Peculiarities:

• the researcher himself causes the phenomenon under study, and does not wait for it to happen;
• can change the conditions of the process under study;
• in the experiment, you can alternately exclude individual conditions in order to establish regular relationships;
• experiment allows you to vary quantitative ratio conditions and implement mathematical processing data.

Experiment Models

Psychological experiment

Psychological experiment - conducted in special conditions experience for new scientific knowledge through the targeted intervention of the researcher in the life of the subject.

thought experiment

Thought experiment in philosophy, physics and some other fields of knowledge - view cognitive activity, in which the structure real experiment reproduced in the mind. As a rule, a thought experiment is carried out within the framework of a certain model (theory) to check its consistency. When conducting thought experiment there may be contradictions between the internal postulates of the model or their incompatibility with external (in relation to this model) principles that are considered unconditionally true (for example, with the law of conservation of energy, the principle of causality, etc.).

Critical experiment

A critical experiment is an experiment whose outcome unambiguously determines whether a particular theory or hypothesis is correct. This experiment should give a predicted result that cannot be deduced from other, generally accepted hypotheses and theories.

Helper Methods

• testing
• product analysis
• math statistics

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Notes

Literature

• Vizgin V. P. Hermeticism, experiment, miracle: three aspects of the genesis of modern science // Philosophical and religious origins of science. M ., 1997. S.88-141.
• Akhutin A. V. Experiment and nature. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2012. - 660 p. - (ser. "The Word about Being" T. 93).

Links

An excerpt characterizing the Experiment

Prince Andrei closed his eyes and turned away. Pierre, who had not taken his joyful, friendly eyes from the moment Prince Andrei entered the living room, went up to him and took his hand. Prince Andrei, without looking back, wrinkled his face into a grimace, expressing annoyance at the one who touched his hand, but, seeing Pierre's smiling face, he smiled an unexpectedly kind and pleasant smile.
- That's how! ... And you're in big light! he said to Pierre.
“I knew you would,” Pierre answered. "I'll come and have dinner with you," he added quietly, so as not to disturb the viscount, who continued his story. - Can?
“No, you can’t,” said Prince Andrei, laughing, shaking hands letting Pierre know that there was no need to ask this.
He wanted to say something else, but at that time Prince Vasily and his daughter got up, and two young men got up to give them way.
“Excuse me, my dear viscount,” said Prince Vasily to the Frenchman, gently pulling him by the sleeve down to the chair so that he would not get up. “This unfortunate feast at the Messenger’s is depriving me of my pleasure and interrupting you. I am very sad to leave your delightful evening,” he said to Anna Pavlovna.
His daughter, Princess Helene, lightly holding the folds of her dress, went between the chairs, and a smile shone even brighter on her face. beautiful face. Pierre looked with almost frightened, enthusiastic eyes at this beauty when she passed him.
“Very good,” said Prince Andrei.
“Very,” said Pierre.
Passing by, Prince Vasily grabbed Pierre by the hand and turned to Anna Pavlovna.
“Educate me this bear,” he said. - Here he lives with me for a month, and for the first time I see him in the light. Nothing is needed young man as a society of smart women.

Anna Pavlovna smiled and promised to take care of Pierre, who, she knew, was related to Prince Vasily on her father's side. The elderly lady, who had previously been sitting with ma tante, hastily got up and overtook Prince Vasily in the hall. All the old pretense of interest was gone from her face. Her kind, weepy face expressed only anxiety and fear.
- What will you tell me, prince, about my Boris? she said, catching up with him in the front. (She pronounced the name Boris with a special emphasis on o). – I cannot stay longer in Petersburg. Tell me, what news can I bring to my poor boy?
Despite the fact that Prince Vasily listened reluctantly and almost impolitely to the elderly lady and even showed impatience, she smiled affectionately and touchingly at him and, so that he would not leave, took his hand.
“That you should say a word to the sovereign, and he will be directly transferred to the guards,” she asked.
“Believe me that I will do everything I can, princess,” answered Prince Vasily, “but it’s hard for me to ask the sovereign; I would advise you to turn to Rumyantsev, through Prince Golitsyn: that would be smarter.
The elderly lady bore the name of Princess Drubetskaya, one of the best families in Russia, but she was poor, long gone from the world and lost her former connections. She has come now to secure a position in the guards for her only son. Only then, in order to see Prince Vasily, did she name herself and come to Anna Pavlovna's for the evening, only then did she listen to the history of the viscount. She was frightened by the words of Prince Vasily; sometime Beautiful face she was exasperated, but it lasted only a minute. She smiled again and gripped Prince Vasili more firmly by the arm.
“Listen, prince,” she said, “I never asked you, I will never ask, I never reminded you of my father’s friendship for you. But now, I conjure you by God, do this for my son, and I will consider you a benefactor,” she added hastily. - No, you are not angry, but you promise me. I asked Golitsyn, he refused. Soyez le bon enfant que vous avez ete, [Be a good fellow, as you were,] she said, trying to smile, while there were tears in her eyes.
“Daddy, we’ll be late,” she said, turning her beautiful head on ancient shoulders, Princess Helene, waiting at the door.
But influence in the world is a capital that must be protected so that it does not disappear. Prince Vasily knew this, and once he realized that if he began to ask for everyone who asks him, then soon he would not be able to ask for himself, he rarely used his influence. In the case of Princess Drubetskaya, however, after her new call, he felt something like a reproach of conscience. She reminded him of the truth: he owed his first steps in the service to her father. In addition, he saw from her methods that she was one of those women, especially mothers, who, once taking something into their heads, will not lag behind until they fulfill their desires, otherwise they are ready for daily, every minute pestering and even on the stage. This last consideration shook him.
“Chere Anna Mikhailovna,” he said with his usual familiarity and boredom in his voice, “it is almost impossible for me to do what you want; but in order to prove to you how much I love you and honor the memory of your late father, I will do the impossible: your son will be transferred to the guards, here is my hand to you. Are you satisfied?
- My dear, you are a benefactor! I did not expect anything else from you; I knew how kind you are.
He wanted to leave.
- Wait, two words. Une fois passe aux gardes ... [Once he goes to the guards ...] - She hesitated: - You are good with Mikhail Ilarionovich Kutuzov, recommend Boris to him as adjutant. Then I would be calm, and then I would...
Prince Vasily smiled.
- I don't promise that. You do not know how Kutuzov has been besieged since he was appointed commander in chief. He himself told me that all the Moscow ladies conspired to give him all their children as adjutants.
“No, promise me, I won’t let you in, dear, my benefactor…
- Dad! - the beauty repeated again in the same tone, - we will be late.
- Well, au revoir, [goodbye,] goodbye. See?
- So tomorrow you will report to the sovereign?
- Certainly, but I do not promise Kutuzov.
“No, promise, promise, Basile, [Vasily],” Anna Mikhailovna said after him, with a smile of a young coquette, which once must have been characteristic of her, but now did not suit her emaciated face.
She apparently forgot her years and used, out of habit, all the old women's means. But as soon as he left, her face again assumed the same cold, feigned expression that had been on it before. She returned to the circle, in which the viscount continued to talk, and again pretended to be listening, waiting for the time to leave, since her business was done.
“But how do you find all this latest comedy du sacre de Milan?” [Milanese anointing?] – said Anna Pavlovna. Et la nouvelle comedie des peuples de Genes et de Lucques, qui viennent presenter leurs voeux a M. Buonaparte assis sur un trone, et exaucant les voeux des nations! Adorable! Non, mais c "est a en devenir folle! On dirait, que le monde entier a perdu la tete. [And here is a new comedy: the peoples of Genoa and Lucca express their desires to Mr. Bonaparte. And Mr. Bonaparte sits on the throne and fulfills the desires of the peoples. 0! It's amazing! No, it's crazy. You'll think the whole world has lost its head.]

) research in the course of which preliminary planning and subsequent organization of the most correct (valid) experiments in scientific and methodological terms are carried out, having one or another relation to the most various areas psychological science, including almost all areas of applied psychology.

In particular, very great importance for successful development experimental psychology has the development of effective experimental methods study various problems and issues related to the psychophysiology of sensations, perception, development, attention, consciousness, learning, memory, thinking, language.

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Main principles of methodology

The methodology of experimental psychology is based on the following principles:

1. General scientific methodological principles:
   1. The principle of determinism. Experimental psychology proceeds from the fact that human behavior and mental phenomena are the result of any causes, that is, they are fundamentally explicable.
   2. The principle of objectivity. Experimental psychology considers that the object of cognition is independent of the cognizing subject; the object is fundamentally cognizable through action.
   3. The principle of falsifiability is the requirement proposed by K. Popper to have a methodological possibility of refuting a theory that claims to be scientific by staging one or another fundamentally possible real experiment.
2. Principles Specific to Psychology
   1. The principle of the unity of the physiological and mental. The nervous system ensures the emergence and flow of mental processes, but the reduction of mental phenomena to physiological processes is impossible.
   2. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. Consciousness is active, and activity is conscious. An experimental psychologist studies the behavior that is formed in the close interaction of the individual with the situation. Expressed next function: R=f( P,S), where R- behavior, P- personality and S- situation.
   3. development principle. Also known as the historicism principle and the genetic principle. According to this principle, the subject's psyche is the result of a long development in phylogenesis and ontogenesis.
   4. System-structural principle. Any mental phenomena should be considered as holistic processes. (The impact is always made on the psyche as a whole, and not on some isolated part of it.)

Major developments in creation

• XVI century - the first information about psychological experiments.
• XVIII century - the beginning of the systematic setting of psychological experiments with scientific purpose (for the most part, experiments with elementary visual sensations).
• - publication of G. T. Fechner's book "Elements of Psychophysics", which founded psychophysics and is considered the first work on experimental psychology.
• - Publication of W. Wundt's book "Physiological Psychology".
• - foundation of Wundt's psychological laboratory, in which the first scientific psychological school was created.
• - publication of the work of G. Ebbinghaus "On Memory", in which the author comes to understand the task of experimental psychology as an establishment functional connection between certain phenomena and certain factors through the solution of any problems.

Basic concepts

• Hypothesis
  • Experimental hypothesis
• Psychological experiment

Research methods in psychology

The classification given here is based on the classification of B. G. Ananiev, who combined in it all the stages of psychological research, from organizational to interpretation. [ Ananiev's classification is given here with some changes .]

1. Organizational group:
   • Complex method (use of both comparative and longitudinal methods in combination)
2. A group of empirical data mining methods (depending on the chosen organizational method):
   • Observation and self-observation (introspection)
   • Experimental Methods
     • Formative, or psychological and pedagogical experiment
   • Psychodiagnostic methods
     • Standardized and projective test methods
     • Verbal-communicative methods
       • Conversation Method
         • Interview
       • Poll method
   • Methods for the analysis of processes and products of vital activity (or praximetric methods)
3. All methods and techniques for processing empirical data:
   • Methods of mathematical statistics
   • Methods for the qualitative characteristics of the obtained material
4. Interpretive methods
   • Genetic method (developmental phase analysis)
   • Structural method (analysis of systems and types of intersystem connections)

Criticism of experimental psychology

Since the very creation of experimental psychology, there have been discussions about the applicability of such a research method as experiment in psychology. There are two polar points of view:

1. in psychology, the use of experiment is fundamentally impossible and unacceptable;
2. psychology as a science without experiment is untenable.

The first point of view - about the impossibility of applying the experiment - is based on the following provisions:

• The subject of research in psychology is too complicated.
• The subject of research in psychology is too unstable, which leads to the impossibility of observing the principle of verification.
• AT psychological experiment inevitably subject-subject interaction (subject-experimenter), which violates the scientific purity of the results.
• The individual psyche is absolutely unique, which makes psychological measurement and experiment meaningless (it is impossible to generalize the obtained data to all individuals).
• The psyche has an inherent property of spontaneity, which makes it difficult to predict.
• And etc.

Opponents of experimental methods are many adherents of the hermeneutic approach in psychology, based on the method of understanding V. Dilthey.

Supporters of the second point of view, which justifies the expediency of introducing an experiment into science, argue that an experiment makes it possible to discover the principle underlying a phenomenon. The experiment is considered as an attempt to reconstruct a simplified reality in the laboratory, in which it important characteristics can be modeled and controlled. The purpose of the experiment is to evaluate theoretical principles underlying the psychological phenomenon.

There is also a point of view that can be perceived as a compromise between the two mentioned above - the idea of ​​​​levels of mental organization. According to her, there are six levels mental regulation(0 - physiological level, 1 - psychophysiological level, 2 - level of sensory-perceptual processes, 3 - integrative level of the psyche, 4 - personality level, 5 - individuality level). The power of the natural scientific method has the highest value when considering physiological processes and gradually falls, tending to zero at the level of individuality. Accordingly, the power of the hermeneutic method increases, from zero to physiological level, before your maximum value at the level of individuality. This is shown in the diagram as follows:

Research objectives in psychology

Four common interrelated tasks facing scientific research: describe behavior, predict behavior, explain behavior, control behavior.

Behavior Description

Identification of regular sequences of events, including stimuli or external factors and responses or behavior. Drawing up clear and accurate descriptions- the first step in any scientific research, without which it is impossible to predict and explain behavior.

Behavior prediction

The discovery of the laws of behavior (the presence of constant and predictable relationships between variables) should lead to the implementation of forecasting with varying degrees of probability.

Explanation of behavior

Finding the causes of the behavior in question. The process of establishing causal relationships is complex and involves many aspects.

Behavior Management

Application in practice of the laws of behavior discovered in the course of psychological research.

Ethical Issues in Psychological Research

When working with a subject, it is necessary to observe the ethics of psychological research. In most cases, you need:

• Obtain the consent of the potential subject, explaining to him the purpose and objectives of the study, his role in the experiment to the extent that he was able to make a responsible decision about his participation.
• Protect the subject from harm and discomfort.
• Take care of the confidentiality of information about the subjects.
• Fully explain the meaning and results of the study after the end of the work.

When working with animals.

Experimentation is one of the types of cognitive activity. This concept is associated with obtaining visual images of objects or processes of the surrounding world. The experiment involves certain transformations, in contrast to passive observation, in which it does not change the objects under study. During it, various objects are placed in artificial conditions, which often do not exist in . In addition, the researcher seeks to eliminate unwanted accidents and forces certain factors to act on these objects. Experimenting, modifies, transforms or even creates objects from the materials available to him.

Intervening in the course of events, one can discover such characteristics of the phenomena being studied that, with simple observation, are inaccessible to sensory perception. Live contemplation, characteristic of the experiment, allows you to have great advantages over passive observation.

In the experiment, the subject, object cognitive action, the action itself and practical means of cognition, that is, devices and tools. Experimental methodology is being developed for effective implementation experimental . It includes the development of the program of the experiment, the evaluation of measurements, the choice of means for conducting the experiment, its direct implementation, and the processing of the obtained experimental data.

Use of appliances - distinguishing feature empirical research. They are divided into the following main groups:
- devices that increase the strength or range of sensory perception (microscopes, vision devices, telescopes, x-ray machines);
- measuring instruments(watches, rulers, barometers, thermometers);
devices that allow access to internal structure(accelerators, centrifuges, filters, prisms);
- technical systems providing the necessary conditions(pressure chambers, wind tunnels);
- fixing devices (cinema, photographic equipment, oscilloscopes, various indicators).
In modern scientific knowledge often used a whole range of devices.

Experiments can be natural or artificial. Natural characteristic in the study social phenomena under certain conditions. Artificial experiments are widely used in technical sciences.

Depending on the nature of the object, conditions and conduct, experiments are divided into laboratory and production. The first ones are carried out on simulation facilities using standard instruments. Such experiments make it possible to obtain valuable information With minimal cost. But these results do not always fully reflect. Production experiments are carried out in real conditions taking into account the impact various factors. These studies are more complex than laboratory studies and require careful planning. To production research, various field tests of operated facilities.

] . different from observation active interaction with the object under study. Typically, an experiment is carried out as part of a scientific study and serves to test a hypothesis, to establish causal relationships between phenomena. The experiment is cornerstone empirical approach to knowledge. Popper's criterion puts forward the possibility of setting up an experiment as the main difference scientific theory from pseudoscientific.

Peculiarities:

• the researcher himself causes the phenomenon under study, and does not wait for it to happen;
• can change the conditions of the process under study;
• in the experiment, you can alternately exclude individual conditions in order to establish regular relationships;
• the experiment makes it possible to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions and carry out mathematical data processing.

Experiment Models

There are several experimental models [ ] :

Psychological experiment

A psychological experiment is an experiment conducted under special conditions to obtain new scientific knowledge through the targeted intervention of a researcher in the life of the subject.

thought experiment

A thought experiment in philosophy, physics and some other fields of knowledge is a type of cognitive activity in which the structure of a real experiment is reproduced in the imagination. As a rule, a thought experiment is carried out within the framework of a certain model (theory) to check its consistency. When conducting a thought experiment, contradictions in the internal postulates of the model or their incompatibility with external (in relation to this model) principles that are considered unconditionally true (for example, with the law of conservation of energy, the principle of causality, etc.) may be revealed.

Critical experiment

A critical experiment is an experiment whose outcome unambiguously determines whether a particular theory or hypothesis is correct. This experiment should give a predicted result that cannot be deduced from other, generally accepted hypotheses and theories.

pilot experiment

Pilot experiment - trial pilot study in which the main hypothesis, research approaches, plan are tested, the efficiency of the methods used is checked, the technical points of the experimental procedures are specified. It is carried out on a small sample, without strict control of variables. A pilot experiment makes it possible to eliminate gross errors in the formulation of a hypothesis, specify the goal, clarify the methodology for conducting an experiment, and evaluate the possibility of obtaining an experimental effect.

Helper Methods

• testing
• product analysis
• math statistics

Psychology is famous for its unusual and sometimes monstrous experiences. This is not physics, where you need to roll balls on the table, and not biology with its microscopes and cells. Here the objects of research are dogs, monkeys and people. Paul Kleinman described the most famous and controversial experiments in his new work "Psychology". AiF.ru publishes the most notable experiments described in the book.

prison experiment

Philip Zimbardo conducted a curious experiment, which is called the Stanford Prison Experiment. Scheduled for two weeks, it was terminated after 6 days. The psychologist wanted to understand what happens when a person's individuality and dignity are taken away - as happens in prison.

Zimbardo hired 24 men, whom he divided into two equal groups and distributed the roles - prisoners and guards, and he himself became the "head of the prison." The surroundings were appropriate: the guards wore uniforms, and each had a club, but the "criminals", as befits people in this position, were dressed in poor overalls, they were not given underwear, and an iron chain was tied to his leg - as a reminder of the prison. There was no furniture in the cells, only mattresses. The food wasn't outstanding either. In general, everything is real.

The prisoners were kept in cells designed for three people, around the clock. The guards could go home at night and generally do whatever they wanted with the prisoners (except for corporal punishment).

The very next day after the start of the experiment, the prisoners barricaded the door in one of the cells, and the guards poured foam on them from a fire extinguisher. A little later, a VIP cell was created for those who behaved well. Very soon, the guards began to have fun: they forced the prisoners to do push-ups, strip naked and clean the latrines with their hands. As punishment for rebellions (which, by the way, the prisoners regularly organized), mattresses were taken away from them. Later, a normal toilet became a privilege: those who rebelled were not allowed out of the cell - they only brought a bucket.

Approximately 30% of the guards showed sadistic tendencies. Interestingly, the prisoners also got used to their role. At first they were promised to give 15 dollars daily. However, even after Zimbardo announced that he would not pay the money, no one expressed a desire to go free. People voluntarily decided to continue!

On the seventh day, a graduate student visited the prison: she was going to conduct a survey among the experimental subjects. The picture simply shocked the girl - she was shocked by what she saw. After looking at the reaction of an outsider, Zimbardo realized that things had gone too far, and decided to stop the experiment ahead of schedule. The American Psychological Association strictly forbade it ever being repeated on ethical grounds. The ban is still in effect.

invisible gorilla

Perceptual blindness is a phenomenon when a person is so overloaded with impressions that he does not notice anything around him. Attention is completely absorbed by only one object. All of us suffer from this kind of visual blindness from time to time.

Daniel Simons showed the subjects a video where people dressed in T-shirts of black and white color throwing the ball to each other. The task was simple - to count the number of throws. While two groups of people were tossing the ball, a man dressed in a gorilla costume appeared in the center of the sports ground: he pounded his chest with his fists, just like a real monkey, and then quietly left the field.

After watching the video, the participants in the experiment were asked if they noticed anything strange on the site. And as many as 50% answered in the negative: half simply did not see a huge gorilla! This is explained not only by the focus on the game, but also by the fact that we are not ready to see something incomprehensible and unexpected in everyday life.

Killer teachers

Stanley Milgram known for his outrageous hair-raising experiment. He decided to study how and why people obey authority. The psychologist was prompted by the trial of Nazi criminal Adolf Eichmann. Eichmann was accused of having ordered the extermination of millions of Jews during World War II. Lawyers built a defense based on the claim that he was just a military man and obeyed the orders of commanders.

Milgram advertised in the newspaper and found 40 volunteers ostensibly to study memory and learning abilities. Everyone was told that someone would be the teacher and someone would be the student. And they even held a draw so that people would take what was happening at face value. In fact, everyone got a piece of paper with the word "teacher" on it. In each pair of experimental subjects, the "student" was an actor who acted in concert with the psychologist.

So, what was this shocking experiment?

1. The “student”, whose task was to memorize the words, was tied to a chair and electrodes were connected to the body, after which the “teachers” were asked to go to another room.

2. There was an electric current generator in the "teacher's" room. As soon as the “student” made a mistake while memorizing new words, he had to be punished with a current discharge. The process began with a small discharge of 30 volts, but each time it increased by 15 volts. The maximum point is 450 volts.

So that the "teacher" does not doubt the purity of the experiment, they beat him with an electric shock with a voltage of 30 volts - quite noticeably. And that's the only real one.

3. Then the fun begins. The "student" remembers the words, but soon makes mistakes. Naturally, the experimental "teacher" punishes him, as it should be according to the instructions. With a discharge of 75 volts (of course, fake), the actor groans, then squeals and begs to untie him from the chair. Each time the current increases, the screams only get louder. The actor even complains of pain in the heart!

4. Of course, people were scared and wondered if it was worth continuing. Then they were clearly told not to stop in any case. And the people obeyed. Although some trembled and laughed nervously, many did not dare to disobey.

5. At around 300 volts, the actor furiously pounded the wall with his fists and shouted that he was in a lot of pain and that he could not bear this pain; at 330 volts it was completely quiet. Meanwhile, the “teacher” was told: since the “student” is silent, this is the same as the wrong answer. So, the quiet "student" must be shocked again.

7. The experiment ended when the "teacher" chose the maximum discharge of 450 volts.

The conclusions were terrible: 65% of the participants reached highest point and "draconian" figures of 450 volts - they applied a discharge of such force to a living person! And these are ordinary, “normal” people. But under the pressure of authority, they subjected those around them to suffering.

Milgram's experiment is still criticized for being unethical. After all, the participants did not know that everything was for fun, and experienced serious stress. No matter how you look at it, and hurting another person turns around psychological trauma for life.

Heinz dilemma

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral development. He believed that this is a process that continues throughout life. To confirm his guesses, Kohlberg offered the children different ages difficult moral dilemmas.

The psychologist told the children a story about a woman who was dying - she was being killed by cancer. And then, by a lucky chance, one pharmacist allegedly invented a medicine that could help her. However, he asked for a huge price - $ 2,000 per dose (although the cost of manufacturing the drug was only $ 200). The woman's husband—his name was Heinz—borrowed money from friends and raised only half the amount, $1,000.

Arriving at the pharmacist, Heinz asked him to sell the medicine for his dying wife cheaper, or at least on credit. However, he replied, “No! I created a cure and I want to get rich.” Heinz fell into despair. What was to be done? That same night, he secretly entered the pharmacy and stole the medicine. Did Heinz do well?

Such is the dilemma. Interestingly, Kohlberg did not study the answers to the question, but the reasoning of children. As a result, he singled out several stages in the development of morality: starting from the stage when the rules are perceived as absolute truth, and ending with the observance of one's own moral principles - even if they run counter to the laws of society.

For whom the Bell Tolls

Many people know that Ivan Pavlov studied reflexes. But few people know that he was interested cardiovascular system and digestion, and he also knew how to quickly and without anesthesia insert a catheter to dogs - in order to track how emotions and drugs affect arterial pressure(and whether they affect at all).

Pavlov's famous experiment, when researchers developed new reflexes in dogs, became grand opening in psychology. Oddly enough, it was he who helped in many ways to explain why a person develops panic disorder, anxiety, fears and psychosis (acute conditions with hallucinations, delusions, depression, inadequate reactions and confused mind).

So how did Pavlov's experiment with dogs go?

1. The scientist noticed that food (an unconditioned stimulus) causes a natural reflex in dogs in the form of saliva. As soon as the dog sees the food, it starts to salivate. But the sound of the metronome is a neutral stimulus, it does not cause anything.

2. Dogs were given a lot of time to listen to the sound of the metronome (which, as we remember, was a neutral stimulus). After that, the animals were fed immediately (they used the unconditioned stimulus).

3. After a while, they began to associate the sound of the metronome with eating.

4. The last phase - formed conditioned reflex. The sound of the metronome was always salivating. And it doesn’t matter if the dogs were given food after it or not. It just became part of the conditioned reflex.

Drawing from the book "Psychology" by Paul Kleinman. Publishing house "Mann, Ivanov and Ferber".

Excerpts courtesy of Mann, Ivanov & Ferber