of the great khan and his own hereditary possessions, which gave him an unconditional advantage over the owners of the other four uluses (three Chinggisid uluses and Uighuria). In addition, the special civil and financial administration of the khan extended to the Uighur ulus and the southern part of the Chagatai ulus (Maverranakhr and East Turkestan), and the civil and financial and military administration to the southern (Iranian, see below) part of the Jochi ulus. Thus, these territories turned out to be a zone of dual subordination, and it was believed that the khan's officials disposed of them with the permission of the corresponding ulus ruler (who, for ease of administration, also carried out his own orders through them). In particular, by 1248, Masud-bek was in charge of such khanate administration in Maverranakhr, Eastern Turkestan and Uighuria, who in 1241 succeeded his father Mahmud Yalavach (who was also endowed with the same powers in the khagan lands of Tangut and China). As a result, the sphere of the khan's own power, independent of the five tribal uluses, was officially called "Iran, Turkestan and China", and in the first two divisions of this sphere, the khan's power was considered temporary and partial (complementing the local ulus), and in the third - complete and permanent. So, in 1251, refusing the throne of the great khan, Batu declared that he could not add Iran, Turkestan and China to his colossal possessions (it is characteristic that he did not name Mongolia, since the khan ruled it "by proxy", as replacing the actual head of the Tolui clan, to which she, in fact, belonged). Considering that the khan was also recognized as the supreme ruler on the territory of all uluses in general, it turned out that, say, in Iran, he, in the person of his deputies, obeyed himself with the permission and through the nominal mediation of Khan-Juchid. If the Mongols really wanted to engage in civil administration, this system would turn into a source of constant tension; but it was completely uninteresting to them, and all the difficulties of the "dual control" boiled down to the fact that the same tax collectors, collecting taxes in the territories under their jurisdiction, sent part to the khan, part to the ulus lord, and part, like tax-farmers, left for themselves .
The unity of the state was supported by the all-Mongol kurultais - congresses of all Chinggisids, some all-imperial army management structures, khan officials, unified system links with postal stations and labels issued to all local vassal holders on behalf of the khan. In particular, the army included units that were directly subordinate to the khan, regardless of his tribal affiliation ("great army", ulug kul), and units assigned to hereditary troops to one or another Chinggisid. According to Yasa, such units could not be torn away from their owners, but could be temporarily regrouped and resubordinated within the framework of imperial campaigns. So, in 1262-63. in Bukhara, which was part of the Chagatai ulus, there were, in addition to the Chagatai troops, Jochid units, Toluid units and units " great army"(ulug kul). On the Indian border around 1260, there was an imperial army, manned mainly by Jochid contingents, but subordinate to the khagan's brother, Toluid Hulagu.

Territory of the Mongol Empire in 1248.

Idzhagur-in ulus included most of Khalkha-Mongolia (east of Khangai), the Baikal region and South Siberia (the Angara basin, which was called the "Angara region"; Tuva; the indigenous lands of the Khakas - Kyrkyz along the Upper Yenisei; i.e. the southern part of the Bargu country [embracing the watershed of the Ob and Yenisei and the left bank of the Yenisei to the ocean]). The ulus reached the outer borders of the Empire only in the north, where its border ran north of the Angara and Baikal and through the upper reaches of the Lena. Nothing really is known about the tribal formations bordering the Mongols here, and the Mongols were not at all interested in them.
After the death of Tolui in 1242, Monke, his son, was at the head of the Toluids, but the power in the ulus was exercised in his place, according to the rules outlined above, by the ogedeid khan Guyuk.
The lands of the khan's administration included a number of principalities and governorships. Manchuria and the Amur basin were divided into tribal inheritances of the Genghis brothers. The northern border of this territory ran approximately along the watershed of the Lena and Amur to the Pacific Ocean, covering the basin of the river. Huntongjiang (the so-called Amur below the confluence with the Songhua); on the northern and southern sides of this river was the Mongolian administrative unit Helan Shui-Tatar.
A special strategic zone was formed by the governorships that surrounded Idzhagur-in ulus from the south. Thus, Gansu, Tangut and all the Mongol conquests in Tibet and Sichuan constituted the governorship of Hadan (Godan), the son of Ogedei, who actually managed his inheritance independently. Other governorships were located in Northern China.
In the south, the lands of the khan's administration extended to the outer borders of the Empire. The border with Sung China, formed during the defeat of the Jurchen empire of Jin by the Mongols and the subsequent Mongol-Sung clashes of the 30s-40s, passed from the Yellow Sea through Henan and the northern outskirts of Sichuan (Xi'an remained in the hands of the South Sung). Further, the border turned sharply to the south, engulfed Amdo and Kham and reached the Tsangpo bend, embracing the triangle Balpossy (in the west) - Mon (in the south) - Kongpo (in the east); all these areas, starting with Amdo, were conquered by Hadan-khan, the son of Ogedei, with his commander Dorcha-darkhan in 1239-1240 (which was preceded by intensive, but unsuccessful negotiations between the Mongols and the largest Tibetan sects in 1239). The neighbors of the Mongols here were: actually Tibet, i.e. a complex conglomerate of individual monastic theocracies that stretched from the Tsangpo bend to the source of the Indus; cut off from this system by the campaign of 1240, the Tibetan formations between Tsangpo and Salwen, and, finally, the Tibetan monarchies in Ladakh and Guge, which had never been part of it. It should be added that in the upper reaches of the Yangtze, as a buffer between the Mongols and Dali (a state on the territory of present-day Yunnan), there were two more insignificant Tibeto-Burmese "kingdoms".
From the beginning of 1242, the Mongols were in a state of another war with the Sunami, but by the time of Guyuk's death, there were no real active operations. With Tibet, on the contrary, the most important political game was played. After three years of negotiations, Hadan in 1247-1248 met at his headquarters with Sakya Pandita, one of the highest hierarchs of Tibet (the head of the Sakya monastic hierarchy), and joined him in close friendship; intensive negotiations began to prepare for the inclusion of Tibet in the system of Mongolian power. Finally, Koryo (Korea) in 1247 refused to pay tribute to the khan, ending her short (from 1239) vassalage to the Mongols, and from 1247 they made annual raids on her.
Ulus Ogedei had no access to the outer borders of the Empire. It included Southern Altai and Western Mongolia (Tarbagatai, Emil, Kobuk and upper Irtysh basins). The headquarters of the khan was located near Chuguchak, in the city of Omyl (Emil), once built by the Kara-Kitay, then deserted, and now rebuilt by Ogedei. Guyuk was the head of the Ogedeid family until 1248.
From a geopolitical point of view, the Ulus of Ogedei consisted of two parts: the western (Southern Altai and the region of the Emil River and the Tarbagatai Mountains) and the eastern (Mongolian Altai and regions to the north of it). The eastern part was inhabited mainly by the four-tribal people of the Oirats - a Mongol-speaking people, in the 12th century. lived near Lake Khubsugul and further to the sources of the Yenisei, but in the 13th century settled to the south-west, into the former territory of the Naimans defeated by Genghis, to the Mongolian Altai and beyond. The western part of the ulus (as well as the Ili-Irtysh interfluve extending even further to the west, which already belongs to the Jochids) was inhabited by a special group of Eastern Kipchaks, called "Kyrgyz" (where the current Tien Shan Kirghiz come from), and according to the official Mongolian lists of ethnic territories - Kimaks (by the name of one from the main Kipchak tribes, who in the 10th century headed a special state on the Upper Irtysh - the Kimak Khaganate); This community was formed in the ninth century. in the area between the Upper Irtysh and Tarbagatai as a result of the penetration here of groups of real, Yenisei Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz-Khakas, inhabitants of the Minusinsk Basin) and their mixing with local Kypchak-Kimak tribes. The major khan of the Eastern Kipchaks (Kyrgyz) Banduchar, who had a headquarters not only in Altai, in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe modern. Zmeinogorsk, not farther to the south-west, in the Ili-Irtysh interfluve, voluntarily submitted to Genghis, and his people were turned into a decimal organization, and the region passed to Jochi. The area of ​​the Kyrgyz as a whole was cut in two by the inter-ulus border of 1227, its western part went to Jochi, and the Emil region - Tarbagatai - to Ogedei. Most of the Oirats, as we remember, still lived on their native territory to the east of the Mongolian Altai, on the territory of the Toluid ulus, so that the Oirats were also distributed among different uluses.
The ulus of Chagatai covered primarily the former power of the Karakitays and Kuchluk Naimansky (the country of Khomil in Mongolian monuments), and in general - Maverranakhr with the south of Khorezm, most of the Semirechie and East Turkestan up to Turfan (exclusively). The last major center of the ulus in the east was Aksu. Three groups of Karluk Turks (in Semirechye, Fergana and on the Tibetan border) were considered autonomous from the time of Genghis and as such were included in the tribal system of the ulus. The ulus reached the external borders of the state only in the south, where they went along the western Kunlun and the southern spurs of the Pamirs. The headquarters of the Chagatai horde was located to the west of Almalyk (modern Ghulja or Yining) in Xinjiang, and was called Kuyash and Ulug-if (Ulug-ui - "Big House"). The Ili valley with the main city of Almalyk was the central part of his possessions and was called "Il-alargu" or "Il-Alarguzi". In Maverranakhr, the tax farmer Mahmud Yalavach, appointed directly by the khan Ogedei, rather than Chagatai, had real power. In 1238, Chagatai, without the consent of the khan, deposed Mahmud. The khan reproached his brother, but transferred Maverranakhr to him under direct civil control, transferring the tax payoff to Mahmud's son, Masud-bek, and at the same time expanding his powers to the entire Chagatai ulus. Chagatai died in the same 1241 as Ogedei, but somewhat later, having bequeathed the throne to his grandson Khara-Hulagu, the son of Mutugen. After the election of Guyuk, the son of Ogedei, as a new khan, Guyuk deposed Khara-Hulagu, declaring that during the life of his son, his grandson could not inherit the throne, and gave the Chagatai ulus to the eldest son of Chagatai, Yesumonke. So, from 1246/47, the ulus, at the behest of Guyuk, was ruled by Yesumonke; he drank, not paying attention to the affairs that his wife ran, and was soon to take his nephew Buri as his co-rulers. Yesumonke's headquarters was located in Almalyk.
In Uyguria, in 1242, the Idykut Kyshmain died, and Salyn-tegin, the brother of the widow of Ogedei, was appointed as the new Idykut, which, in fact, led to the gradual liquidation of Uyguria as a special ulus of the empire.
The Ulus of Jochi embraced the north-west of the Empire and from 1227 was ruled by Batu, the son of Jochi, the eldest of the Genghisids. This ulus was a real territorial giant even by Mongolian standards. The core of the ulus in the 1220s was the territory of the Irtysh region, in the Mongolian sources - Tokmok (Tungmak, from *Tun-kimak? - an area inhabited by Eastern Kipchak-Kyrgyz, see above). According to the will of Genghis himself, the entire ulus as a whole covered "Tokmok and Kypchak", that is, according to another description, all the lands to the west of the line Amu Darya - Khorezm (inclusive) - Sygnak - Sauran (inclusive) - Kayalyk north of Ili (inclusive , leaving part of the northern Semirechie in the hands of the Jochids) - the border of the Chagatai, Ogedey and indigenous uluses.
However, in reality, Batu Khan was granted control only over the northern half of this vast territory, up to the Caucasus (including Derbent) and Khorezm (inclusive, except for the southern part of the country with Kyat, belonging to the Chagataids). The southern, Iranian half was subject to temporary emergency administration by officials of the khan himself. At the same time, we repeat, it was believed that this khan's administration rules exclusively with the permission of Batu, and when the conquests are completed, it will give way to the Jochid proper.
The areas of Western Siberia, Desht-i-Kypchak, Volga Bulgaria, Mordovians, Visu (Perm), Yugra and Samoyadi in the Pechora basin were under the direct authority of Batu (the Mongols made a special raid on the Pechora in 1242, reaching from there to the very Arctic Ocean, but not entrenched there; however, Pechora Samoyeds, according to at least partly, since then they were considered subjects of the Mongols) and, finally, the forest-steppe southeastern strip of the Russian principalities (Bolokhov lands in the South-West of Russia, the southern part of the Kiev region with Kanev) was torn away into the direct citizenship of the Mongols from Russia (there was a Mongol garrison, at that time as Kyiv was already considered a Russian city), most of the Pereyaslavshchina and the region along the border of the Chernigov and Ryazan principalities up to the Oka, including the area of ​​​​the future Tula and Yelets).
All this huge space divided into the Volga ulus with the center in Saray (White, or Ak-Orda for the Mongols and Turks, Blue, or Kok-Orda for the Persians, "Golden Horde" in Russian = the western, right wing of the Jochi Ulus) and the Zayaitsky ulus with the main city center in Sygnak ( Blue Horde in Mongolian and in Turkic, White Horde in Persian = eastern, left wing of Ulus Jochi; the elder brother of Batu Orda-Ichen ruled there). The discrepancy in the color designations of the hordes is due to the fact that among the Turks and Mongols the west was designated in white, and the east in blue; Iranians, on the other hand, had the east "white" and the west "blue". The border between the Volga and Zayaitsky uluses ran along the Urals, the upper Yaik, and then south to the Aral Sea, leaving the basin of the Lower Yaik, Mangyshlak and Khorezm to the Volga ulus. Both uluses themselves were divided in two according to the same system of "wings": Volzhsky - into the eastern ulus of the Sarai Khan and the western ulus of the beklyaribek (supreme dignitary and commander in chief), Zayaitsky - into the southeastern Central Asian ulus, directly belonging to the Zayaitsky khan (the eastern wing of the Zayaitskaya horde, the valley of the middle Syr Darya, and from there steppes to Ishim, Irtysh and Balkhash) and the northwestern, Kazakh-Siberian ulus of another brother of Batu - Sheiban (the western wing of the Zayaitskaya horde, east of Yaik along the Irgiz, with winter camps along the banks of the Syr Darya at the mouths of the river .Chui and Sary-su and Karakumakh [possibly to the very border of Khorezm!], and in the northeast to the Irtysh, Chulym [and, it is possible, to the western spurs of Altai]; this ulus as a whole was defined as the territory lying between the Volga horde and Central Asian, the main ulus of the Zayaitskaya horde. Sheiban himself died in 1248, and the ulus was inherited by his son Bahadur).
The core of this entire territory was the Great Steppe, stretching from the Danube to Altai (Desht-y-Kypchak, "Kypchak Steppe"), divided into three large ethno-geographic regions: the country of the Western Kypchaks (they are also Polovtsy in Russian, Comans-Kumans in European texts ) from the Danube to the Volga region; the country of Kangls or Kangits (by language - Eastern Kipchaks, by origin - Kipchakized Guzes and Pechenegs; the ancient self-name of the Pechenegs was "Kangars", hence the common name "Kangls" for the Kipchak-speaking tribes of this region) from the Trans-Volga region to modern East Kazakhstan; the country of the Kimaks (the official name in the Mongolian lists) is also the region of the Central Asian Kyrgyz, formed on the basis of the Eastern Kipchak tribes in the language of the original Kimak-Kypchak area - the basin of the Upper Irtysh and Altai.
North of Great Steppe other key areas of the Juchi Ulus lay: the Volga-Don interfluve (Moksha, Mordovians, Burtases), the Volga Bulgaria, Bajgard (Magyar, Great Hungary, aka Bashkiria - the territory where the Magyars came from), Korol (Kerela; this was the name of the South the Urals and sometimes referred to here as Shibir - Western Siberia, bordering Bashkiria in the west and the edge of the Kimaks in the east); Samoyed land was Batu's extreme possession in the north.
Batu's headquarters was on the Lower Volga, in Saray; the centers of the eastern uluses were not permanent. The headquarters of the Horde-Ichen was located somewhere not far from Balkhash, on the territory of the northern Semirechye (very close to the capital of the Ulus Ogedei); later Zayaitsky khans left this territory, and in the XIV century. moved to Sygnak. The Sheibanids, subject to them, kept their bets on the Irgiz in the summer, and in the Syr Darya in the winter.
The outer limits of the Jochi ulus (without vassal territories) were: the Iron Gate line on the Danube - the border of the steppe and mountains in Wallachia (the southern slopes of the Transylvanian Carpathians were occupied by the Wallachian principalities and voivodeships subordinate to Hungary) - the Hungarian border in the Eastern Carpathians - a new one, rounded in favor of Mongols border of the steppe with Russia - northern borders former Visu (Perm) at the headwaters of the Pechora and Vychegda - part of the Samoyed Pechora basin - the Irtysh basin and partly the Ob.
Various states west of these lines were in vassal dependence on Batu. These were:
- Russian state("Kievan" Rus), vassal of the Mongols since 1242; in 1243, Batu approved it as the supreme ruler of the Vladimir prince Yaroslav, to whom he gave the Kyiv table. Yaroslav, however, did not go to the devastated Kyiv, but installed his boyar Dimitry Yeikovich as governor there. In 1246 Yaroslav was poisoned at Guyuk's headquarters. He ordered to replace the deceased with his brother Svyatoslav, but Batu did not approve this henchman of the Ogedeids. It should be noted that the Galician-Volyn prince Daniil submitted to Batu (and thereby recognized that his principality was part of the "Kyiv" Rus under the auspices of the Vladimir princes) only at the turn of 1245/1246, and before that he resisted the Mongols. In February 1246, a mission from Batu and Guyuk arrived in Russia, conducting the first, "rough" census of the Russian lands subject to the Mongols and collecting a rich tribute; then, perhaps, even the Polotsk land paid for it.
- Bulgaria (Tarnovo kingdom) with its Balkan possessions (vassal since 1242);
- Georgia with its Armenian possessions (a vassal of the Mongols since 1231; the only object of Batu's real power south of the Caucasus, took over his administration in 1243. This grossly violated the general imperial order, according to which the governors of the khan were to exercise power over Georgia on behalf of Batu - as well as over all other lands of the south. Batu was able to resubordinate Georgia to himself in 1243, only using the interregnum after the death of Ogedei, when there was no khan at all in the Empire).
The main independent state on the borders of Batu's possessions was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, subject to Mindovg (Mindaugas). Taking advantage of the Mongol invasion of Russia, in 1238-1245 it occupied Black Russia with a center in Novogrudok (which Mindovg made his capital), Turov-Pinsk and Minsk lands. Thus began the long Lithuanian-Russian war (1238-1254). In 1246-1247 the Galician-Volhynian princes and the Mongols made several campaigns against Mindovg, but, apparently, to no avail. From that time on, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was destined to become the main enemy of the Mongols in the northwest.
Special mention should be made of the situation in the Caucasus. The southern spurs of the Caucasus were subordinated to Georgia and Shirvan, and together with them - to the Mongols. The northern slopes, as in the 19th century, were virtually impregnable; here three ethnogeographical regions were distinguished from west to east: the country of the Circassians (Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians in the narrow sense of the word), the country of the Ases or Alans (ancestors of the Ossetians and small tribes subject to them) and the country of the Lezgians (the area of ​​​​settlement of the Nakh-Dagestan tribes). In 1239-1240, a special campaign of Chormagun-noyon took place, equipped directly by Ogedei from Iran, in addition to Batu, aimed at conquering the Caucasus; having conquered Azerbaijan in 1231-39, Chormagun took Derbent in 1239, marched from there, defeated Dagestan in October-November 1239, and from there moved into the regions of the Alans and Circassians (1239-1240), leaving the occupying contingent in Dagestan (in the spring of 1240 he was evacuated from Dagestan). This campaign led to the conquest of part of the Circassians and Ases and the coast of Dagestan; the rest of the tribes continued to resist the Mongols for another quarter of a century, but they did not leave them alone. By the mid 1250s. part of the Circassians and Ases and almost all of the "Lezgi" (inner Dagestan) still remained independent of the Mongols.
The southern, nominal part of the Jochi ulus embraced the whole of Iran. Its eastern border descended, bypassing Peshawar and Sindh, to the Indian Ocean. Here the Mongols coexisted with Kashmir and the Delhi Sultanate. Western border passed mainly through the Zagros, but Khuzestan belonged to the Abbasid Caliphate in Iraq, and the Zengid Mosul was subject to the Mongols as a vassal. Further, the border went to the northwest, including the basin of Lake Van (conquered in 1245; before that, the Eyyubid Kurds ruled here), and then all the Anatolian territories up to Kyzyl-Yrmak. The Mongols had many vassal possessions here, primarily the Rum Seljuk Sultanate (it was part of the special governorship "Rum", which included, in addition to it, also the district direct subordination Mongols with the center in Ankara), the Greek Empire of Trebizond, the Armenian state in Cilicia, Mosul, Shirvan and the Western Iranian kingdoms - Fars, Yazd, Kerman, Herat, Hormoz, Lur. Western Gilan was practically independent at all. An even more variegated picture has developed in the east of Iran. The stronghold of the Mongols here was the combined imperial army of Tair-buga Bahadur and Sali, stationed in Badgyz; its noyons also ruled Tokharistan, as well as Ghazni with adjacent territories on the Indian border. This army was staffed mainly by the Jochid contingents. In Herat and Gur since 1243 the famous Shamsaddin I Kurt sat as a vassal, and in both centers there were units imperial army, and its commanders - the commanders-governors of Badgyz - claimed control over Shamsaddin. In 1242, Tair-bahadur ravaged Ispakhbad, helping Shamsaddin's predecessor, Majaddin of Herat. The Badakhshan-Pamir principality, vassal to the Mongols, was also probably under the control of the imperial army. Sistan was also a vassal principality; Ali ibn Masud ruled there from 1236. The regions along the upper Indus (in the district of Peshawar) - Kuhijud and Binban - constituted the principality of Saifuddin Hasan Karluk (the head of the Karluk group that fled from the Mongols to Afghanistan), who in the 20s and 30s. was a vassal of Delhi, and in 1236-1239 he recognized the Mongol power and received a Mongol resident - the Shahna. Since the same 1236, there was a sluggish war of the Mongols with the Delhi Sultanate. In particular, in 1246, the Mongol army under the command of Monketakh occupied Multan (here it was led by the Mongol Sali and the vassal Shamsaddin Kurt) and laid siege to Uch (under the command of Monketakh himself), but fled in the autumn when the Delians were approaching. As a result, Multan was also lost. In the spring of 1247, the Delhi army, in turn, ravaged Kuhijud, but to no avail.
Supreme military authority on behalf of Khan Guyuk in southern lands from 1247 Ilchigedei-noyon from the Mongol tribe of the Jalairs was in charge of the Jochids; at the beginning of 1247 he arrived in Khorasan, in the summer he inspected the Caucasus, and at the end of the year he set up his headquarters in Badgyz. The previous governor of Iran was subordinate to him, and now only the commander of the troops of the western direction, noyon Bachu (Baichu), based in Mugan.
The independent neighbors of the Mongols in the west were: in Asia Minor - the Byzantine (Nicaean) Empire, in the west of Iran - Caliphate of Baghdad and the possessions of various branches of the Eyyubid Kurds in Northern Mesopotamia (they were conquered by the Mongols in 1245, but almost immediately deposited), in Iran itself - the Ismaili state (i.e., the fortresses of the Ismaili order in Elburz and Kuhistan), in the east of Iran - Muslim Delhi Sultanate and Hindu Kashmir.

The division of the Mongol Empire into uluses is shown in total for 1227 (the year of the death of Genghis) on map 1, and in more detail as of 1248 - on map 2.
The darker red and crimson color on map 2 denotes, respectively, the territories of direct subordination of the Jochi Ulus, real (northern part) and nominal (southern part); lighter shades of both colors indicate the vassal states associated with the respective parts. Dark blue indicates the ulus of Tolui, bright blue - the territory of direct subjugation of the khan [and light blue on subsequent maps - the territory of the vassals of the khan].
A distinctive feature of the territorial division just outlined is the striking inequality of uluses. The uluses of Chagatai and Ogedei are real dwarfs in comparison with the uluses of Tolui and especially the ulus of Jochi, which, according to the will of Genghis, covers all of Western Eurasia ("from the Irtysh, Kayalyk and Khorezm to those limits that the hoof of the Mongol horse reaches"). The figure of Jochi, who, to put it mildly, did not enjoy the love of his brothers and father (he was killed in 1224 by secret envoys of Genghis Khan), was hardly suitable in the eyes of Genghis to command such spaces. Obviously, when Genghis was in charge of the ulus borders, he simply did not have a clear idea of ​​how vast the real spaces separating the Irtysh from the "last sea" in the West are.

Commentary on map 3

The strategic position of the Mongols.

Map 3 shows the position of the Mongol Empire (in blue, with vassals) among all other Eurasian states in 1248.
It is clearly seen that geopolitically it is already an unconditionally dominant giant, whose opponents have been separated by him and have survived only on the southern and western periphery of the Asian continent. Apart from the Mongols, only the Holy Roman-German Empire (together with the Teutonic Order associated with it), Egypt, the Delhi Sultanate, South Sun China and Cambujadesh were major powers.
As for the foreign policy strategy of the 40s, Guyuk planned two big wars. One was supposed to go to the west of Iran, and he was going to carry it out only with his own, khan's forces (for which he sent Noyon Ilchigedei to Iran at the end of 1246 with the necessary troops), without resorting to an all-imperial campaign. The second was to fall on Prussia and Livonia, and then on Catholic Europe in general. However, enmity with Batu (in the autumn of 1247, Guyuk began to gather troops for a campaign against Batu) and Guyuk's sudden death did not allow these plans to come true and left the state without clear prospects.

Commentary on map 4

Interregnum. Monke and Batu on the way to power (1248-1251/52)

Imperial Affairs in 1248-1251/52
Batu learned about the death of Guyuk, being in the Alakamak area near the Alatau mountains. Now, without swearing allegiance to Guyuk, he remained the strongest ruler of the Empire and announced the gathering of kurultai in the same Alakamak. The regency was transferred to Guyuk's widow, khansha Ogul Gaymysh, who was quite suitable for her late husband in her stupidity, malice and propensity for drunkenness, and Chingai, a Uighur nobleman from the Chagatai ulus. In the spring of 1250, the Alakamak kurultai finally took place. Batu, who brought his troops and many Jochids to him, sought to get Tolui's son Monke, who had been Batu's closest friend since the Russian campaigns, into the khanate. In addition to the Jochids and Toluids, the offended Chagataid Khara-Hulagu (the grandson of Chagatai, who ruled the ulus after the death of Chagatai, according to the direct will of the latter, in 1242, but deposed by Guyuk in favor of Yesumonke in 1246), took the side of the Monke, and from the Ogedeids - the son Ogedei Kadakogul and the children of Khadan, who had died by this time (he died in his Tangut appanage in 1251). All the other Chagataids and Ogedeids did not want to allow Monke to supreme power. The children of Guyuk, Kocha and Naku, stayed in Alakamak for only two days and left, leaving their representatives and assuring Batu that they would obey any decision of the kurultai. Batu was able to win them over to his side, taking advantage of their hostility to Shiremun, another Ogedeid who also aspired to the throne. As expected, the kurultai, which was chaired by Monke's brother Khubilai, decided to consider Monke the legitimate pretender to the khan's throne and, for his final election as khan, to convene a new kurultai in Mongolia itself the following year. Batu undoubtedly played a decisive role in all this.
Meanwhile, Ogul Gaymysh, referring to the fact that the Alakamak kurultai took place outside Mongolia and thus did not have legal force, tried to unite the Ogedeids and Chagataids against the Monke. The Ogedeids already submitted to her as Guyuk's widow, and she came to terms with the Chagataids through her son Chagatai Buri. Together they decided to replace Monke with the Ogedeid Shiremun; now Guyuk's sons were on his side. Together with Yesumonke, they were able to delay the new kurultai for a year and a half. In the summer of 1251, he nevertheless gathered in Karakorum. Monke arrived there with a Jochid escort sent to Batu under the command of Berke and Togatemur, and on 07/1/1251 was approved by the khan - largely under the influence of Berke. Immediately after this, the allies staged a grandiose political trial in which the Ogul Gaymysh, the Chagataids and the Ogedeids were accused of plotting to kill Monke and witchcraft. The process took place in the winter of 1251-52; its outcome was terrible even by Mongolian standards. 77 senior leaders, including the co-rulers-regents Ogul Gaymysh and Chingai, as well as Shiremun's mother Kadakach-Khatun and about 220 more people were executed at the headquarters of Sorquktani-Khatun, Monke's mother, Shiremun himself was exiled to Khubilai in China (where he was a few years later , in 1258, drowned by him before the start of a large Chinese campaign). Kucha guessed in time to show obedience, was forgiven and received an inheritance on the Selenga; the rest of his relatives were exiled to China and Armenia, and nothing more was heard of them. The vast majority of the Chagatayids were either exiled or killed; only a few escaped to the Sung Empire. The khan's governor of the southern half of the Juchi Ulus, Ilchigedei, appointed by Guyuk, was removed from his post, arrested in Iran by emissaries of Batu, sent to Monke and executed by the latter along with his sons (1252); his post again passed to Baych. Moreover, Monke and Batu agreed to abolish the uluses of Chagatai and Ogedei as independent parts of the Empire; At the same time, part of the Chagatai ulus went to the Jochids, part - directly to the khan, and the rest of the Chagatai ulus and the entire ulus of Ogedei became ordinary destinies as part of the khan’s ulus, similar to many other destinies of the Mongol princes. The territory of the Ogedeids was at the same time handed over to Khanat, son of Nak, son of Guyuk; Monke handed over the lands reserved for the Chagataids to Khara-Hulagu and sent him there together with his wife Ergene and a large detachment of troops against their enemy Yesumonke, who still owned the Chagatai ulus (1252). To ensure this plan, Monke sent two more armies to the west - one in the direction of Beshbalyk, to the Chagatai border, with an order to unite with Kuykuran-ogul standing there near Kayalyk; it was also strengthened by the forces of Konchi-ogul, the son of Zayaitsky Khan Orda-Ichen. Monke sent another army to the Yenisei, to the border of the Ogedeids. In the same year, 1252, the will of the khan was carried out; True, Khara-Hulagu died on the road near Altai, but his widow Ergene, leading his troops, took Yesumonke and Buri prisoner and sent them to Batu, who executed them. Ergene trampled Esumonke's wife with the hooves of horses, many Chagataids were exterminated. Approving Ergene's course of action, Monke left her as the ruler of the Chagatai inheritance as a regent for her young son from Khara-Hulagu, Mubarek-shah. True, this inheritance, as we remember, was greatly reduced against the previous one: Maverranakhr went to Batu, East Turkestan and Bolor - directly to Monke, which thereby received a direct connection with the khan's possessions in Iran through the Pamirs, where Bolor bordered on Badakhshan and its districts at the source of the Pyanj. The border of the possessions of Monke and Batu lay in the steppe between Talas and Chu, to the east of the modern Alexander Range; only Semirechye remained behind Ergene. Nevertheless, Masud-bek continued to carry out civil administration of Maverranakhr, Semirechye, East Turkestan and even Uyguria on behalf of Batu and Monke at once!
At the same time, all in the same 1251/1252. Monke formed new destinies within the framework of the indigenous ulus and the territories under his control. First, there was a transformation southern territories, nominally belonging to the ulus of Jochi. Now they came under the dual control of the sole governor of the great khan (according to the decision of Monke, his brother Hulagu was soon to become this governor) and Batu, without whose sanction the orders of this governor were invalid. In fact, the Juchi ulus for the first time was able to extend its influence to these lands, but at the same time, not even a two-, but, in fact, a quadruple power was established there (Batu as an ulus owner within the empire, Monke Khan as an administrator on behalf of Batu, Hulagu as a future appanage administrator on behalf of Monke, and, finally, the same Monke as the supreme ruler of the entire empire). Secondly, northern China (Shaanxi and Henan), general control over the lands of the Jurchens (i.e., the old possessions of the Chinggis brothers), Tangut and Tibetan regions were the share of Khubilai, another brother of Monke. From 1255, Khubilai began to build a new capital for himself in Kaipyn, closer to the theater of the future war with the Suns, and in April 1257 he actually moved there. Thirdly, the Ogedeids, who supported Monke, were rewarded with small appanages of the lowest level in the territory of Khubilai, in China and Tangut. For the same reasons, Hadan retained his governorship in Tangut and Gansu, as well as control over Tibet (all under the supreme supervision of Khubilai). However, Hadan died around the end of 1251. Subsequently, Guyuk's son Kadan received his inheritance.
In the same year, 1252, the mother of Monke Sorkuktani-begi, the widow of Tolui, died; her inheritance, which included the Sayan Mountains, the Kyrgyz Tuva and the eastern slopes of the junction of the Altai with the Mongolian Altai, passed to her youngest son Arigbuga. The Mongols relied in this lot primarily on the local Oirats and Naimans.
Finally, at the end of 1252 Monke reached the Uighur ulus. Idykut Salyn-tegin (as we remember, brother-in-law of Ogedei!) was executed in December 1252 after a lengthy process on a fantastic charge of intending to kill his Muslim subjects with the knowledge of the same Ogul Gaymysh. The throne of the Idkut was handed over to the brother of the executed, Okenji. The "fifth ulus" of the empire, like the Ogedei and Chagatai, actually turned into a vassal kingdom within the khan's ulus.
Events of 1251-52 finally approved Monke as the all-Mongol khan. As was evident already from his first actions, he was a cruel and efficient ruler of the Machiavellian warehouse. The future showed that he was a man who consciously and completely submitted himself to the ultimate ideal of the "world revolution of Genghis Khan", but remained completely free in choosing the means and strategy for its implementation. His religious policy was of the same kind: he was simultaneously baptized, converted to Islam and extolled Buddhism, so that the missionaries present in the Karakorum and, accordingly, the khan subjects of all religions had reason to consider him a co-religionist. In fact, he hardly believed in anything other than the Mongol guardian spirits, the coming nomadic prosperity, fifteen years of friendship with Batu, the army and political assassinations. Official chinese history The empire, "Yuan shi", says about him: "he was sedate, resolute, laconic, did not like feasts, he used to say about himself that he followed the example of his ancestors. He had a passion for animal hunting and madly believed soothsayers and soothsayers." As a result of his domestic political goals, he achieved in the first year of his reign. By the end of 1252, the Empire was actually divided into two possessions - Monke Khan and Batu, with common possessions beyond the Amu Darya and the Caucasus. The simplification of the internal structure with a strong (albeit having its own limits) friendship of both rulers ensured a lasting inner peace and made it possible to resume the broad conquests predetermined by the kurultai of 1251, and by the repressions of 1251-52. Monke instilled such fear in the Genghisides that his reign passed in complete peace. The only person he had to reckon with was Batu; however, he died three years later, leaving Monke with unprecedented power.
We emphasize that the kurultai of 1251 made the most important decisions on foreign policy issues, prejudging the imperial Iranian campaign and the conquest of the Southern Suns. For the latter, Monke Khan adopted a kind of Mongol "anaconda" plan (the initial conquest of the western neighbors of the Suns up to the South China Sea, and then a concentric strike against them themselves). In July 1252, he ordered Kublai to move to Dali, and he began to carefully prepare this first tropical campaign for the Mongols. As for the western campaign, contingents were allocated for it from all over the empire under the command of the khan's brother Hulagu with the aim of completely conquering Iran and the adjacent regions to the Mediterranean Sea; the annexed regions were to come under the control of Hulagu as the governor of the great khan, formally remaining in the supreme property of the Jochids. Batu, however, rightly believed that the governorship of the khan's younger brother would be tantamount to the complete withdrawal of the southern lands under the rule of the khan, and firmly decided not to let Hulagu into Iran, although for the time being he did not openly reveal this.
It is characteristic that the plan of the European campaign, which was equally cherished by Ogedei and Guyuk, was not even considered at the kurultai and, as it turned out. were buried forever. There can be only one reason for this: Batu did not want imperial troops and, in general, any non-Juchid forces to appear on the territory directly controlled by him, and Monke was forced to reckon with this position.
Ulus affairs in 1248-1251/52.
Northwest direction. As we remember, Batu did not approve Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich appointed by Guyuk as the supreme Russian prince. After the death of Guyuk, he generally went on a radical reform and in 1249 divided Russia subject to him into two equal great principalities - Kiev (the Dnieper valley and Novgorod, plus, obviously, supreme control over all Russian principalities west of the Dnieper, vassal to the Mongols), given to Alexander Yaroslavich, and Vladimir (the rest of the lands), given to his brother Andrei Yaroslavich (both of them returned from Karakorum in 1249). In the same 1249, the Mongol commander Kaidan (the sixth son of Ogedei) made a campaign against Lithuania, but was defeated by Mindovg southwest of Minsk. As a result, approx. 1250 Mindovg managed to plant his nephews to reign in the Polotsk land (Tevtivil in Polotsk, Edivid in Vitebsk); thus, the former possessions of the Polotsk Vseslavichs were finally torn away from Russia. Subsequently, they sometimes restored full independence, but practically did not obey either the Mongols or their supreme Russian henchmen, rotating almost constantly in the Lithuanian orbit. Perhaps, not without the influence of these events, the anti-Mongolian movement began in Russia itself. In 1250, Andrei entered into relations with Daniel of Galicia, who had recently recognized Mongol power, and in 1251 he married his daughter and started an anti-Horde conspiracy; Daniel, having entered into a secret anti-Horde alliance with Andrei, at the same time sought the same alliance with the pope and European Catholic sovereigns. In addition, he achieved great success in the war with Lithuania: in 1251/52, the Turov-Pinsk princes went over to his side, and then did not get out of dependence on the Galician table; together they ravaged the Novogrudok land of Mindovg. However, at the same time, at the beginning of 1252, Alexander went to the Horde, denounced his brother, and, together with the Horde army ("Nevryuev's army"), defeated and expelled Andrei (1252). Russia was again united into one Grand Duchy of Kiev / Vladimir (the main table was moved to Vladimir), and since then, over most of its open spaces, Mongol domination has not wavered in it. The exception was the Galician power of Daniel. In 1252, Daniel found himself in an open break with the Horde (and at the same time with its Russian vassals), and from that time on, the Horde troops under the command of the Jochid Khurumchi (Kuremsa) went to Western Russia raids, however, to no avail. That is how the possessions of the Rurikovichs - for the first time in their entire history - lost state unity with the secession of the Galician state.
Southwest direction.
In 1249, Batu, true to his usual policy, divided Georgia into two vassal kingdoms (as we remember, in the same year he carried out a similar transformation of Russia).
Indian border.
In 1248, the Delhi prince Jalal Khan, the son of Iltutmish, fled to the Mongols due to internal conflicts in the Delhi Sultanate and waited for the election of a new khan in order to seek his help. He had to wait a long time. Meanwhile, in 1249 Saifuddin Hasan Karluk attacked the Delians from Binban and laid siege to Multan, but died during the siege. Hiding this, his son Nasreddin took with the help of the Mongols Multan (1249), but soon the Delians returned him again (c. 1250). In 1249, during the Indian campaign, the commander of the Indian grouping of the imperial army in Eastern Iran, Kurilchin Noyon, died, and the Jochid commander Neguder took his place. Later in the same year, he, along with the ruler of Sistan, dependent on the Mongols, Ali ibn Masud, punished the city of Nih, which had fallen away from him.
During the years of the interregnum, Shamsaddin I Kurt, the vassal ruler of Herat and Gur, vaguely took the side of Monke. As a reward in 1251/52, Monke gave him a label for Sistan, Tokharistan (including Balkh and Murgab) and Afghanistan "to the Indus and the border of India." Of all these territories, the southern Afghan lands had yet to be conquered, and the rest of the areas had previously been mainly under the control of the khagan (i.e., in essence, the commanders of the imperial army), and were now transferred to Shamsaddin; in particular, Tair-bahadur handed over Balkh to Kurt, driving out the former local ruler from there. Shamsaddin soon began military action against the independent Afghans.
south central direction.
After two years of intensive negotiations between Hadan Khan and Sakya Pandita, on the one hand, and the Tibetan hierarchs, on the other, the Tibetan theocracies expressed their readiness to accept Mongol power, and in 1249 Hadan officially granted Sakya Pandita as rulers to all previously independent theocracies of Tibet (and at the same time handed over to Sakya under the control of all the Tibetan territories previously captured by the Mongols); Sakya himself actively urged the Tibetan hierarchs to submit to this decision, citing the advantages of an alliance with the Mongols and the catastrophic consequences of a quarrel with them. Tibet accepted his authority and thus the status of indefinite vassalage to the Mongols (1249). Sakya Pandita, however, died in 1251, and Tibet immediately regained its independence. In response, in 1252-1253, the Mongols invaded Tibet and defeated some very high-ranking local military leader; Tibetans again had to recognize the Mongol authorities, but the latter had not yet received proper organization.
Eastern direction.
In response to the deposition of Korea (1247), the Mongol troops in 1247-53 systematically sacked its regions, demanding recognition of vassalage and transfer of the royal court to the mainland, within the reach of the Mongols; however, the court, hiding on safe islands, stoically endured the disasters of its subjects and collected taxes from the survivors (primarily in the three southern provinces). Korean losses reached hundreds of thousands a year; the Mongol ambassadors quite seriously recommended that the Korean king take pity on his people, but he turned out to be insensitive to these exhortations.

The position and division of the Mongol Empire after all the events of 1248-1251/52 is shown on Map 4.

Commentary on cards 5-6

Mongol Empire under Monke Khan (1252-1259). Imperial affairs in 1252-1259.

Monke's first all-imperial enterprise was the Iranian campaign. Hulagu, after a lengthy preparation, marched west in 1253. His vanguard under the command of Ketbugi crossed the Amu Darya in the same year and proceeded to besiege the Ismaili fortress in Kuhistan. At the same time, he maintained contacts with the imperial-Jochid army of the Mongols in Eastern Iran and on the Indian borders. However, Batu forbade Hulagu himself to cross the Amu Darya, from where his possessions began (Batu decided, thus, to sabotage the imperial campaign, as he feared that Hulagu, once in Iran, would take it away for himself, as, by the way, happened in the end) . Monke did not dare to insist on his own and resigned himself to Batu's decision, although he did not allow Hulagu to return. As a result, in 1254, Hulagu spent at Ergene, the mistress of the rest of the Chagatai Ulus.
In the following year, 1255, Batu, nicknamed Sain Khan, died ("Kind [not in the sense of" compassionate", but in the sense of "exemplary, excellent", although this included generosity: according to European observers, Batu was unusually merciful to his subjects from the "decimal" imperial people] sovereign"), as his Armenian and Muslim subjects, including those who were unfriendly to the Mongols, called him, for justice and generosity. Sartak, his son and probable heir, was at that moment on his way to Karakorum; having learned about the death of his father, he did not return to take power, but continued on his way to the khan. The one admiring similar manifestation loyalty, not only confirmed him on the throne of the Jochids, but also somehow expanded his possessions in comparison with his father's - apparently, at the expense of Azerbaijan and Arran, later these were the only Transcaucasian possessions that the Jochids demanded to leave behind them, citing at the same time, it is precisely on the labels of Monke and Khubilai.
Upon learning of Batu's death, Hulagu moved on; in autumn 1255 he reached Samarkand, and in January 1256 he entered Khorasan. Here, on behalf of the khan and Sartak, Batu's successor, he took over the administration of the khan-Juchid condominium south of the Caucasus-Amu Darya line. From the very beginning, Hulagu declared himself as an ardent enemy of Muslims, the patron of Christians and the patron of Jews and small sects. Part of the Jochid-imperial troops, including detachments of some princes (among them was Tutar), Hulagu took with him to the west, left part in the east.
Meanwhile, Batu's son Sartak returned from Karakorum around the end of 1256 to the newly appointed khan of Ulus Jochi. Almost immediately upon his return, he was poisoned by his uncle, Batu's brother, Berke (beginning of 1257; the Christian Sartak declared that he hated the very sight of a Muslim Berke, and thereby brought a similar end to himself). Monke approved the young Ulagchi, the son of Tukukan, the son of Batu, as the new Khan of Ulus Juchi (perhaps Sartak managed to adopt Ulagchi as a potential heir), under the regency of Batu's widow, Borakchin-Khatun. In the same 1257, Ulagchi died, one might think that not without the help of Berke, who became the new khan (1257-1266). The capitals of Berke were Sarai-Berke (New Sarai, on Akhtuba, not far from Sarai-Batu, or Old Sarai, located further south along the same river. New Sarai served as the capital of the Jochi Ulus until the 70s of the XIV century.) and Bolgar (the latter once again testified to his Muslim sympathies).
Hulagu was supposed to receive information about the label Monke given to Sartak almost simultaneously with the news of the death of Sartak himself. Of course, he not only did not think to transfer Arran and Azerbaijan to Ulagchi (who, by the way, had not yet received a label on them), but, apparently taking advantage of his weakness, in 1257 he also removed the Jochid administration from Georgia and began to manage it himself (which he just had formal rights to; as we remember, in 1243 Batu extended his administration to Georgia without permission). This retention of Arran and Azerbaijan subsequently caused a fierce Juchid-Hulaguid enmity.
In the meantime, in 1256, Monke arranged a kurultai in Orbolgetu (Ormuhetu), which had no other purpose than festivities demonstrating his power. Now, finally, he could move on to the implementation of his strategic plans both in Iran and in China. In the first direction, Hulagu acted with exceptional success, in the second, the transition to decisive actions was somewhat delayed: although the preparations for the campaign against China by Monke himself had been completed in the summer of 1257, the khan was waiting for the successful completion of private operations on the flank of China (the campaign of Uryankhatai to the South China Sea, see below). By early 1258 the southern operations were over. In March 1258, Monke finally launched a general attack on China from four sides at once and moved to the front himself. At the same time, he, according to custom, left his younger brother Arigbuga to replace himself in Karakorum (whose own inheritance covered part of Altai, Tuva and the territory of the Yenisei Kyrkyz-Khakas in the Minusinsk basin). By performing the daily duties of the khan and directly controlling Mongolia, Arigbuga thus found himself in the most advantageous position in terms of succession to the throne. During the Chinese war, Monke, besieging the fortress of Hezhou, died on August 11, 1259 from dysentery or cholera; this meant the actual disruption of the campaign.
Monke Khan died without accomplishing even a small fraction of what he could do according to his talents. He was one of the last khans who built and executed the general imperial plans, and the last khan who knew how to do it right.

Ulus affairs in 1252-59. northwest direction.

Here the state of affairs was entirely determined by the Mongolian-Galician-Lithuanian confrontation. In 1253, emphasizing his independence from the Mongols and their vassal Alexander, Daniil Galitsky took the title of "King of Vladimir" in Drogichin, after one of his centers - Vladimir-Volynsky. Thus, the secession of the Galician state (now called the "Kingdom of Lesser Russia" and "Kingdom of Vladimir", respectively Russia Minor and Lodomeria in Latin) was formally fixed.
The logic of events pushed the two anti-Mongol forces - the state of Daniel and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Mindovga - to reconciliation. In 1254, they really made peace on the basis of the recognition of the status quo, and the Novogrudok land became a kind of condominium: instead of the Lithuanians, Daniel's son Roman, but as a vassal of Mindovg, sat down to reign in it. In the meantime, in 1254, Khurumchi was able to wrest Bakota from Daniel's possessions as a protectorate of the Horde. However, taking advantage of the peace with Lithuania and the death of Batu, Daniel, having conquered the Yotvingians in 1255-1256 (the first tribute from them was received in 1257), he himself moved against Khurumchi and in 1256-57 occupied the Bolokhov lands, as well as part of Podolia and Porosye (the latter were previously part of the direct possessions of the Jochids). For its part, the Horde commander Burundai in 1257 raided the Lithuanian region of Nalshany. But the Khurumchi campaign in 1258 against Daniel was unsuccessful (like his previous annual actions), and Lithuania in 1258 seized part of the territory of the Smolensk principality (Voyshchina) . As a result, Berke Khan decided to restore order in the northwest and fight with Lithuania.
southwest direction
As we remember, in 1253 Ketbuga with the advanced units of Hulagu began military operations against the Ismaili fortresses in Kuhistan. At the beginning of 1256 Hulagu himself appeared in Iran. In Khorasan he was met by Shamsaddin I Kurt; he was allowed to return to Herat, from where he resumed his Afghan conquests. Hulagu, in 1256, completely crushed the main Ismaili forces and their capital in Alamut, and by the beginning of 1257 had finished with their main centers (although the last fortresses in Elburz fell only in 1259, and the complete liquidation of the Ismailis in Kuhistan dragged on for twenty years). At the same time, apparently, already in 1256, Hulagu introduced his own tax administration in Iran, de facto creating, without any rights, a new ulus; apparently, he was sure that his brother-khan would not oppose him. Mugan made Hulagu his base, and Bachu was forced to move from there to Asia Minor.
In 1257, Hulagu demanded obedience from the last Abbasid caliph, and, having received a refusal, conquered the Baghdad caliphate, and executed the caliph (February 1258). In response, Berke, a zealous Muslim and the formal ruler of the territories where Hulagu operated, planted Caliph al-Hakim in Al-Hakim. This had no great consequences (in any case, Hulagu was going to go to Syria, including Aleppo), but completely spoiled the relationship between Berke and Hulagu.

Eastern Iran.

In 1254, Shamsaddin I Kurt, taking possession of the areas given to him by Monke, made the first campaign against the Afghans (in the region of Kandahar - the Suleiman Mountains - northern Balochistan), taking the fortresses of Mastung, Kuzdar and Mashki, and at the same time occupied several fortresses in Garsmir. Campaigns against the Afghans continued later; eventually by the end of the 1950s. Shamsaddin conquered the whole of Afghanistan, together with the Suleimen mountains (then these mountains were the main area of ​​​​settlement of the Afghans) and the surrounding areas of present-day Balochistan (with the fortresses of Mastung, Sibi, Duki, etc.). Meanwhile, in 1255, Ali ibn Masud, the ruler of Sistan, whose territory the label of Monke Khan resubordinated to Herat Shamsaddin Kurt, was called by Ketbuga, the right hand of Hulagu, who fought with the Kuhistan Ismailis, for auxiliary military service; Ali ibn Masud. as a loyal vassal, he immediately went to Ketbuga in Kuhistan. In his absence, Shamsaddin Kurt appeared in Sistan and, according to Monke's label, subjected him to his administration without resistance. Ali ibn Masud soon, having fulfilled his service, returned to Sistan, but he had practically no power there, being subordinate to Kurt, and an open quarrel between them was only a matter of time. Meanwhile, around 1257/1258, Shamsaddin, who by this time had mastered a significant part of the lands granted to him by Monke, quarreled with the Jochids from the imperial army, Tutar and Balajj, who were stationed in Badgyz, and refused to provide requisitions, which earlier the chiefs of Badgyz had imposed on him by order Batu. Balagai summoned Ketbuga from Kuhistan and sent him to Shamsaddin, at the same time rebelling against the Sistan vassal-governor of the Kurts, Ali ibn Masud. Seeing the superiority of the enemy forces, Shamsaddin locked himself in Herat. Soon, however, he defeated Ketbugu and killed his ally Ali, after which he restored his power in Sistan; however, he did not hope to continue the fight against the Mongols, was not going to be at enmity with Hulagu, who favored him, and still considered himself his devoted vassal. He intended to prove that he was at enmity only with the Jochid noyons of the imperial army, who themselves violated the orders of Hulagu in relation to him. Since Hulagu himself was hostile towards the Jochids (and the commander of Hulagu himself, Ketbuga, acted in this conflict only as their instrument), Shamsaddin was not afraid of his wrath. Having barely dealt with Ali, Shamsaddin immediately went to Hulagu to present his case to his court. The Jochids tried to intercept him on the way, but without success, after which Shamsaddin was detained and brought to Hulagu. Having found out the details, Hulagu became furious against the Jochids, freed Shamsaddin and confirmed his power in Herat, but Sistan, as a vassal possession of the Kurts, handed over Nasreddin, the nephew of the murdered Ali ibn Masud, who came to him with a complaint about the same time as Shamsaddin Kurt. So, Sistan again fell into dependence on the Kurts, but their direct rule was entrusted to Nasreddin, who hated them. In 1258/1259, both returned to their destinies. Having barely established himself in Sistan as a vassal of Kurt, Nasreddin was recalled to the service of Hulagu, who fought in the west, and in 1259-1260. spent with him.

Indian border.

In 1253, Jalal Khan, the prince of Delhi, who had fled to the Mongols as early as 1248, finally ended up in Karakorum and was received by Monke, who promised him his support.
In the winter of 1253-54. the Mongol commander Sali, together with Jalal, moved to Delhi, wanting to plant Jalal Khan there as a Mongol vassal (on this occasion, he took the throne name Jalaladdin Masud). Sali captured Lahore and the whole district up to the western bank of the Sutlej (Kiya and Sodra), but could not advance further due to the resistance of the Delhi Sultanate troops. The area he captured up to Sutlej turned into a special inheritance of Jalal Khan as a Mongol vassal. In 1254, another Delhi prince, Nusrat Sher Khan, was expelled from India and fled to Monke, asking for help in Karakorum (1254); however, already in 1255 he returned back and made peace with the Delhi sultan.
After the arrival of Hulagu in Iran, Kishlu Khan, the Delhi governor of Multan and Ucha (Upper Sindh), through Shamsaddin Kurt, entered into relations with Hulagu in 1256 and sent his son to him. Although he did not send him help and a resident shahnu, Kishlu Khan, at his own peril and risk, seceded from Delhi with his region and recognized himself as a vassal of Hulagu. Around the beginning of 1257, Nusrat Sher Khan expelled Jalaladdin Masud from Lahore, and Kishlu, who in the summer of 1257 unsuccessfully tried to expand his possessions in the direction of Samana, again asked Hulagu for help. In response, in December 1257, Sali entered Sindh from his base in Khorasan, occupied Uch and Multan, concluded a formal treaty with Kishlu, and planted a Shahna with him. Then he moved with Kishlu to the Sultanate, crossed the Sutlej and unsuccessfully tried to capture Delhi, but withdrew without a fight due to the appearance of the Delhi army. Lahore nevertheless remained, apparently, behind the Mongols, and the border passed along the Bias. OK. 1258 Sali raided Kashmir and subjugated it. In 1258-59 the Mongols raided the Delians through the recently established border by Bias.
Meanwhile, in 1258, Balban, regent of the Delhi Sultanate, entered into secret anti-Mongol relations with Nasreddin Karluk, the son and successor of Hasan, and through his mediation entered into relations with Hulagu with the intention of concluding a peace treaty with the Mongols and using it for their own purposes.

South and southeast direction.

Monke Khan put Khubilai in charge of Tibetan and northern Chinese affairs. As we remember, in 1252-1253 Tibet again had to recognize the Mongol power, but its management was still not established. To solve this problem, in 1253 Khubilai summoned the new Sakya hierarch Phagba and proclaimed him the new ruler of all Tibet under the Mongol protectorate (1253/1254). Only the Tibetan principalities of the southeastern enclave remained for about a year beyond the control of the Mongols. At the same time, Khubilai carefully prepared a campaign against Dali. In September of the same year, 1253, he set out from Shaanxi together with Uryankhatai, the son of Subudai, and moved through Sichuan to the borders of Dali. By this time, the Mongols had sacked Chengdu (late 1252) and captured the bridgehead south of it, thus clearing the way for Kublai to Dali. In the early autumn of 1253, Khubilai passed through these places, crossed the river. Jiansha and, having subjugated two local principalities, Mussa and Pe, sent a demand to King Dali to submit. In response, he executed the Mongol ambassadors. At the end of October 1253, the Mongols defeated the Dali army on the Yangtze, after which they entered the capital of Dali without a fight. Dali became a Mongol vassal (later, in 1257, it was apparently annexed and incorporated into the newly formed province of Yunnan). After that, Khubilai returned to the north, leaving Uryankhatai in command. In 1254, he conquered the Tibetan principalities from Yunnan to the southeast of Tsangpo, forcing them to submit (to the Tibetan Phagpa?), and then went north to report to the khan. At the same time, the Mongols laid siege to Hozhou; frightened Suns handed over to the Mongols the members of the Mongol mission who had survived after many years of imprisonment, arrested in China at the turn of 1241-42. In the meantime, having met with the khan, Uryankhatai returned with lightning speed to the theater of operations, in 1255 took troops from Tibet and brought them down on the Burmese tribes neighboring Tibet and Dali, on the territory of the later Yunnan. In 1256 - early. In 1257 he completed this conquest by conquering several Burmese formations north of Pagan up to the borders of Daviet (Vietnam). The administrative region of Yunnan was formed on the conquered lands. In 1257 Uryankhatai sent an embassy to Daviet, formally recognizing the suzerainty of the Suns - the enemies of the Mongols, and demanded obedience; in response, the Daviet sovereign threw the ambassadors into custody, which caused the Mongol-Vietnamese war. In October 1257, Uryanhatai moved to Daviet, in November-December he passed the whole country and at the end of the year occupied Hanoi, but due to the unbearable climate and the resistance of the Vietnamese, he retreated without a fight after 9 days and at the very beginning of 1258. left the country. Nevertheless, the Vietnamese king abdicated, and his successor at the beginning of 1258 recognized, at the request of Nasreddin, the representative of the great khan, a purely nominal vassalage in relation to the great khan. At the same time, the Vietnamese did not even give hostages and did not receive a Mongolian overseer.
At the end of the Vietnamese conflict, the first phase of operations against China - its encirclement from the west to the sea - was completed, and in the spring of 1258 Monke launched a general offensive against China itself. In March-April 1258, the border forces of the Mongols captured Chengdu, after which Monke himself arrived here. In May, he deployed his army in the Liulanshan (Gansu) mountains and, passing through Shaanxi, entered Hanzhong in October. Here began the fighting, which occupied whole year, during which Monke, in general, advanced into the Chongqing region. The autumn and winter of 1258/1259 took him to capture several fortresses south and southeast of Chengdu and in northern Sichuan; Finally, by the spring of 1259, he laid siege to the large fortress of Hezhou, where he was stuck for half a year. In the end, after several unsuccessful assaults, Monke died near Hezhou on 08/11/1259 from an illness. The Mongol offensive failed.
Meanwhile, Uryankhatai moved from the Dali-Daviet border around the autumn of 1258, defeated the Chinese border army, passed from south to north through Guangxi, occupying several fortresses there (Binyan, Gongxian, Guiling), invaded Hunan (1259) and to August 1259 laid siege to Tanzhou, where he got stuck, defeating, however, the Chinese in a field battle.
Finally, Khubilai, having set out from Kaiping to the south in November-December 1258, only in August 1259 concentrated his forces in Henan.

Eastern direction.

In Korea, after the Mongol campaign of 1253 and the foundation of military settlements by the Mongols in the northern border of the country, the king asked to send a Mongol mission for negotiations; she was sent, but the king did not recognize the Mongol power (the same 1253), and the war resumed. In 1254 Monke changed the commander in Korea to Chelodai; he shifted the center of gravity of operations to the southern provinces. In 1254, a campaign was made there, but Koryo again did not obey. New Mongol campaigns in 1255-56 and 1257-59, having subjected the southern provinces to defeat, did not force the king to capitulate, although total the victims reached 2.6 million people in fifteen years, and in 1258 the Mongols seized part of the North Korean territory, creating from it a governorship with a center in Hwachzhu. Finally, in 1259, a coup d'etat took place in Korea; the new king immediately capitulated and recognized himself as a Mongol vassal, although he still did not move to the mainland. Since Monke was far to the west, the Korean negotiated the recognition of Mongol power with Khubilai in Northern China. This last success Monke's reign proved to be the most enduring, as Koryo remained loyal to the Mongols until the fall of their power in China a century later, and even for some time after that.

Chronological tables: Rulers of the Empire and its parts, as well as vassal entities and main enemies in the 13th-15th centuries.

Beginning of the Empire:

Temujin Genghis Khan 1206-1227
Ogedei, son of Genghis Khan 1229-1241
regency of Toregene-hatun, widows of Ogedei 1241-1246
Guyuk (Kuyluk) - khan, son of Ogedei 1246-1248
regency of Ogul Gaymysh, Guyuk's widow 1248-1251

Ulus of the Toluids (from 1252 also ulus of the khan):

Tolui (Tuli) d. 1232
Monke, son of Tolui 1232-1259, khan 1251/52-1259
(Arigbuga, son of Tolui 1260-1264)
Khubilai (Khubilai-Sechen), son of Tolui (Chinese posthumous title of Shizu) 1260-1294
Temur Oljaitu, son of Chinkim, son of Khubilai (Chinese posthumous title Chengzong) 1294-1307
Haysan Khulug, son of Darmabala, son of Chinkim (Chinese posthumous title Wuzong) 1307-1311 Ayurbaribada Buyantu Khan, son of Darmabala, son of Chinkim (Chinese posthumous title Renzong) 1311-1320
Shidabala (Suddhibala) Gegen Khan, son of Buyantu (Chinese posthumous title Yinzong) 1320-1323
Taidin Esen (Yesun)-Temur Khan, son of Kammala, son of Khubilai (Chinese posthumous title of Taidin-di) 1323-1328
Arajabig, son of Esen Temur 1328-1329
Tog (Toges)-Temur Jayagatu-khan, son of Haysan-Khulug (Chinese posthumous title Wenzong) 1328-1329, 1329-1332
Khoselan (Khosala, Khoshila) Khutukhtu-khan (Chinese posthumous title Mingzong) 1329
Dinakh Irindzhibal (Rinchinbal)-khan, son of Khoselan 1332
Togon-Temur (Togan-Temur) Ukhagatu-khan, son of Khoselan (Chinese posthumous title of Shundi) 1332-1370
Ayushiridara Biligtu Khan, son of Toghon Temur 1370-1378
Togus Temur Uskhal Khan Ahmud, son of Toghon Temur 1378-1388
Enkh (Enke)-dzorigtu-khan, son of Togus-Temur 1388-1391
Elbeg-Nigulesegchi-khan Ahmad, son of Togus-Temur 1391-1401
Gun-Temur Togogon (Togon)-khan, son of Elbeg 1401-1402 Oirat rulers
El-Temur (Oljaytu-Temur), son of Elbeg 1403-1410 Ugechi-khashag (Oirat Monke-Temur?), son of Khudhay Tayu 1401-c.1420
Delbeg (Talba), son of Elbeg 1411-1415 Esehu, son of Ugechi, c.1420-c.1422,
Oiradtai, who declared himself the son of Elbeg 1416-1425 Batula, son of Khudhai-Tayu, 1401 / c.
Adai, who declared himself the son of Elbeg 1425-1438 Togon, son of Batula, ruler of the Oirats, 1425/1434 -1439
Daisun Toktoga-buga (Toktobuga), stepson of Adai, son of Ajay, son of Kharagutsug Tuurang-Temur, son of Togus-Temur Uskhal-khan 1438-1452 Esen, son of Togon, 1440-1452 - Oirat ruler,
(Esen Oirat) 1452-1453 1452-1453 - Mongolian khan
Maga Gerges Uhegetu-khan, son of Daisun 1453
Molon, son of Daisun 1454-1463
Mandugul, stepson of Adai, son of Adjay, son of Kharagutsug Tuurang-Temur, son of Togus-Temur Uskhal-khan 1464-1467
Bayan-Munke-bolkhu-jinong, son of Kharagutsag, son of Agbardzhin - stepson of Adai and son of Adjay, son of Kharagutsug Tuurang-Temur, son of Togus-Temur Uskhal-khan 1468-1470
Batu-Mongke bolhu-jinong Dayan-khan, son of Bayan-Mongke bolhu-jinong 1470-1543

Ulus Jochi: Ulus Batu (root yurt of Ulus Jochi, Volga Horde):

Jochi (before 1226)
Batu Sain Khan 1226-1255
Sartak, son of Batu 1255-1257
Ulagchi, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1257
Berke, son of Jochi 1257-1266
Monke-Temur, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1266-1280
Tuda-Monke, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1280-1283/1287
Tolebuga, son of Bortu, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1283/1287-1290
Tokhtu (Tokhtagai, Tokhtogu), son of Monke-Temur 1291-1312
Muhammad Uzbek, son of Toghrilji, son of Monke-Temur 1312-1341
Tinibek, son of Uzbek 1341-1342
Janibek, son of Uzbek 1342-1357
Berdibek, son of Janibek 1357-1359
Kulpa (son of Janibek??) 1359-1360
Navruz (descendant of Uzbek) 1360
Khizr (descendant of Horde-Ichen, son of Jochi) 1359-1361
Timur-Khoja, son of Khizr 1361
Abdullah (descendant of Uzbek?) 1361, 1362
Ordumelik, brother of Timur-Khoja 1361
Keldibek (declared himself the son of Uzbek) 1361-1362
Abdullah (repeatedly) 1362
Murid, Khizr's brother 1362-1363
Khair Pulad-Temur-Khoja, descendant of Janibek 1363-1364
Aziz Sheikh 1364-1370
Muhammad Bulek, a descendant of Batu 1370-1375
Salchi-Circassian 1375
Kaganbek, a descendant of Batu 1375-1377
Arabshah, son of Kaganbek 1377-1379

Ulus Juchi: Ulus Orda-Ichena (Ak-Orda, White Horde according to the Muslim account, the indigenous yurt of the Zayaitskaya Horde):

Orda-Ichen son of Jochi 1226-1280
Konchi (Kuchi, Khuchi), son of Orda-Ichen 1280-1301
Bayan, son of Koncha from 1301, in the fight against Kutlug-Khoja
Kutlug-Khoja, son of Shahi, son of Ord-Ichen 1301 - c.1306?
Bayan, son of Koncha (again) 1309
Sasy-buka (Sary-buka), son of Nokai, son of Shahi, son of Ord Ichen 1309-1315
Ilbasan (Ibisan, Erzen) son of Sasy-buki 1315-1320
Mubarek-Khoja son of Erzen 1320-1344
Chimtai son of Erzen 1344-1360
Himtai son of Chimtai 1360-1361
Urus son of Himtai 1361-1377
Toktakia son of Urus 1377
Timurmelik son of Urus 1377 (-1395)
Tokhtamysh son of Tui-Khoja-oglan (son of Chimtai or descendant of Tuga-timur son of Jochi) 1377-1395/1398 (killed 1406)
1379-1380 annexation of the Volga Horde by Tokhtamysh
Timur-Kutlug son of Timurmelik son of Urus 1395/1398-1400
Shadibek, son of Kutlug-buki son of Urus 1400-1407
Pulad Sultan (Bulat-Saltan) son of Shadibek 1407-1410
Timur Khan son of Timur-Kutlug son of Timurmelik 1410-1411
Jalaladdin son of Tokhtamysh 1406/1411-1413
Kerimberdy son of Tokhtamysh 1413-1414
Kebek (Kapek) - Berdy son of Tokhtamysh 1414-1415
Kadyr (Kidyr)-berdy son of Tokhtamysh 1415-1419
1419 separation of the Mangyt (Nogai) horde (with the death of its emir Idiku [Edigey], the real ruler of the Horde in 1395-1411, the opponent of the khans in 1411-1419))
Ulug-Muhammed son of Hassan son of Yansa descendant of Tugatemur son of Jochi 1419-1434 1420/1425 deposition of the eastern part of the Horde (along the Syr Darya, in the steppes of modern Kazakhstan and Siberia = former root ulus of the house of Ordu-Ichen together with the ulus of Sheiban) under the leadership of Barak, son Kairichak, son of Urus Khan) = foundation of the "Uzbek" khanate
1426 declaration of independence by the Mangyt (Nogai) horde
1427 Separation of Crimea under the rule of Davlet-Birda, son of Bash-Timur, son of Yansa, descendant of Tugatemur, son of Jochi
Said-Ahmad, son of Tokhtamysh 1434-1436
Kuchuk-Muhammad, son of Timur, son of Timur-Kutlug 1436-1459
1445 Mamutek, the son of Ulug-Mukhammed, who was expelled in 1438, captures Kazan. Foundation of a separate Kazan Khanate (Khans - descendants of Mamutek)
1449 secession of Crimea into a special khanate by Jochid Davlet-birdy (Khadji Giray), son of Bash-Timur, son of Yansa, descendant of Tugatemur, son of Jochi (ruled Crimea from 1427)
Mahmud, son of Kuchuk-Muhammad 1459-1466
Ahmad, son of Mahmud 1466-1481
Sayid-Ahmad II, son of Ahmad 1481-15021502 destruction of the Great Horde by the Krymchaks

Ulus of Jochi: Ulus of Sheyban:

Sheiban, son of Jochi 1243-1248
Bahadur, son of Sheiban 1248-c.1280
Jochibuga, son of Bahadur c.1280-c.1310
Baynal, son of Jochibuga c.1310 - ...
Abulkhair son of Devlet Sheikh
son of Ibrahim-oglan,
son of Pulad, son of Monkatemur,
son of Bidakul, son of Jochibuga c.1420-1428; from 1428 Khan of the Uzbek Khanate

Uzbek (lit. "Free") Khanate, officially since 1425:

Barak son of Kairichak son of Urus 1422/1425-1428
1428 removal by the princes of Barak; transfer of the throne of the Uzbek ulus to the house of Sheiban
Abulkhair-khan from the clan of Sheiban son of Jochi 1428-14681465-68 Deposition of Janibek and Giray, formation of the Kazakh (lit. "Free") Khanate
Muhammad Sheibani Khan 1468-1510

Kazakh (lit. "Free") Khanate, since 1468:

In 1465, two Chingisid sultans of the Uzbek Khanate, Dzhanibek and Girey, rebelled against Abulkhair Khan and migrated with their supporters to the territory of Mogolistan, to the area from Talas and Chu to the southwestern outskirts of Balkhash; their supporters made up the Kazakh (lit. "Free") horde. In 1468, with the death of Abulkhair, the Kazakhs returned to the steppes and fought for them with the Uzbeks; this war ended with the fact that the Uzbeks approx. 1500 were driven out to Maverranakhr, and the steppes that previously belonged to them were divided between the Kazakhs and Nogays.

Barak, son of Kairichak, son of Urus Khan, descendant of Orda-Ichen 1422-1459
Giray, son of Barak 1459-1474
Janibek, op. Giray 1459-1465
Muryndyk 1474-1511
Qasim 1511-1518
Mimash 1518-1523

Ulus of Chagatai:

Chagatai, son of Genghis 1227-1242
Kara-Hulagu, son of Mutugen (Moituken), son of Chagatai 1242-1246, restored. 1252
Yesu-Monke, son of Chagatai 1247-1251
Ergene Khatun, widow of Kara-Hulagu 1252-1260
Algu, son of Baydar, son of Chagatai 1260-1266
Mubarak Shah, son of Kara-Hulagu 1266
Giyasaddin Barak, son of Yesun-Duva, son of Mutugen 1266-1270
Nigubey-ogul, son of Sarban, son of Chagatai 1270-1271/72
Buga-Temur (Toga-Temur), son of Buri, son of Mutugen 1272-1274
(Kaidu Regency, 1274-1282)
Duva, son of Barak 1282-1307
Kunzhek, son of Duva 1307-1308
Talik Khizr, son of Buri, son of Mutugen 1308-1309
Kebek, son of Duva 1309, 1318-1325
Esenbuga, son of Duva 1309-1318
Elchigedei, son of Duva 1326
Duva-Temur, son of Duva 1326
Alaaddin Tarmashirin, son of Duva 1326-1334
Buzan, son of Duva Temur 1334
Jenkshi, son of Ebugen (Ayukan), son of Duva 1334-1338
Yesun-Temur, brother of Jenkshi 1338-1339
Ali Sultan 1339-1345
Mohammed, son of Pulad, a descendant of Chagatai 1345
Kazan, son of Yasavur, son of Chubai, son of Algu, son of Baydar, son of Chagatai 1343/45-1346
Mogolistan
Togluk-Temur, grandson of Duva (?) 1348-1363
Ilyas-Khoja, son of Togluk-Temur 1363-1368
Khizr-Khoja, son of Togluk-Temur 1369-1399
Shams-i-jahan- 1399-1408
Mohammed Khan 1408-1415
Naksh 1415-1418
Uwais (Weiss) Khan 1418-1421, 1425-1428
Mohammed 1421-1425
Esenbuga 1429-1462
Yunus Khan 1462-1487
Mahmud Khan 1487-1508
Mansur Khan 1508-1543

Ulus Ogedei:

Ogedei, son of Genghis 1227-1241
Guyuk, son of Ogedei 1241-1248
(interregnum, 1248-1252)
Khanat, son of Nagu, son of Guyuk 1252-1266
Kaidu, son of Khashi (Hashin), son of Ogedei 1267-1301
Chebar, son of Kaidu 1301 - c.1310

Ulus of Ilkhan:

Hulagu, son of Tolui 1256/1261-1265
Abaga, son of Hulagu 1265-1282
Teguder-Ahmed 1282-1284
Arghun 1284-1291
Gaykhatu 1291-1295
Baidu 1295
Mahmud Ghazan 1295-1304
Muhammad Khudabanda Oljaytu 1304-1316
Abu Said Alaaddunyawaddin 1316-1335
Arpa Kayun 1335-1336
Musa 1336-1337
Mohammed 1336-1339
Sati Beg Khatun 1338-1339
Jahan Temur 1339-1340
Sulaiman 1339-1343

Neguder horde:

Neguder, Jochid commander 1262 - c.1275
grandson of Mubarek Shah, son of Kara-Hulagu, grandson of Chagatai c.1275-1279
Abd Allah, son of Mochi, son of Baiju, son of Chagatai 1279-1298
Kutlug-Khvajay, son of Abdallah 1298-c.1302
Davud-Khvadzhay, son of Kutlug-Khvadzhay c.1302-1313
(occupied by the Ilkhan) 1313-c.1315
Yasavur-oglan, son of Chubai, son of Algu, son of Baydar, son of Chagatai c.1315-1320

Barquq Art-tegin 1208-1235
Kyshmain 1235-1242
Salyn-tegin 1243-1252
Ogrunj (Okendzhi)-tegin 1253-1265
Mamurak 1265-1266
Kojigar-tegin 1266-1276
Nolen-tegin 1276-1318
Tomur-buga 1318- 1327
Sunggi-tegin 1327-1331
Taipan 1331-1335

Some vassal states of the Empire:

Hujon 1205-1211
Kanjon 1212-1213
Gojong 1213-1259
Wonjong 1260-1274
Junyeol 1275-1309
Zhongsong 1309-1314
Junseok 1314-1330
Zhongye 1330-1332, 1339-1344
Changseok 1332-1339
Zhongmok 1344-1348
Junajeong 1349-1351
Kunming 1351-1374
Xing Wu 1374-1389

Tibet (Sakya dynasty):

Sakya Pandita 1244-1253
Phagpa Tisri* 1253-1280
Rinchen Tisri 1280-1282
Dharmapala Rakshita Tisri 1282-1287
Yishe Rinchen Tisri 1287-1295
Tragpa-oser Tisri 1295-1303
Rinchen Jantsen Tisri 1303-1305
Dorje Pal Tisri 1305-1313
Sangye Pal Tisri 1313-1316
Kunga Lotro Tisri 1316-1327
Kunga Lekpa Chungne Tisri 1327-1330
Kunga Jantsen Tisri 1330-1358

* Tisri - something like a "regent", the title of the vassal to the Mongols of the ruler of Tibet

Russia (Grand Duchy of Vladimir, since 1389 Moscow):

Vsevolod the Big Nest 1176-1212
Yuri Vsevolodovich 1212-1238
Yaroslav Vsevolodovich 1238-1246
Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich 1246-1247
Mikhail Yaroslavich Horobrit 1247
Andrei Yaroslavich (Vladimir) and Alexander Yaroslavich (Kyiv) 1247/1248-1252
Alexander Yaroslavich (Alexander Nevsky) 1252-1263
Yaroslav Yaroslavich 1263-1272
Vasily Yaroslavich 1272-1276
Dmitry Alexandrovich 1276-1281, deposed
Andrei Alexandrovich 1281-1283, deposed
Demetrius, re-1283-1284, deposed
Andrew, re-1284-1286, deposed
Demetrius, re-1286-1293, deposed
Andrew, re 1293-1304
Mikhail Yaroslavich (son of Yaroslav Yaroslavich) Saint, prince. Tver 1304-1319
Yuri Danilovich (son of Daniil Alexandrovich) 1319-1322, deposed
Dmitry Mikhailovich, Prince. Tver 1322-1325
Alexander Mikhailovich, Prince Tver 1325-1327, displaced
Ivan Danilovich Kalita, Prince. Moscow 1328-1341
Simeon Ivanovich Proud, Prince. Moscow 1341-1353
Ivan Ivanovich Krasny, Prince. Moscow 1353-1359
Dmitry Konstantinovich (son of Konst. Mikhailovich), Prince. Suzdal 1359-1363, displaced
Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy) 1363-1364, displaced
Dmitry of Suzdal, re-1364, deposed
Dmitry Donskoy, re 1364-1389
Michael, Prince Tver 1371-1375, displaced
Vasily Dmitrievich, prince. Moscow 1389-1425
Vasily Vasilyevich Dark, Prince. Moscow 1425-1462
Ivan Vasilievich, Prince Moscow 1462-1505

Little Russia (Russia Minor), Kingdom of Vladimir:

Danila (Daniel) of Galicia 1205/1242-1264
Shvarn Danilovich 1264-1269
Lev Danilovich 1269-1301
Yuri I Lvovich 1301-1308
Leo II Yurievich 1308-1323
Andrei II Yurievich, co-ruler 1308-1323
Yuri II (Bolesław Piast of Mazovia, in literature 1323-1340
sometimes erroneously Yuri Andreevich)
Lubart Gediminovich 1340-1349

Kerman-i-Makran, Qutlug Khan dynasty, 1222-1304:

Barak Hajib Qutlug Khan 1222-1235
Qutb ad-din I Mohammed 1235-1236, 1252-1257
Rukn-ad-din Khoja al-Haqq 1236-1252
Mozaffar ad-din Shajjaj 1257-1272
Turkan Khatun 1272-1282
Jalal-ad-din Abu-l-Mozaffar 1282-1292
Safwat ad-din Padishah Khatun 1292-1295
Yuluk Shah 1292-1295
Mozaffar ad-din II Mohammed Shah 1295-1301
Qutb ad-din II Shah 1301-1304/1308

Fars, Atabey-Salgurid dynasty:

Abubakr Kutlug 1226-1260
Saad II 1260
Mohammed I Adud-ad-din 1260-1262
Mohammed II 1262-1263
Seljuk 1263-1264
Abish-Hadud, daughter of Seljuk 1264-1287

Sistan (1350 - to Herat):

Shamsaddin Bahram Shah 1215-1221
Tajaddin Nasir II 1221
Ruknaddin Abu Mansur 1221-1222
Shihabaddin Mahmud 1222-1225
Ali 1225-1229
Massoud 1229-1236
Shamsaddin Ali ibn Masud 1236-1255/58
Nasreddin I 1259-c.1300
Nasreddin II c.1300-1328
Nusrataddin 1328-1331
Qutbuddin Mohammed 1331-1346
Tajaddin II 1346-1350

Herat and Gur (Kurtov state):

Shamsaddin I 1245-1278
Rokhanaddin Shamsaddin II 1278-1285
Fakhraddin II 1285-1308
Giyasaddin 1308-1328
Shamsaddin III 1328-1329
Hafiz 1329-1331
Muizzaddin 1331-1370

Punjab State of Karluks:

Saifuddin Hassan Karluk c.1220-1249
Nasreddin Karluk 1249-1260

Queen Tamar (Tamara) 1184-1212
George IV 1212-1223
Queen Rusudani 1223-1245
interregnum 1245-1250
David V 1250-1258
David VI 1250-1269
interregnum 1269-1273
Demetrius 1273-1289
Vakhtang II 1289-1292
David VII 1292-1310
Vakhtang III 1301-1307
George V 1307-1314
George VI 1299-1346
David VIII 1346-1360

Sultanate of Rum:

Kay-Khosrow II 1236-1245
Kay-Kavus II 1245-1257
Kylych-Arslan IV 1248-1264
Kay-Kubad 1249-1257
Kay-Khosrow III 1264-1282
Masud II 1282-1284, 1285-1292, 1293-1300, 1302-1305
Key-Kubad III (in the fight against Masud) 1284-1285, 1292-1293, 1300-1302, 1305-1307
Masud III 1307-1308

Empire of Trebizond:

Andronicus I Guide 1222-1235
John I Komnenos 1235-1238
Manuel I Komnenos 1238-1263
Andronicus II Komnenos 1263-1266
George Komnenos 1266-1280
John II Komnenos 1280-1284
Theodora Komnenos 1284-1287
Alexy II Komnenos 1287-1330
Andronicus III Komnenos 1330-1332
Manuel II Komnenos 1332
Basil Komnenos 1332-1340

Great military powers - enemies of the Mongols:
Delhi and Mamluk sultanates,
Grand Duchy of Lithuania:

Iltutmish 1211-1236
Firuzshah 1236
Radiyya Begum Sultana 1236-1240
Bahramshah 1240-1242
Masudshah 1242-1246
Mahmudshah 1246-1266
Balban regent 1246-1266, sultan 1266-1287
Kayqubad 1287-1290
Guyumart 1290
Khiljiz Firuzshah Khilji 1290-1296
Ibrahimshah Kadyrkhan 1296
Muhammadshah Ali Garshasp 1296-1316
Umarshah 1316
Mubarakshah 1316-1320
Khosrowkhan Barwari 1320
Tuglukshah 1320-1324
Muhammadshah (Muhammad Tughluq) 1325-1351
Firuzshah 1351-1388

Ayyubids
Camille 1218-1227
Nasir II 1227-1229
Ashraf 1229-1237
Salih 1237-1238, 1239-1245
Adil II 1238-1239, 1240-1249
Salih II 1239, 1245-1249 1249-1250
Turanshah 1249-1250
Queen Shajar Durr 1250
Nasir III 1250-1260
Ashraf II 1250-1252
Mamluks
Aibek 1250, 1252-1257
Ali I 1257-1259
Qutuz 1259-1260
Baybars I 1260-1277
Baraka 1277-1279
Sulaimysh 1279
Keelaun 1279-1290
Khalil 1290-1293
Baydara 1293
Muhammad I 1293-1294,1299-1309,1310-1341
Ketbugha 1294-1296
Lachin 1296-1299
Baibars II 1309-1310
Abubakr 1341
Kuchuk 1341-1342
Ahmad I 1342
Ismail 1342-1345
Shaaban I 1345-1346
Hadji I 1346-1347
Hasan 1347-1351, 1354-1361
Salih 1351-1354

Grand Duchy of Lithuania:

Mindovg con. 1230s - 1263
Throne 1263 - 1264
Woyshelk 1264 - 1266
Shvarn Danilovich 1266 - 1269
Triden 1270 - 1282
Pakuver 1283 - 1294
Viten 1295 - 1316
Gediminas 1316 - 1341
Evnut 1342 - 1345
Olgerd 1345 - 1377
Keystut 1345 - 1382
Jagiello 1377 - 1392
Vytautas 1392 - 1430

There are a large number of unique people in world history. They were simple children, often brought up in poverty and did not know good manners. It was these people who changed the course of history dramatically, leaving behind only ashes. They built a new world new ideology and a new outlook on life. To all these hundreds of people, humanity owes its present life, because it is the mosaic of past events that has led to what we have today. Everyone knows the names of such people, because they are constantly on the lips. Every year, scientists can provide an increasing number of interesting facts from the lives of great people. In addition, many secrets and mysteries are gradually being revealed, the disclosure of which a little earlier could have led to horrific consequences.

Acquaintance

Genghis Khan is the founder of the first great khan of which he was. He rallied various disparate tribes that were on the territory of Mongolia. In addition, he carried out a large number of campaigns against neighboring states. Most military campaigns ended in complete victory. The empire of Genghis Khan is considered the largest of the continental in the entire history of the world.

Birth

Temujin was born in the Delyun-Boldok tract. The father named after the captive leader of the Tatars Temujin-Uge, who was defeated just before the birth of the boy. The date of birth of the great leader is still not known exactly, since different sources indicate different periods. According to the documents that existed during the life of the leader and his biographer witnesses, Genghis Khan was born in 1155. Another option is 1162, but there is no exact confirmation. The boy's father, Yesugei-bagatur, left him in the family of the future bride at the age of 11. Genghis Khan had to stay there until he came of age, so that the children would get to know each other better. The little girl, the future bride named Borta, was from the Ungirat clan.

Father's death

According to the scriptures, on the way back home, the boy's father was poisoned by the Tatars. Yesugei had a fever at home and died three days later. He had two wives. Both of them and the children of the head of the family were expelled from the tribe. Women with children were forced to live in the forest for several years. They managed to escape by a miracle: they ate plants, the boys tried to fish. Even in the warm season, they were doomed to starvation, as it was necessary to stock up on food for the winter.

Fearing the revenge of the heirs of the great khan, the new head of the Targutai tribe, Kiriltukh, pursued Temujin. Several times the boy managed to escape, but he was eventually caught. They put a wooden block on him, which absolutely limited the martyr in his actions. It was impossible to eat, drink, or even drive the pesky beetle off your face. Realizing the hopelessness of his situation, Temujin decided to run away. At night, he reached the lake, in which he hid. The boy completely sank into the water, leaving only his nostrils on the surface. The bloodhounds of the head of the tribe carefully looked for at least some traces of the escapee. One person noticed Temujin, but did not betray him. In the future, it was he who helped Genghis Khan escape. Soon the boy found his relatives in the forest. Then he married Bort.

The formation of the commander

The empire of Genghis Khan was created gradually. At first, nukers began to flock to him, with whom he carried out attacks on neighboring territories. Thus, young man started to appear own land, army and people. Genghis Khan began to form a special system that would allow him to effectively manage the rapidly growing horde. Around 1184, the first son of Genghis Khan, Jochi, was born. In 1206, at the congress, Temujin was proclaimed a great khan from God. From that moment on, he was considered the complete and absolute ruler of Mongolia.

Asia

The conquest of Central Asia took place in several stages. The war with the Kara-Kai Khanate ended with the Mongols getting Semirechye and East Turkestan. In order to gain the support of the population, the Mongols allowed Muslims to public worship, which was forbidden by the Naimans. This contributed to the fact that the permanent settled population completely took the side of the conquerors. The population considered the arrival of the Mongols "the grace of Allah", in comparison with the harshness of Khan Kuchluk. The inhabitants themselves opened the gates to the Mongols. It was for this that the city of Balasagun was called the "meek city." Khan Kuchluk could not organize a strong enough resistance, so he fled the city. Soon he was found and killed. Thus, the way to Khorezm was opened for Genghis Khan.

The empire of Genghis Khan swallowed up Khorezm - a large state in Central Asia. His weak point was that the nobility had full power in the city, so the situation was very tense. Muhammad's mother independently appointed all relatives to important government posts, without asking her son. Thus creating a powerful circle of support, she led the opposition against Muhammad. Internal relations became very aggravated when the heavy threat of a Mongol invasion hung. The war against Khorezm ended with neither side gaining a significant advantage. At night, the Mongols left the battlefield. In 1215, Genghis Khan agreed with Khorezm on mutual trade relations. However, the first merchants who went to Khorezm were captured and killed. For the Mongols, this was an excellent pretext for starting a war. Already in 1219, Genghis Khan, together with the main military forces, opposed Khorezm. Despite the fact that many territories were taken by siege, the Mongols plundered cities, killed and destroyed everything around. Mohammed lost the war even without a fight, and, realizing this, he fled to an island in the Caspian Sea, having previously given power into the hands of his son Jalal-ad-Din. After long battles, the khan overtook Jalal-ad-Din in 1221 near the Indus River. The enemy army numbered about 50 thousand people. To deal with them, the Mongols used a trick: by making a detour through the rocky terrain, they struck the enemy from the flank. In addition, Genghis Khan deployed a powerful guard unit of the Bagaturs. In the end, the army of Jalal-ad-Din was almost completely defeated. He, with several thousand soldiers, fled from the battlefield by swimming.

After a 7-month siege, the capital of Khorezm, Urgench, fell, the city was taken. Jalal-ad-Din fought against the troops of Genghis Khan for a long 10 years, but this did not bring significant benefits to his state. He died defending his territory in 1231 in Anatolia.

In just three short years(1219-1221) Muhammad's kingdom bowed to Genghis Khan. The entire eastern part of the kingdom, which occupied the territory from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, was under the rule of the great Khan of Mongolia.

The Mongols conquered the West by the campaign of Jebe and Subedei. Having captured Samarkand, Genghis Khan sent his troops to conquer Muhammad. Jebe and Subedei passed through the entire Northern Iran, and then captured the South Caucasus. Cities were captured by certain treaties or simply by force. The troops regularly collected tribute from the population. Soon, in 1223, the Mongols defeated the Russian-Polovtsian military forces in However, retreating to the East, they lost in the small remnants of a huge army returned to the great khan in 1224, and he was in Asia at that time.

hiking

The first victory of the Khan, which took place outside of Mongolia, happened during the campaign of 1209-1210 against the Tanguts. Khan began to prepare for war with the most dangerous enemy in the East - the state of Jin. In the spring of 1211 began Great War which claimed many lives. Very quickly, by the end of the year, Genghis Khan's troops owned the territory from the north to the Chinese wall. Already by 1214, the entire territory covering the north and the Yellow River was in the hands of the Mongol army. In the same year, the siege of Beijing took place. The world was obtained through an exchange - Genghis Khan married a Chinese princess who had a huge dowry, land and wealth. But this step of the emperor was only a trick, and as soon as the Khan's troops began to retreat, after waiting for a good moment, the Chinese resumed the war. For them it was big mistake, because in speed the Mongols defeated the capital to the last stone.

In 1221, when Samarkand fell, the eldest son of Genghis Khan was sent to Khorezm in order to begin the siege of Urgench, the capital of Muhammad. At the same time, the youngest son was sent by his father to Persia to plunder and seize territory.

Separately, it is worth noting what happened between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongolian troops. The modern territory of the battle is the Donetsk region of Ukraine. The Battle of the Kalka (year 1223) led to a complete victory for the Mongols. First, they defeated the forces of the Polovtsy, and a little later the main forces of the Russian army were defeated. On May 31, the battle ended with the death of about 9 Russian princes, many boyars and warriors.

The campaign of Subedei and Jebe allowed the army to pass through a significant part of the steppes, which was occupied by the Polovtsians. This allowed the military leaders to assess the merits of the future theater of operations, study it and think over a reasonable strategy. The Mongols also learned a lot about the internal structure of Russia, they received a lot of useful information from the prisoners. The campaigns of Genghis Khan have always been distinguished by a thorough one that was carried out before the offensive.

Russia

The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into Russia took place in 1237-1240 under the rule of Chingizid Batu. The Mongols were actively advancing on Russia, inflicting strong blows, waiting for good moments. The main goal of the Mongol-Tatars was the disorganization of the soldiers of Russia, the sowing of fear and panic. They avoided battles with a large number of warriors. The tactic was to disunite a large army and break the enemy in parts, exhausting him with sharp attacks and constant aggression. The Mongols began their battles by throwing arrows in order to intimidate and distract opponents. One of the significant advantages of the Mongolian army was that the control of the battle was organized in the best way. The controllers did not fight next to ordinary warriors, they were at a certain distance, so as to maximize the viewing angle of military operations. Instructions to the soldiers were given with the help of various signs: flags, lights, smoke, drums and trumpets. The attack of the Mongols was carefully thought out. For this, powerful reconnaissance and diplomatic preparations for battle were carried out. Much attention was paid to isolating the enemy, as well as fanning internal conflicts. After this stage, concentrated near the borders. The advance took place around the perimeter. Starting from different sides, the army sought to get to the very center. Penetrating deeper and deeper, the military destroyed cities, stole cattle, killed warriors and raped women. In order to better prepare for the attack, the Mongols sent out special observation detachments that prepared the territory and also destroyed the enemy’s weapons. The exact number of troops on both sides is not known for certain, as information varies.

For Russia, the invasion of the Mongols was a severe blow. A huge part of the population was killed, the cities fell into decay, as they were thoroughly destroyed. Stone construction stopped for several years. Many crafts have simply disappeared. The settled population was almost completely eliminated. The empire of Genghis Khan and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into Russia were closely connected, since for the Mongols it was a very tasty morsel.

Khan's empire

The empire of Genghis Khan included a vast territory from the Danube to the Sea of ​​Japan, from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In its heyday, it combined the lands of Southern Siberia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, China, Tibet and Central Asia. The 13th century marked the creation and flourishing of the great state of Genghis Khan. But already in the second half of the century, the vast empire began to split into separate uluses, which were ruled by the Genghisides. The most significant fragments of the huge state were: the Golden Horde, the Yuan empire, the Chagatai ulus and the Hulaguid state. And yet the empire's frontiers were so impressive that no general or conqueror could do better.

Imperial capital

The Karakoram city was the capital of the entire empire. Literally, the word translates as "black stones of the volcano." It is believed that the Karakorum was founded in 1220. The city was the place where the khan left his family during campaigns and military affairs. The city was also the residence of the khan, in which he received important ambassadors. Russian princes also came here to resolve various political issues. The XIII century gave the world many travelers who left records about the city (Marco Polo, de Rubruk, Plano Carpini). The population of the city was very diverse, since each quarter was isolated from the other. The city was inhabited by artisans, merchants who arrived from all over the world. The city was unique in terms of the diversity of its inhabitants, because among them there were people of different races, religions and mindsets. The city was also built up with many Muslim mosques and Buddhist temples.

Ögedei built a palace which he called "The Palace of Ten Thousand Years of Prosperity". Each Chingizid also had to build his own palace here, which, of course, was inferior to the building of the son of the great leader.

Descendants

Genghis Khan had many wives and concubines until the end of his days. However, it was the first wife, Borta, who gave birth to the most powerful and famous boys to the commander. The heir of the first son of Jochi, Batu, was the creator of the Golden Horde, Jagatai-Chagatai gave the name to the dynasty that ruled over the central regions for a long time, Ogadai-Ogedei was the successor of the khan himself, Tolui ruled the Mongol empire from 1251 to 1259. Only these four boys had a certain power in the state. In addition, Borta gave birth to her husband and daughters: Hodzhin-begi, Chichigan, Alagai, Temulen and Altalun.

The second wife of the Merkit Khan, Khulan Khatun, gave birth to a daughter, Dairusuna, and sons, Kulkan and Kharachar. The third wife of Genghis Khan, Yesukat, gave him a daughter, Chara-noinona, and sons, Chakhur and Kharkhad.

Genghis Khan, whose life story is impressive, left behind descendants who ruled the Mongols in accordance with the Great Yasa Khan until the 20s of the last century. The emperors of Manchuria, who ruled over Mongolia and China from the 16th to the 19th centuries, were also the khan's direct heirs through the female line.

Decline of the great empire

The fall of the empire lasted for a long 9 years, from 1260 to 1269. The situation was very tense, as pressing issue who will have all the power. In addition, it should be noted the serious administrative problems faced by the management apparatus.

The fall of the empire was due to the fact that the sons of Genghis Khan did not want to live according to the laws established by their father. They could not live according to the main postulate "On the good quality, the severity of the state." Genghis Khan was shaped by a cruel reality that constantly demanded decisive action from him. The life of a constant tested Temujin, starting from the early years of his life. His sons lived in a completely different environment, they were protected and confident in the future. In addition, we should not forget that they valued their father's possessions much less than he himself.

Another reason for the collapse of the state was the struggle for power between the sons of Genghis Khan. She distracted them from the pressing affairs of the state. When it was necessary to solve important issues, the brothers were engaged in clarifying the relationship. This could not but affect the situation in the country, the world status, the mood of the people. All this led to a general deterioration in the state in many aspects. Dividing the empire of their father among themselves, the brothers did not understand that they were destroying it by dismantling it into stones.

Death of a great leader

Genghis Khan, whose history is impressive to this day, having returned from Central Asia, passed with his army through Western China. In 1225, near the borders of Xi Xia, Genghis Khan was on a hunt, during which he fell and was badly hurt. By the evening of the same day, he developed a severe fever. As a consequence of this, a meeting of managers was convened in the morning, at which the question of whether or not to start a war with the Tanguts was considered. Jochi was also on the council, who did not enjoy special trust at the top of the government, since he regularly deviated from his father's instructions. Noticing such constant behavior, Genghis Khan ordered his army to go against Jochi and kill him. But due to the death of his son, the campaign was never completed.

Having improved his health, in the spring of 1226 Genghis Khan with his army crossed the border of Xi Xia. Having defeated the defenders, and given the city for plunder, the khan began his last war. The Tanguts were completely defeated on the outskirts of the Tangut kingdom, the path to which became open. The fall of the Tangut kingdom and the death of the khan are very connected, because the great leader died here.

Causes of death

The scriptures say that Genghis Khan's death came after he accepted gifts from the Tangut king. However, there are several versions that have equal rights to exist. Among the main and most likely causes are the following: death from illness, poor adaptation to the climate of the area, the consequences of falling from a horse. There is also a separate version that the khan was killed by his young wife, whom he took by force. The girl, fearing the consequences, committed suicide that same night.

Tomb of Genghis Khan

No one can name the exact burial place of the great khan. Various sources disagree on the hypotheses for a number of reasons. Moreover, each of them indicates different places and methods of burial. The tomb of Genghis Khan can be located in any of three places: on Burkhan-Khaldun, on the northern side of Altai Khan, or in Yehe-Utek.

The monument to Genghis Khan is located in Mongolia. The equestrian statue is considered the largest monument and statue in the world. The opening of the monument took place on September 26, 2008. Its height is 40 m without a pedestal, the height of which is 10 m. The whole statue is covered with stainless steel, the total weight is 250 tons. Also, the monument to Genghis Khan is surrounded by 36 columns. Each of them symbolizes the Khan of the Mongol Empire, starting with Genghis and ending with Ligden. In addition, the monument is two-story, and it houses a museum, an art gallery, billiards, restaurants, a conference room and a souvenir shop. The horse's head serves as an observation deck for visitors. The statue is surrounded by a large park. The city authorities plan to equip a golf course, an open theater and an artificial lake.

Ch ingiskhan- one of the greatest conquerors and rulers in history. Under him, the state of the Mongols stretched from Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea and from the southern edge of Siberia to the border with India, and the heirs included within its limits the great civilizations of China and Iran. To middle of XII In the 1st century, the lords of the steppes, having almost completely subjugated the Russian land, reached the territories of modern Poland and Hungary. History has preserved stories about the horrific cruelty of the Mongol horsemen, but it is worth noting that in lesser degree courage was inherent in them, and their ruler was distinguished by remarkable organizational skills and was an excellent strategist and politician.

The Mongols belong to the group of Altai peoples, which also includes the Tungus-Manchu and Turkic ethnic groups. The ancestral home of the Mongol tribes were the lands lying southeast of Lake Baikal. In the steppes to the south of the Mongols lived the Tatar tribes, then the territories of the Onguts were located, and even further south - Jin, the state of the Tungus Jurchens who ruled Northern China. In the southwest, beyond the Gobi Desert, there was Xi Xia- a state founded by the Tanguts, a people related to the Tibetans.

To the west of the Mongol nomads stretched the territory of the Kereites - Mongolized Turkic people. To the northeast of the lands of the Mongols lived related tribes Merkits. Further to the north were the lands of the Oirots, and to the west, in the region of the Greater Altai Mountains, the Naimans. The basis of the economy of the Mongols, who led a nomadic lifestyle, was cattle breeding and hunting. The shepherds lived in portable yurts built of wood and felt, while the northern Mongols, who were engaged in hunting, built dwellings from wood. Attempts to unite disparate tribes were made repeatedly - most often to repel the attacks of the Tatars. The first was probably kabul khan, but only his great-grandson succeeded, who became the creator of one of the greatest empires in world history.

Genghis Khan was born in the Delpun-Boldan tract, on the right bank of the Onon River. His father, Yesugei-bagatur, named his son Temujin, in memory of the victory over the ruler of the Tatars, who bore this name. Having reached the age of 9, the boy was betrothed to 10-year-old Borte, the daughter of Dai-Sechen from the Ongir tribe. After the solemn ceremony, his father returned home alone and, having stopped by to visit the Tatars, was poisoned. From the last strength Yesugei-bagatur was able to get home and before his death he wished that power over the family would pass to Temuchin. However, members of the clan immediately rebelled against Yesugei's wife and children, and they were actually left to their fate.

They were in want and starvation, feeding on the roots of plants and preying on small animals; their situation was so difficult that quarrels began between family members over food. As a result of one of the quarrels, Temujin and Kasar killed Bekter, who, in all likelihood, took away their booty. Soon, during one of the attacks by former tribesmen on their camp, Temuchin was captured and taken to the enemy camp. However, he managed to escape. Already a young man, the future great ruler went to Dai-Sechen for the Borte promised to him in childhood.

The son-in-law was warmly welcomed, and soon he entered the Uighur family; now he was considered a real warrior and had his own family. But Temujin decided to regain all the influence and power that once belonged to his father. For help and protection, he turned to his brother, the leader of the Kereites Toghrul, who promised him patronage and support. Temujin attached particular importance to the attack on the Merkits, who shortly before that had kidnapped his wife Borte. With the help of Toghrul, as well as with the support of one of his vassals and childhood friend Jamukha, he organized a campaign that ended in a brilliant victory (Euro fence price).

And although after some time Jamukha and Toghrul became enemies of Temujin and were defeated by him, at that time participation in the campaign on the side of the famous commanders brought the first loud glory to the future creator of the great empire. Temujin at the Teb-Tengri kurultai was elected Khan of the Mongols and received the name Genghis Khan, which can be translated as “Sovereign of sovereigns”. However, for several years he did not use it to the full: Temujin was neither the only nor the strongest of the candidates for this title, and many were ready to challenge this decision of the Magi. For almost six years, he had to fight both with the hostile peoples of the steppe, and with his former allies - with his brother Jamukha, with whom they were once bound by an oath of eternal friendship.

He conquered the Tatars, then ordering to kill all men taller than the axis of the cart, Merkits, Naimans, and also Kereites, headed by his long-term patron Togrul. When Genghis Khan subjugated all the peoples of Central Asia - some with weapons, others with the help of diplomacy - a new kurultai of the steppe leaders gathered at the head of the Onon River. It was then that Temujin-Genghis Khan was proclaimed kagan - the great khan. Having become the ruler of the steppe peoples, Genghis Khan began to strengthen his power, actively taking up state and military reforms. Taking into account a large number of peoples and tribes, as well as a huge area of ​​​​territories that were now in his power, the kagan began to strengthen the existing tribal ties with vassalage.

Military power in the state of Genghis Khan was placed above civil or economic power: for example, the ruler of a mingan - a group of a thousand warriors - was at the same time the administrative head of the tribes that fielded these warriors, as well as the lands on which they lived. It is not surprising, therefore, that one of the first decisions of the new supreme ruler Mongols was the appointment of the heads of 95 Mingans, who were chosen among the tried and true warriors. The army was divided into detachments according to a system of tens: the smallest detachment, numbering a dozen warriors, was called arban, the largest - jaun - consisted of a hundred people, the next was the already mentioned mingan, and the largest military unit, which had the ability to independently operate on the battlefield, was called Tumen and numbered 10 thousand people. A separate tumen, headed by Genghis Khan himself, became something of an imperial guard. Iron discipline reigned both in the army and in the state administration, and the death penalty for misconduct was by no means uncommon.

In the vast steppe state of Genghis Khan there was no unified legislation: the customs and laws of individual clans or tribes reigned here, and relations between tribes were regulated by their leaders. However, the ruler of the Mongols realized that uniform laws would help to truly unite and strengthen his state, and ordered the creation "Blue book", which began to record all the decisions made by his trusted adviser Shigei Kutuk. By that time, the Mongolian speech was transferred to paper using an alphabet based on the Uyghur script; There was also a special office that dealt exclusively with state affairs.

In the administration system, the principle of remuneration for special merits was of particular importance: such could be, for example, exemption from tribute, the right to take part in feasts in the tent of the khan, and for slaves - liberation. Having put the affairs of the state in order, Genghis Khan sent his troops to the south and west. Here the steppe warriors had to face urban, sedentary civilizations. The preparation for the conquest of northern China, which was ruled by the Jurchens, was the conquest of the Tangut state of Xi Xia.

The actual campaign against the Jurchen state began in 1211. As usual in large campaigns, the Mongol army advanced in several directions at once, and in a small number of battles the Jurchen troops were defeated, and the country was devastated. However, Genghis Khan was interested not so much in the conquest of new territories as in rich booty, and at once three Mongol armies again attacked Northern China; they captured most of these territories and went to the city of Zhongdu. As a result of negotiations, it was decided that the vanquished would pay Genghis Khan a huge indemnity.

A year later, another war broke out with the Jurchens. At first, Genghis Khan personally led the Mongol army in China, but then returned to his native steppes, entrusting further leadership of a successful campaign to his commanders. Around the same period, the Mongols also occupied the territory of the Korean Peninsula. Even before the attack on China, Genghis Khan headed west. The tribes of the Uighurs submitted to him, and two years later, the Karluts. He seized the state of that part of the Khitans, who at one time, under the pressure of the Jurchens, moved from China to the west. Thus, the Mongol ruler and commander reached the borders of the state of Khorezm, which, in addition to Western Turkestan, also occupied the territories of modern Afghanistan and Iran. The Khorezm state, which was under the active influence of Persian culture, formed at the end of the 12th century and was not much older than the empire of Genghis Khan; shah ruled them Muhammad II.

It came to war, the immediate cause of which was the murder of merchants and ambassadors of Genghis Khan in the border town of Otrar. Mongolian army, total strength which is estimated at 150 - 200 thousand soldiers, was much smaller than Khorezm, but better organized and trained; in addition, Shah Mohammed focused his troops on defense, breaking them into garrisons and placing them mainly near the border fortresses. Mongolian detachments moved simultaneously along the border and deep into Khorezm - and everywhere they won. Genghis Khan took Bukhara and Samarkand; he expelled the surviving local residents, and destroyed the cities after the plunder. A similar fate befell the next spring and Urgench - the capital of Khorezm. By the end of the campaign, most of the Khorezm lands were in the hands of Genghis Khan, and the ruler of the steppe empire returned to Mongolia, leaving his garrisons on the conquered lands.

During this war, Genghis Khan allowed two of his generals - Jebe and subedey- go on a reconnaissance trip to the west. An army of about 30 thousand soldiers set off along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, went to the Caucasus and attacked Georgia, and then turned south to Baghdad, the capital of the caliphate ruled by the Abbasid dynasty. Heading towards the Caucasus again, the conquerors successfully crossed it and defeated the united Polovtsian-Russian army on the Kalka River. After that, the soldiers of Genghis Khan devastated the Crimea, and from there they turned back to Mongolia.

Returning after the end of the Khorezm campaign, Genghis Khan divided the lands of his empire among his four sons; these parts became known as uluses. The eldest of the sons Jochi- received the western ulus, Chagatai father gave land in the south. Ogedei, which, due to its balanced character, was declared the heir - the eastern part of the state. The youngest of sons Toluyu, the kagan intended ancestral lands Mongols over the river Onon. Genghis Khan went on his last military campaign, wanting to punish the Tangut state of Xi Xia for insufficient support during the war with Khorezm.

Formation of the Mongolian state

The entry of the Mongols into the historical arena had a huge impact on the fate of many nations. The evidence of Chinese sources allows us to trace the history of the Mongols into the depths of centuries. Their direct relationship with the Huns, which is often written about, cannot be considered scientifically proven at the current level of knowledge.

The first mention of the Mongols themselves under the names of menu, menwa dates back to the Tang era (7th-9th centuries). According to the studies of some experts, the Mongols lived along the southern bank of the Amur River, west of the confluence of the Sungari River into the Amur and east of the Lesser Khingan Range, according to others, their habitat was the lower reaches of the Shilka and Argun rivers and the upper reaches of the Amur. According to Chinese chronicles, the Mongols were part of the Shiwei tribes, who for the most part spoke Mongolian languages. In the text " old history Tang Dynasty" ("Jiu Tang shu") says: "Shiwei is a special kind of Khitan. They live along the northern [banks] of the Yaoyuehe River. Their state is located in the northeast of the capital at a distance of more than seven thousand li. In the east it extends to the Heishui Mohe, in the west to the Turks, in the south adjacent to the Khitans, and in the north it reaches the sea. In this state there is no sovereign and senior chiefs, but there are seventeen rulers who are called mohefu and rule them hereditarily, although they depend on the Turks. They have bows made of horns and arrows made of hu wood (willow tree? - E.K.) as military weapons and shoot very accurately ... At times they go hunting with light throwing spears, and when the job is over, they disperse. These people cultivate the land but do not pay land tax. In their villages they build small houses, covering them with skins on top. They unite in groups and live, sometimes up to several tens or hundreds of families. They sharpen trees and make plows without putting metal tips on them. Sokha is pulled by a person, and sowing is done. It is not allowed to use [for ploughing] bulls ... Dogs and pigs are found there as domestic animals. They are fattened and eaten, and the skins are used to make leather. Both men and women [from these skins] sew clothes. Their hair is disheveled, their clothes are fastened on the left side. The rich distinguish themselves by making jewelry from a variety of five-colored pearls. The laws governing marriage [are] that the groom first enters the bride's house and works there for three years. For this reason, he can personally communicate closely with this woman. When the period of working off ends, the bride's family allocates them their share of the property, the husband and wife sit in one cart and load it. With drumming and dancing, they return together [to the husband's house] ... They say that during our Tang dynasty there are nine Shiwei tribes ... "One of them was the Men'u Shiwei, i.e. the Shiwei-Mongols.

The New History of the Tang Dynasty (Xin Tang shu) contains additions on shivei funeral rites. Each group of shiwei built large sheds, on which the corpses of the dead were placed on top. Three years of mourning was worn for the dead. If the ruler died, then his son became his successor and heir, only if the ruler did not have a son, a strong and determined person was put in place of the deceased.

Shiwei rode carts pulled by oxen. Dwellings were built by weaving walls of shrubs and small trees and covering them with cords on top. Or trees were bent and covered with wickerwork on top. Rafts and leather boats were made for river crossings. Horses - there were few of them - were allowed to graze hobbled; sheep were not kept. It is also said that there were more than 20 Shiwei tribes, and not 9, as in "Jiu Tang shu".

The Turks called all Shiwei Tatars. The last ethnonym is first found in the ancient Turkic inscription in honor of Kul-Tegin in 731-732, then in Chinese texts of the 9th century.

The history of the Mongolian tribes proper in the 10th-11th centuries. - this is the story of their gradual advance to the west, which apparently began in the middle of the 8th century. It was accompanied by the expulsion from the territory of Khalkha Turkic-speaking peoples who dominated here for hundreds of years.

The reason for the advance of the Mongols to the west could be attacks on them from the outside or internecine wars.

According to one of the Mongol legends, expounded by Rashid ad-din, "other tribes defeated the Mongols and inflicted such a beating among them that no more than two men and two women remained alive. These two families, in fear of the enemy, fled to an inaccessible area, around which there were only mountains and forests and to which there was no road on either side ... Among those mountains there was abundant grass and a healthy [climate] steppe. The name of this area is Ergune-Kun. The meaning of the word kun is "slope", and ergune - "steep", in other words, "steep ridge". Further, the legend tells that in Ergune-Kun the Mongols multiplied and became masters of iron smelting and blacksmithing. According to legend, it was the art of melting iron that helped them get out of the mountain gorges on the expanse of the present Mongolian steppes, to the blue Kerulen, the golden Onon." And so they found one place that was a deposit of iron ore, where iron was constantly smelted. Having gathered all together, they prepared a lot of firewood and coal in the forest ... they slaughtered seventy heads of bulls and horses, tore off their skins entirely and made bellows out of them. Then they laid firewood and coal at the foot of that slope and equipped the place in such a way that with these seventy bellows they began to inflate [fire under firewood and coal] at once until that mountain slope melted.

Chinggis Khan's progenitor, Alan-Goa, gave birth to five sons.

Two of them were born from her husband Dobun-Mergen, and three after his death. Explaining their birth, Alan-Goa claimed that she gave birth to them from a light-haired man who penetrated to her at night through the chimney of the yurt. These three sons were thus "marked with the seal of heavenly origin." The clan of Genghis Khan descended from younger son Alan-Goa, Bodonchara, whose true father was, apparently, Ma-alikh Bayaudets, a Turk (Kyrgyz), the only man, except for the sons of Alan-Goa, who was in her house. Rashid ad-din believed that Alan-Goa lived 300 years before he wrote his work, i.e. at the turn of the X-XI centuries. According to the anonymous "Altan Tobchi", the son of Alan-Goa, Bodonchar, was born in 970. The descendants of Bodonchar were distinguished by red hair and light eyes.

As a result of the migrations, the Mongols came into direct and closer contact than before with the Turks. In the steppe and forest-steppe zone, they switched completely to nomadic cattle breeding. L.R. Kyzlasov points out that the Mongols have their own terms only for designating dogs, horses and pigs, i.e. just those animals that were known among the Shiwei. The Mongols borrowed the entire pastoral vocabulary and names for sheep, bulls, camels, mules from the Turks. In turn, the Mongols brought with them from Manchuria a type of settled dwelling - a square house without a foundation with frame walls and U-shaped kans for heating. Obviously, in the X-XI centuries. there was a process of assimilation of the Turkic population remaining in Khalkha by the Mongols.

The Khitans, having created their empire, the Liao empire, in the 10th century, brought the population of the Khalkha valley under their control. In 1004, the "Department for the Subordination of the Border Residents of the North-Western Region" was established, the center of which was the city, in Chinese called Zhenzhou, in Turkic - Khatun (Kedun). It was located south of the lower reaches of the Khalkha River. In general, the Tatar-Mongols were loyal to the Liao, an ethnically related dynasty, although some Mongolian tribes, such as the Jajirats and Merkits, waged exhausting wars with the Khitans and by 1094 were heavily bled dry by the Khitans and their allies.

After the death of the Liao and the establishment of the Jurchen dynasty, the tribes bordering on the Jin were ruled by their leaders. If they recognized the supremacy of the Jin and brought cattle for sale at the border or as a gift to the Jin court, then it was believed that they were in the service of the dynasty and guarded the borders of the empire. The Jin authorities paid for this in grain, silk, and money.

By the middle of the XII century. refers to the emergence of the first Mongolian state - Khamag Mongol ulus ("State of all Mongols"). Even under the Liao dynasty, part of the Mongol nobility received positions and titles of nobility from the Khitans, such as lingwen or xiaowen, commanders of the border troops, called jiu. After the death of Liao, the Tatar-Mongols supported Yelü Dashi, a representative of the dynasty that had lost its state, provided him with assistance, including troops, putting up for him more than ten thousand strong army. This support by the Tatar-Mongols of Yelü Dashi, who, although he could not return power to the house of Yelü, went west to Semirechye, but posed a constant threat to the Jurchens, led to a conflict between the Tatar-Mongols and the Jurchens. From 1135 to 1147 the Mongols were at war with the Jin. The reason for the war, in addition to the general tension in relations since 1125, was an attempt by the Jurchens to kill the ruler of the Mongols, Khabul Khan. Two Jin embassies arrived one after another to Khabul Khan, demanding his arrival at the court. Khabul Khan interrupted the members of the second embassy, ​​which led to the Jin war with the Mongols. The Jurchens at that time successfully finished off Sung China, the war with the Mongols was ignored, and this war was successful for the Mongols. In 1147, peace was concluded between the Jin and the Mongols. The Jin authorities ceded to the Mongols 17 fortifications north of the Xininghe River, which became a frontier.

An extremely important message from a Chinese source dates back to this time that the Mongol Khan Aolo Bozile (Olun Beile) was recognized by the Jurchens as the sovereign of the state of the Mongols (Mengfuguo Zhu).

However, Aolo, as was often the case, was not satisfied with the title of sovereign (zhu) within his domains and assumed the imperial title of zuyuan huangdi. He announced his motto of the reign - Tien-sin, or "Flourishing, bestowed by Heaven." The adoption of their motto of government meant the announcement of independent rule. On the proposal of the Jin court to be content with the title of go wang, or "prince of the state", Aolo refused.

Most researchers identify Aolo botsile with Khabul Khan. In the "Secret History" about Khabul Khan it is said: "Khabul Khan was in charge of all the Mongols. After Khabul Khan ... Ambagai Khan began to be in charge." Ambagai Khan had the title of "national kagan and sovereign of the ulus". The Mongolian ulusun ejen, "sovereign of the ulus", if it did not correspond to the Chinese Huangdi, "emperor", then certainly could have had the title guo zhu ("sovereign of the state") as its absolute equivalent. Rashid al-Din calls Khabul Khan "Mongol Khan", "sovereign and ruler of his tribes and subordinates." The ancient Mongol rulers bore the Xianbei-Zhuanzhuan-Turkic title of kagan (khagan). The title of khan, equivalent to the title of khan, appeared later.

Khabul Khan was the son of Kaidu. Khaidu had a second son, Bai-Shinkor Dokshin. The lineage (uruk) of Bai-Shinkor Dokshin is the lineage of Genghis Khan. From Bai-Shinkor Dokshin, the Kiyat clan, in which Genghis Khan was born, originated. Khaidu also had a third son, Charakai-linku, from whom descended the Taichiuts, who played such a big role in the fate of Genghis Khan. All together they were "natural" Mongolian khans, or khagans.

In the Khamag Mongol ulus, after the death of Khabul Khan, power passed not to his sons, but to Ambagai Khan, the grandson of Khaid and the cousin of Temujin's great-great-grandfather, Genghis Khan Tumbinay Sechen.

Ambagay Khan, if he ruled the entire Khamag Mongol ulus, then not for long. He was captured by the Tatars and handed over to the Jurchens, who executed him. Around 1160, the Khamag Mongol ulus finally collapsed, probably due to rivalry and struggle for power among members of the khan's house.

After the collapse of the Khamag Mongol Ulus, the Mongols lived in the valleys of the Onon and Kerulen rivers, along the Tola River. The northeastern regions of Mongolia and Transbaikalia were inhabited by Uryankhats. The marriage partners of the clan from which Genghis Khan came were the Khungirats, they lived in South-Eastern Mongolia. The Taichiuts, one of the strongest groups of Mongols, separated from the Khamag Mongol ulus, lived along the Onon River. Tatars lived in the area of ​​lakes Buir-Nor and Dalai-Nor. Merkits settled in the lower reaches of the Orkhon River and along the Selenga. All these were Mongol-speaking peoples. The Kereites roamed in the foothills of the Khangai, along the Kerulen, Orkhon and Tola rivers. There are opinions that the Kereites were among the first to leave for the west. For several centuries they lived in the neighborhood with the Turks and mixed with them or were subjected to strong Turkic influence. There are other opinions. P. Rachnevsky believes that the Kereites were originally Turks, originally they lived on the Irtysh and Altai and were pushed to the east by the Naimans. Here they were largely Mongolized. The Kereites were Nestorian Christians.

The western regions of modern Mongolia were occupied by the Naimans. There is also no unity in science regarding the ethnicity of the Naimans. Some consider them Mongols, others - Turks. Like the Kereites, the Naimans were Nestorian Christians. Between the Angara and the Yenisei in the taiga zone lived Oirats, "people of the forests."

The population of Mongolia in the XII century. according to the way of life it was subdivided into forest and steppe. Forest peoples lived in the taiga and taiga zones and were engaged in hunting and fishing. The main part of the population of Mongolia was nomadic and led a nomadic pastoral economy. The Mongols were short in stature, but distinguished by great physical strength and endurance. The men wore the tuff hairstyle, which was widespread in Northern China, and which has already been mentioned. The Mongols lived in yurts, collapsible or mounted on carts. The wagon with the yurt installed on it was transported by bulls. In the parking lots, the Mongols were located in kurens (rings). They bred horses, cows and bulls, sheep and goats, and to a lesser extent camels. Usually there were six or seven sheep and goats per horse. The owner branded the cattle with his personal tamga. The nomadic Mongols hunted and farmed to a limited extent, sowing mainly black glutinous millet. Milk, meat, fish, liquid millet porridge, wild roots, plants and fruits were the main diet of the Mongols. The Mongols worshiped Heaven, Earth and spirits, such as the spirit of fire Ut.

There is no unity in science and in assessing the level of development of the Tatar-Mongolian tribes in the 12th century. But gradually the point of view of those scientists who refuse to consider the Mongolian society of the 12th century takes over. tribal, "military democracy" society, etc. It was a class society, divided primarily into personally free and slaves (bogol - male slaves, inje - slaves). The sources of slavery were captivity and the purchase of people. It is known that the Jurchens brought large consignments of slaves to the border and exchanged them with the Tatar-Mongols for horses. The Mongols united slaves in pairs for offspring. Slaves worked in the family of the owner in the service, they also did the main work - they grazed cattle and looked after it. The slaves of Genghis Khan's ancestor, Bodonchar, "grazed his horses", the slaves of Tooril Khan of Kereit "grazed camels and sheep". As in many societies of the world, the slaves of the Mongols were equated with cattle. The slave was required to faithfully and faithfully serve the master. "If the slave is not devoted to the master, - Genghis Khan taught, - kill him."

Among the personally free people there were rich people - button accordion and poor people - yadagu khuvun. They were divided into people of their Uruk - descendants in the male line from one ancestor and strangers, not relatives - Jat. Finally, personally free people were divided into noble - say khuvun and commoners - karacha. Among the nobles, the "golden families", natural khagans, tue khans stood out. Unlike ordinary pastoralists - arats, rich and noble people made up the estate of noyons. From the time of Liao, the khans and noyons had Chinese and mixed, as they say, "Chinese-Altaic" titles, which they received from the Khitans and Jurchens. Temujin - Genghis Khan had the rank of chauthuri, centurion. Along with those borrowed and received from Liao or Jin, the Mongol nobility had their own titles: mergen ("excellent archer"), sechen ("wise"), baatur ("hero"), buka ("strong man"), bilge (" wise"), etc. These were not just characteristics of a person’s personal qualities, but namely titles, titles that determined the place of the person who bore this title in society, in the system of government, in the uluses of the Tatar-Mongols.

"Ulus" as a state entity meant, as B.Ya. In a nomadic state, ulus, people in a certain sense were more significant than the territory, and therefore the withdrawal, departure, death of people meant the collapse, the death of the ulus. Therefore, the concept of "gathering an ulus" was of such great importance. As a rule, the khan was at the head of the ulus. His support was his Uruk, relatives, descended from a common male ancestor (in-laws, relatives by marriage made up another group - huda), and nukers, the squad of the khan (nuker - literally "friend"), his guard. Nukers controlled the headquarters of the khan (later - the horde), his relatives - the uruk, commanded the khan's guard and his military formations. The warriors were led by the so-called archers and saber bearers. From among the nukers, managers of the household, herds of sheep, horse herds, etc., people who managed the migrations, were appointed. Under the khan, there were horsemen, kravchie, cherbi (people who were in charge of the servants and household people of the khan). Sources allow us to single out in the ulus of the XII century. three groups of officials: those who managed the headquarters of the khan, those who commanded his armed forces, and those who were in charge of the economy of both the khan himself and the entire ulus.

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