The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the course of child psychology, which presents the basic concepts and theories of child development, reveals the laws of the child's mental development from birth to the end of preschool childhood. The development of the child is considered in the context of his communication with an adult, with special emphasis on the role of an adult in each age period. The information contained in the book will help the reader to create the basic psychological knowledge necessary for understanding the child, pedagogical work and communication with children.
The publication is intended primarily for students of pedagogical and psychological specialties, but can be used to improve the skills of educators by specialists in preschool institutions and anyone who is interested in the issues of mental development and upbringing of children.
Content
Part I Introduction to Child Psychology
Chapter 1. The subject and tasks of child psychology 8
Child psychology - the science of the soul of a child 8
Concepts of growth and development 9
What does nature give to a child? eleven
The specifics of human child development 13
Childhood as a sociocultural phenomenon 14
The place of child psychology in the system of related sciences 16
Chapter 2 21
Observation method 21
Experiment Method 24
Auxiliary methods of child psychology 27
Chapter 3 31
Ethological approach to the mental development of the child 32
Psychoanalytic Theory 34
Development of the ideas of psychoanalysis. Periodization E. Erickson 37
Attachment Theory 40
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 43
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 46
The theory of convergence of two factors 49
Chapter 4 53
Consciousness as essential characteristic human 53
Sign mediation of higher mental functions of a person 54
The basic law of the development of higher mental functions 57
The problem of learning and development 59
The concept of leading activity 61
The concept of the genesis of communication between a child and an adult 64
Periodization of mental development in ontogenesis 67
Part II Infancy (first year of life)
Chapter 1 77
Features of the social situation of the development of the baby 77
The influence of communication with an adult on the development of an infant 80
Micro periods of infancy 82
Chapter 2. Characteristics of the neonatal period 85
Birth Crisis 85
Congenital reflexes of the newborn 87
Sensory abilities and "competence" of the newborn 90
The formation of the need to communicate with an adult 92
Chapter 3 98
"Complex of revitalization" of the baby 98
Situational-personal communication with an adult and its role in the development of an infant 101
Peculiarities cognitive activity in the first half of life 104
The formation of purposeful movements of the baby 105
Chapter 4 110
Situational-business communication of an infant with an adult 110
Development of attitude towards adults in the first year of life 111
Prerequisites for the development of speech 114
The development of manipulative actions of an infant 117
Development of cognitive activity in the second half of the year 119
Formation of self-image 121
Part III Early childhood (1 to 3 years)
Chapter 1 early age 131
Situational business communication and objective activity of the child 131
Mastering gun actions 133
Chapter 2 139
Development of perception 139
Features of thinking at an early age 142
The development of generalizations in the objective actions of the child 144
Chapter 3 148
The role of speech in child development 148
Different views on the nature of the child's speech ability 149
The phenomenon of autonomous children's speech 152
The emergence of the first active words of the child 155
Mastering the grammatical structure of speech in the third year of life 158
The role of speech in the formation of a child's voluntary behavior 161
Correlation of communicative and regulatory functions of speech at an early age 163
Chapter 4 167
Procedural play of a child of the second year of life 167
The Psychological Significance of the Child's Symbolic Play Substitutions 169
The formation of play substitutions at an early age 172
The emergence of elements of creativity in the play of young children 175
Chapter 5 179
Attitude of young children to their peers 179
The specifics of communication of young children 182
The role of an adult in the development of communication with a peer 185
Chapter 6 189
Situation as the main characteristic of early age 189
The main phenomena of the crisis of three years 191
Personal new formations during the crisis of three years 193
Part IV Preschool
Chapter 1 200
Neoplasms of preschool age and the role of play in their development 200
The social nature of preschooler role play 202
Units of analysis and psychological features of the role-playing game of a preschooler 204
The value of play for the development of arbitrariness 206
Role play development in preschool age 207
Types of games and other forms of activity of a preschooler 209
Chapter 2 214
Features of the preschooler's ideas about the world 214
The Phenomenon of Egocentric Speech 217
The mediation of the cognitive processes of the child 220
The relationship of different forms of thinking of the child 224
Chapter 3 230
General characteristics of children's imagination 230
Forms of manifestation of the imagination of a preschooler 233
Imagination formation methods and stages of its development 236
Functions of the imagination of a preschooler 238
Chapter 4 243
Extra-situational forms of communication between a preschooler and adults 243
Features of communication of preschoolers with peers 247
Development of communication with peers in preschool age 249
Differentiation of children in a children's team 252
Chapter 5 259
Formation of personal mechanisms of behavior 259
Development of will and arbitrariness in preschool age 263
The formation of ethical instances and social feelings 270
Development of self-awareness and self-esteem of a preschooler 277
Chapter 6 284
The main symptoms of the crisis of seven years 284
Psychological neoplasms of the crisis of seven years 286
The problem of school readiness 290
The guidelines are addressed to students of the special faculty of psychology, but can also be used in the training of teachers, educators, social workers - in a word, those specialists who work with children. The purpose of the manual is to give course participants an orientation in the literature on the development and age characteristics of the child.
annotation
THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Literature
THE CRISIS OF THE NEWBORNITY AND INFANTITY
Literature
CRISIS OF ONE YEAR AND EARLY CHILDHOOD
Literature
CRISIS 3 YEARS AND PRESCHOOL CHILDHOOD
Literature
CRISIS OF 7 YEARS AND JUNIOR SCHOOL AGE
Literature
THE CRISIS OF 13 AND ADOLESCENT
Crisis of adolescence
Literature
Literature for the entire course
n1.doc
Child psychology
The problem of ontogenetic development. Analysis of theories of mental development.
Patterns and driving forces of the mental development of the child in the light of the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky.
Mental development and activity. The concept of the leading type of activity and the mechanisms for changing the leading type of activity in childhood.
At the core fur-zma change of the Vedas. type of activity lie moving. psychic powers. development: the possibilities of r-ka do not correspond to its place in the system of general. relations = origin. struggle of contradictions m / y new. needs and old. opportunities = to arose. new type of d-sti and a change in place in the sys-me total. relations. Important role in changing the Vedas. activity is played by communication.
Communication as a factor of mental development. Genesis of forms of communication.
The problem of the relationship between learning and development in modern psychology. Psychological foundations of developmental education.
Periodization of mental development. The problem of age-related crises of mental development.
Calendar v-t is not the main. indicator of finding a h-ka on that lil in. stages of development, it may not match. with a psychologist. (Ananiev, Vygot, Elkon.) Vygotsky concluded that every development stage finished. crisis, after the cat. r-to enter. in new st.. Elkonin, based on Leontiev's position on the Ved. d-sti, naib. systematized. per-tion of mental development according to the criteria: ved. type of d-sti; social sit-tion developed; neoplasms: 1) - young ( 0-1g.) - emotional-personal. communication; for knowledge of relations. with the surroundings and vzr, the formation of trust-distrust, love; need-emotion sphere; neoplasms - a complex of revival, the need for speech, communication, the need for knowledge of the subject. Peace, mastery of upright posture. Early childhood (1-3 ) - subject. ord. d-st; for knowledge of the subject. peace; sensory research; new image - speech as a medium of communication, the child becomes a personality, independence is acquired, awareness of one's self; Doshk.v-t( 3-6)- leading type of activity .. game; to the knowledge of social relationships; the need for a common value. d-sti., beginning. forms. self-esteem, sense of sexual belonging, awareness. Himself in the past, present, bud. Form. rights. Consciousness Junior school v-t (6-11) - educational. d-st; on the knowledge of the foundations of science, on the assimilation of the cult. experience; development intelligence. sphere; neoplasms - arbitrariness, ext. plan of action, decision s-h to oneself, reflection, capable. monitor the process of som own. actions); Teenage v-t-(12-15l.) : leading d-st-intimately-personal. communication with peers. and society is useful. d-st, in the cat. razv ability r-ka. Social sit-tion development-I-motives personal. x-ra, developed. personal. sphere and cognizant; in personal appearance. feeling-in adulthood, origin. floors. Maturation . Neoplasms - shaper. self-awareness, self-esteem, assimilating. collective norms. life, shaper. ideals, abstract. thinking. Main neoplasms - feeling-in adulthood ). Youth (early youth 15-18 years): leading d-st - educational-profession. d-st; social sit-tion development-I-d-st is aimed at the knowledge of professions, at orientation. knowledge, cat. useful in the future. professions; advantage developing cognizant. and intellect. sphere. Neoplasms - the discovery of one's internal. world outlook, belief, prof. choice, morals - moral. p-py.
The value of childhood. Age sensitivity, its consideration in work with children.
At about 1 year of age: The child deliberately pronounces the 1st word; for the first time in his life there is a verbal expression of thought. At the age of about 1.5 years: The child begins to express his feelings, desires. This is the age when the child talks about what he wants and what he does not want; At the age of 2.5 - 3 years the child often talks to himself, what the child is thinking about at the present moment, he immediately blurts out. At the age of 3.5 - 4 years: The child begins to use speech purposefully and consciously, children of this age are interested in letters, circle the letters with pleasure. At the age of 4 - 4.5 years he begins to spontaneously write individual words, whole sentences. at the age of about 5 years children learn to read without coercion and learn to read on their own. SENSITIVE PERCEPTION OF SMALL OBJECTS: Lasts an average of 1.5 to 2.5 years. This period is hard to miss, and often it gives adults a lot of excitement: the child manipulates buttons, peas, etc. with a threat to their own health. Usually adults do not see anything useful in this interest. And adults are able to give a positive connotation to this process by providing the child with conditions, for example, with the help of special exercises: stringing more or less small objects (chestnut fruits, beans) on a thread; disassembly and assembly of models from the constructor (which allows the child to feel not only the process of analyzing the whole into its constituent parts, but also the synthesis of these parts of the whole). SENSIT-Y PER-D DEVELOPMENT OF MOVEMENTS AND ACTIONS: Lasts an average of 1 to 4 years. SENZIT PER-D DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL NAV-S: at the age of 2.5 - 6 years, the child begins to take an active interest in forms of polite behavior. Conclusion: Adults need to know that a child will never again learn anything as easily as in the appropriate censit. forward of one’s development. Senzit of the front are universal and individual at the same time, therefore, the art of observation plays a special role in tracking the development of the child.
General principles and stages of psychological research. Classification of methods for studying the psyche of children.
-objectivity ( about special. judged by the products of d-sti, m-dy issled. – not to influence r-you); - determinism ( identification of external causes, environment, congenital, hereditary, in behavior. nothing is uplifted. for no reason) - unity of diagnostics and correction(recommended. should be feasible); - p-p do no harm; p-p system and integrity. All research methods are based on principle of dialectical knowledge, any psycho. the phenomenon must be studied in development, to find causes, deviations from the norm, to find contradictions, based on knowledge of the laws of the mechanisms of mental development.
Stages :- preparatory th(selection, analysis of literature, setting goals, tasks, object, n-t,); development of a working hypothesis (statement of something without justification); methodical stage (selection of methods, planning the sequence of procedures, use of TCO); experimental stage (collection of materials, conducting search experts, confirmation of the working hypothesis); analytic stage (material processing, data interpretation, conclusions, recommendations).
Classification of methods - observation- m-d long. systematic, purposeful study of psycho. characteristics of the individual, based on fixing the manifestations of his behavior (passive, included, self-observation); poll(standard and non-standard interviews, questionnaires, conversation, expert assessment); analysis of results of activities(creativity analysis, biographical method); md temporary and spatial relationships(transverse sections, longitudinal, comparative-genetic sm-d) experimental m-dy(laboratory, natural, formative experiment); testing(self-assessment, diagnostic, projective, test tasks, blank tests, instrumental);
corrective action(psychoanalysis, behavioral psychotherapy, hypnosis, meditation, auto-training, group training) modeling
Emotional communication of an infant with an adult, its significance for mental development. Causes and ways to overcome mental deprivation in infancy.
Objective activity as the leading type of Activity at an early age.
The development of object-tool actions, their significance for the mental
development.
Stages of development of self-consciousness. The main neoplasms of personal development in preschool age.
The problem of sensory development of preschoolers. Psychological foundations of sensory education of children.
Features of different types of memory in children. The development of mnemonic actions and logical memorization techniques in preschool age.
Stages of development of children's thinking in studies of domestic and foreign psychologists. The main lines of development of children's thinking.
Features of the imagination of preschoolers. Ways of formation of creative imagination.
Ways of forming B:
Diverse in the course. d-sti, the role of adults, by organized. learning, verbal creativity, comp. p-call, fairy tales, creation. new images, attributing to them is unusual. quality and deeds, considered. clouds, spots, nah. similarities. Success in development imagine associated with creativity (creative manifestations) of the teacher.
Methodology Dyachenko, Kirilov. miraculous transformations, what it looks like.
Psychological foundations of the role-playing game. The psychological essence of the game. Role play structure and its role in child development
R-com by its reproduction and modeling. Elkonin- game- historical education, because arose. only for a specific human stages. obsh-va., when r-to can not take directly. participation. Theories: to the west. psychic-gii (Gross, Spencer, Stern, Bontendyck, Adler, Levin, Piaget, Hall, Freud - believes that the game is based on instincts, biological needs, which appear as they mature, and adults are assigned the role of an observer, their mistake - the lack of a historical approach in the study of questions of origin. And.) Blonsky, Vygotsky (30)) - laid the foundations of the historical. x-ra origin. AND., a game noun not always, it arose. connection and defined historical development society, the real. place in the system-me total. relationships, cat. occupied in it r-to; the game is social in nature, origin, content. Elkonin allotment 4 stages of the game: 1. -main content i.-actions with p-tami, interesting percent-s and not res-t; actual roles. there are, but they are determined by the range of actions, and not vice versa; actions are monotonous, often repeated, their logic is easily violated without protest from the partner; 2 - the content of the game - actions with p-tami, but already games. actions corresponding to reality, allocation of roles, planned. separation of functions, actions b. diverse, their logic is certain. consecutive; 3 - main content-completed roles, the logic of their actions determined. assumed role, appearing. role-playing speech, violations of protest actions. participants; 4 - content and actions are related to the relationship of people; rolev.f-tion of children are interconnected, the actions are varied, directed to different. characters of the game, violation of them is rejected by partners. Elkonin considered the structure of the story-roll game. and selected the components(role; rules; game actions, attributes; existence of a plot) Stages : 1 - familiarize 2- displaying object-playing d-st (2gzh., p-you acted as a medium), 3 - plot-display. d-st (is the threshold of the plot-roll game). Value:1- influences the formation of arbitrariness of all processes-successful. to active imaginary, forming. arbitrariness. memory, speech; 2 - prov. constant influence on development mental d-sti- ovlad ZUN; 3 -obeying the rules of the game and based on the role taken on, r-to razv. feeling, strong-willed. regulation of behavior - learned. total norms of behavior, general. f-tion, which is defined. becoming personality; 4 - learned. initial elements of educational d-sti; 5 - facilitating the formation of children. general-va (they enter into role-playing relations and real relations - an agreement on the game, distribution of roles) = Game - teaches, forms, changes, educates.
Psychological features of the artistic activity of children (visual, musical, artistic and speech).
Prerequisites learning activities, the specifics of teaching preschoolers. Ways to improve the efficiency of the educational process.
Features of the emotional sphere of preschoolers. Development and education of feelings in the early stages of ontogenesis.
Introduction
A person cannot live, work, satisfy his material and spiritual needs without communicating with other people. From birth, he enters into a variety of relationships with others. Communication is a necessary condition for the existence of a person and, at the same time, one of the main factors and the most important source of his mental development in ontogenesis.
The child lives, grows and develops in the interweaving of various kinds of connections and relationships. In children's and adolescent groups, interpersonal relationships are formed that reflect the interrelationships of the participants in these groups in a specific historical situation in the development of society. The study of deviations in the development of interpersonal relationships at the very first stages of personality formation seems to be relevant and important, primarily because the conflict in a child's relationships with peers can act as a serious threat to personal development. That is why information about the features of the development of a child's personality in difficult, adverse conditions at that stage of its genesis, when the basic stereotypes of behavior, the psychological foundations of the most important relationships of the individual to the surrounding social world, to himself, begin to be laid, clarification of knowledge about the causes, nature, logic of the development of conflict relations and possible ways of timely diagnosis and correction becomes of paramount importance.
The danger lies in the fact that the negative qualities that have appeared in the child due to the peculiarity of preschool age determine all further personality formation can be found in the new school team, and even in subsequent activities, preventing the development of full-fledged relationships with people around them, their own worldview. The need for early diagnosis and correction of violations of communication with peers is caused by the significant circumstance that in each group of any kindergarten there are children whose relations with their peers are significantly distorted, and their very ill-being in the group has a stable, long-term character.
Many domestic and foreign researchers addressed the problem of children's troubles, deviant forms of behavior at preschool age: L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin, A.V. Zaporozhets, Ya.L. Kolominsky, V.N. other.
The focus of the study is on internal conflicts, leading to psychological isolation from peers, to the child's falling out of the joint life and activities of the preschool group.
The purpose of this work is to study the psychological nature of the phenomenon of violation of relations with peers (psychological conflict) in preschoolers; development and testing of game methods for correcting psychological conflict in the preschool group based on diagnostic and psycho-correctional work with children 4-5 years old, conducted in kindergarten No. 391 "Teremok", Volgograd.
In this work, the object of study is the child and other members of the preschool group. The subject of the study is the conflict that arises between the child and peers in the game - the leading activity of preschoolers.
Chapter I . Psychological conflict in preschool children. Investigation of causes and symptoms
1.1 Preschool childhood
Preschool age is a particularly responsible period in education, since it is the age of the initial formation of the child's personality. At this time, in the communication of the child with peers, rather complex relationships arise that significantly affect the development of his personality. Knowing the characteristics of the relationship between children in the kindergarten group and the difficulties that they have in this case can be of great help to adults in organizing educational work with preschoolers.
At preschool age, the child's world is already, as a rule, inextricably linked with other children. And the older the child becomes, the more important contacts with peers become for him.
Obviously, a child's communication with peers is a special area of his life, which differs significantly from communication with adults. Close adults are usually attentive and friendly to the baby, they surround him with warmth and care, teach him certain skills and abilities. With peers, things are different. Children are less attentive and friendly, they are usually not too eager to help each other, support and understand their peers. They can take away a toy, offend, not paying attention to tears. And yet, communication with other children brings a preschooler incomparable pleasure.
Starting from the age of 4, a peer becomes a more preferred and attractive partner for a child than an adult. If a preschooler has a choice - with whom to play or walk: with a friend or with his mother, most children will make this choice in favor of a peer.
To consider the problem indicated in the title of the proposed work, it is necessary to note the significance of the period of preschool childhood in the process of the entire personality formation of a person.
So, preschool childhood is an extremely important period of human development. Its existence is determined by the socio-historical and evolutionary-biological development of society and a particular individual, which determines the tasks and opportunities for the development of a child of a given age. Preschool childhood has an independent value, regardless of the upcoming schooling for the child.
The preschool period of childhood is sensitive for the formation in the child of the foundations of collectivist qualities, as well as a humane attitude towards other people. If the foundations of these qualities are not formed at preschool age, then the whole personality of the child may become flawed, and subsequently it will be extremely difficult to fill this gap.
J. Piaget ascribes egocentrism to a small child, as a result of which he cannot yet build joint activities with peers (therefore, Piaget believes that the society of children arises only in adolescence). In contrast, A.P. Usova, and after her, many domestic psychologists and teachers believe that the first children's society is formed in kindergarten.
But at preschool age, against the backdrop of a favorable environment for upbringing in kindergarten, conditions can be created when the influence of the environment becomes “pathogenic” for the development of the individual, since it infringes on it.
That is why early diagnosis and correction of symptoms of conflict relations, troubles, emotional discomfort of the child among peers are of great importance. Ignorance of them makes all attempts to study and build full-fledged children's relationships ineffective, and also hinders the implementation of an individual approach to the formation of a child's personality.
Children come to kindergarten with different emotional attitudes, heterogeneous claims, and at the same time with different skills and abilities. As a result, each in his own way meets the requirements of the educator and peers and creates an attitude towards himself.
In turn, the requirements and needs of others find a different response from the child himself, the environment turns out to be different for children, and in some cases - extremely unfavorable. A child's trouble in the preschool group can manifest itself ambiguously: as uncommunicative or aggressively sociable behavior. But regardless of the specifics, children's trouble is a very serious phenomenon, behind it, as a rule, lies a deep conflict in relationships with peers, as a result of which the child remains alone among children.
Changes in the child's behavior are secondary neoplasms, distant consequences of the root causes of the conflict. The fact is that the conflict itself and the negative features that arise as a result of it are hidden from observation for a long time. That is why the source of the conflict, its root cause, as a rule, is missed by the educator, and pedagogical correction is no longer effective.
1.2 Internal and external psychological conflicts of preschoolers
Before proceeding to a more detailed study of the psychological conflict in preschoolers (violation of relations with peers), it is necessary to consider the general structure interpersonal processes, which can be represented as a diagram. Many authors (A.A. Bodalev, Ya.L. Kolomensky, B.F. Lomov, B.D. Parygin) naturally distinguish three components and interrelated components in the structure of interpersonal processes: behavioral (practical), emotional (affective) and informational , or cognitive (gnostic).
If the behavioral component can be attributed to interaction in joint activities, and communication, and the behavior of a group member addressed to another, and to the gnostic component - group perception, which contributes to the subject's awareness of the qualities of another, then interpersonal relations will be an affective, emotional component of the structure of interpersonal processes.
The focus of this work is internal conflicts, leading to psychological isolation from peers, to the child's falling out of the joint life and activities of the preschool group.
A conflict situation develops into a conflict only with joint play actions of the child and peers. A similar situation arises in cases where there is a contradiction: between the requirements of peers and the child's objective capabilities in the game (the latter are below the requirements) or between the leading needs of the child and peers (needs are outside the game). In both cases we are talking about the lack of formation of the leading play activity of preschoolers, which contributes to the development of psychological conflict.
The reasons may be the child's lack of initiative in establishing contacts with peers, the lack of emotional aspirations between the players, when, for example, the desire to command prompts the child to leave the game with his beloved friend and join the game with a less pleasant, but pliable peer; lack of communication skills. As a result of such interactions, two types of contradictions can arise: a mismatch between the requirements of peers and the child's objective capabilities in the game and a mismatch in the motives for the game of the child and peers.
Thus, two types of psychological conflicts in preschoolers who experience difficulties in communicating with peers should be considered: conflict in operations and conflict in motives.
External obvious conflicts among preschoolers are generated by contradictions that arise when they organize joint activities or in the process of it. External conflicts arise in the sphere of business relations of children, however, as a rule, they do not go beyond it and do not capture deeper layers of interpersonal relations. Therefore, they are of a transient, situational nature and are usually resolved by the children themselves by establishing the norm of justice on their own. External conflicts are useful, as they give the child the right to responsibility, to a creative solution to a difficult, problematic situation and act as a regulator of fair, full-fledged relations between children. Modeling of such conflict situations in the pedagogical process can be considered as one of the effective means of moral education.
An internal psychological conflict arises in preschoolers in the conditions of their leading play activity and is mostly hidden from observation. Unlike the external one, it is caused by contradictions connected not with the organizational part of the activity, but with the activity itself, with its formation in the child, contradictions between the requirements of peers and the child's objective capabilities in the game, or contradictions in the motives of the child's and peers' play. Such contradictions cannot be overcome by children without the help of adults. Under the conditions of these contradictions, the inner emotional comfort of the child, his positive emotional well-being is infringed, he cannot satisfy his essential needs, not only business but also personal relationships are distorted, and psychological isolation from peers arises. The function of internal conflicts is purely negative; they hinder the formation of full-fledged, harmonious relations and the formation of personality.
Each child occupies a certain position in the peer group, which is expressed in the way his peers treat him. The degree of popularity that a child enjoys depends on many reasons: his knowledge, mental development, behavioral characteristics, ability to establish contacts with other children, appearance, etc.
1.3 Play and communication of preschoolers
Interpersonal relationships (relationships) are a diverse and relatively stable system of selective, conscious and emotionally experienced connections between members of the contact group. Despite the fact that interpersonal relations are actualized in communication and for the most part in the actions of people, the very reality of their existence is much wider. Speaking figuratively, interpersonal relationships can be likened to an iceberg, in which only its surface part appears in the behavioral aspects of the personality, and the other, underwater part, larger than the surface, remains hidden.
Consideration of the phenomenon of children's relations, against which the conflict unfolds, allows us to proceed to its description and analysis. Interpersonal relationships of preschoolers are very complex, contradictory, and often difficult to interpret.
Communication with children is a necessary condition for the psychological development of the child. The need for communication early becomes his basic social need. Playing with peers important role in the life of a preschooler. It is a condition for the formation of the social qualities of the child's personality, the manifestation and development of the beginnings of the collective relationship of children in the kindergarten group. Children all have different personalities.
At present, in the theory and practice of preschool pedagogy, more and more importance is attached to children's collective activity in the classroom, as a means of moral education. Joint activities unite children with a common goal, task, joys, sorrows, feelings for a common cause. There is a distribution of responsibilities, coordination of actions. By participating in joint activities, the child learns to yield to the wishes of peers or to convince them that he is right, to make efforts to achieve a common result.
The game of preschoolers is a multifaceted, multilayered education that gives rise to different types of children's relationships: plot (or role-playing), real (or business) and interpersonal relationships.
At preschool age, the leading activity is a role-playing game, and communication becomes its part and condition. From the point of view of D.B. Elkonin, “the game is social in its content, in its nature, in its origin, i.e. arises from the conditions of the child's life in society.
Of particular importance for the development of the child's personality, for his assimilation of elementary moral norms, are relations about the game, since it is here that the learned norms and rules of behavior are formed and really manifest themselves, which form the basis of the moral development of a preschooler, form the ability to communicate in a group of peers.
The role-playing game is distinguished by the fact that its action takes place in a certain conditional space. The room suddenly becomes a hospital, or a store, or a busy thoroughfare. And the children playing take on the appropriate roles (doctor, seller, driver). In a story game, as a rule, there are several participants, since any role involves a partner: a doctor and a patient, a seller and a buyer, etc., about the significance of the game for the mental, personal and social development The child was written many interesting books. We, first of all, will be interested in the importance of the game of preschoolers for the development of communication.
The main line of development of the child is the gradual release from a specific situation, the transition from situational communication to extra-situational. Such a transition is not easy for a baby, and an adult needs to make certain efforts so that the child can overcome the pressure of the perceived situation. But in the game, such a transition occurs easily and naturally. The statements of children during the game, although they are based on certain specific objects, have nothing to do with them. And this is how it happens.
Sasha takes a pencil in his hand, waves it in the air and says: “I am the Serpent Gorynych, I will conjure everyone, here is my Magic wand She will turn everyone to stone.” It would seem that an ordinary pencil has nothing to do with Zmey Gorynych. And yet this simple object helps Sasha enter another, fairy world and break away in his imagination from what he sees and holds in his hands.
Tanya crumples a handkerchief in an empty plate with her hands and says to her friend: “I’m washing clothes, this is my basin, but here’s the powder, now I’ll wash it and go for a walk with you, daughter, you wait and play by yourself.” It is obvious that such a specific plan of action (I will wash, and then I will go for a walk with my daughter) has nothing to do with Tanya's manipulations with a handkerchief. But it is this scarf that helps the girl to take on the role of a mother, to perform and plan actions characteristic of a mother.
Of course, neither a pencil nor a handkerchief by themselves can transport a child into an imaginary situation. The main and decisive condition for the transition from a concrete, perceived situation to an imaginary one is the child's imagination. It is the naming of objects by new names, the designation of actions performed with them, that gives a different meaning to each individual thing, action, deed. When preschoolers play, they always explain what they are doing. Without such explanations, which give new meaning to objects and actions, neither the acceptance of a role nor the creation of a conditional space for play is possible. Moreover, the speech of the child explaining the game should be addressed to someone. When playing in the hospital, you must definitely agree on who is the doctor and who is the patient, where is the syringe and where is the thermometer, when the doctor gives pills, and when he listens to the patient. Without such an agreement and without mutual understanding game situation ceases to exist.
The famous Soviet psychologist D. B. Elkonin wrote that the game is a kind of transitional, intermediate link between complete dependence on things and objective actions to freedom from the real, perceived situation. It is in this liberation that the significance of play for the mental development of children lies.
However, the ability to play role-playing games requires a fairly high level of speech and mental development. It is known that children with poor language skills cannot play role-playing games: they do not know how to plan a plot, cannot take on a role, their games are primitive in nature (mostly manipulations with objects) and fall apart under the influence of any external impacts.
In one interesting psychological study, done by A. R. Luria and F. Ya. Yudovich, the history of two twins, who were significantly behind in their development, was traced. They grew up in isolation from other children, and as a result they developed their own language, understandable only to them, based on gestures and sound combinations. Their speech completely depended on objective actions: they could only talk about what they saw and what they did, although they understood the speech of adults quite well.
The kids didn't know how to play. They couldn't accept the item's new in-game value and pretend to do something with it. They were told that a toy knife was like a broom, and they were shown how they could sweep. Usually children 3-5 years old willingly accept such conditions. But our twins, having taken a knife in their hands, began to sharpen pencils or cut something. An adult in the game called the spoon an ax and offered to pretend to cut down a tree, but the children were surprised: they could not understand how this spoon could be an ax. But the ability to fantasize is the basis of the role-playing game.
To correct this situation, both twins were placed in different groups of the kindergarten so that they were not cut off from their peers and freely entered into various contacts with them. Three months later, the situation changed. Children's play began to be accompanied by speech. The kids planned their actions, created a game situation.
For example, a game of “construction” (loading and transporting blocks, folding the house, transporting again, etc.) was accompanied by comments on the actions taken and planning for further ones: “Now I will load the bricks and take them to the construction site. Here is my truck, and there will be a construction site. Everything, I went. Let's; unload the bricks...” etc. The essence of the changes that took place in the twins’ play was that the children were now able to break away from the immediate situation and subordinate their actions to the play plan formulated in advance.
So, communication and play of preschoolers are very closely related. Therefore, by forming extra-situational communication, we prepare or improve children's play activities. And by organizing a role-playing game (offering children new stories, roles, showing how to play), we contribute to the development of their communication. And yet, although children love to play together, their game is not always peaceful. Very often conflicts, grievances, quarrels arise in it.
Diagnosing the causes of children's troubles made it possible to discover that the troubles of the child's relations with peers, his deep conflict with them are generated by the insufficient formation of the child's leading activity. Researchers single out the insufficient formation of game operations and distortions in its motives as the main cause of internal psychological conflicts in preschoolers. In accordance with the causes, two types of such conflicts were differentiated: a conflict with the unformed operational side of play activity and a conflict with a distortion of the motivational basis of activity. Having examined in more detail the emergence and development of these two types of psychological conflict in preschool children, delving deeper into their essence, it will be possible to judge which methods can be more effectively used to diagnose this phenomenon and which game methods can be most effectively used for this purpose in educational psychology.
Chapter II . Practical part
2.1 Ways of psychological and pedagogical correction of violations of relations with peers in preschoolers
By preschool age, the child already has experience in communicating with adults and peers; the preschooler is dominated by the involuntary nature of behavior. This makes it possible to empirically and experimentally trace the connection between the violations of the child's communication in the family with the violations of his communication with peers and with the problems of the development of his personality.
To do this, we propose to use the game, taking into account its significance for the preschooler, and to confirm the formative and corrective role of the game for the child's personality, in case of conflicts in communication with peers.
Already a simple observation in any kindergarten group reveals that the relationship of children with each other does not always develop successfully. Some immediately feel like masters; others very soon find themselves in subjection to the former; still others remain out of the game altogether, their peers do not accept them (moreover, they treat some of these children extremely negatively, others do not notice at all); the fourth, although they hold themselves confidently, in the absence of any quarrels and insults, they themselves leave their peers, preferring to play alone. This is a far from complete list of various conflicts in relations between children, indicating that the same environment is not the same for different children, because each of them already has experience emotional relationships with close adults, not always, unfortunately, positively colored, as well as their experience of working with adults and peers.
The study of the dynamics of psychological conflict showed that, regardless of the characteristics of such a conflict, the child is not able to resolve it on his own, cannot fully develop either as a subject of activity or as a person. Such children require a special, individual approach to themselves, they need the help of an adult (psychologist or teacher) to establish full-fledged relationships with their peers.
AT practical work, held on the basis of kindergarten No. 391 in Volgograd, game therapy was used in the form of relationship therapy, where the game acts as a kind of sphere in which the child's relationship with the world around him and people is established. This work presents group form game therapy for teaching the relationship of children with each other, as well as for correcting communication disorders due to the lack of formation of the operational side of the game activity. To diagnose violations of relations with peers in the preschool group, along with game methods, various methods were used. diagnostic techniques which allow us to draw conclusions about the existence of interpersonal conflicts in a child. When developing methods of correction, the need was taken into account:
1) to study the social situation of the child's development: specific relationships with peers of the group, satisfaction with them, relationships with educators and parents;
2) provide pedagogical assistance to the child not only in establishing an external (business) plan for his relations with other children, but also in regulating internal (interpersonal relations). We singled out the conflict in operations and the conflict in motives, accordingly, in the experimental part, two types of psychological and pedagogical techniques were developed aimed at solving these two problems: the task in the event of a conflict in operations was solved by improving the operational side of the game activity; in case of a conflict in motives - by influencing the motivational side of the game.
Along with special games, non-game-type techniques were of great importance in correction:
1. "Ritual actions" (greeting and farewell rituals; group singing; exchange of impressions after the game).
2. Making group decisions. Many decisions during the session are made by the whole group; children themselves decide when to finish the game and move on to another, distribute roles themselves.
3. Strengthening understanding, sympathy - techniques for the ability to listen to each other, explain their feelings.
4. Formation of group independence. The reception is based on the exit of the leading psychologist from the group, when the children are given absolute freedom actions, and they cannot turn to an adult for help and must make all responsible decisions on their own.
2.2 Game methods for correcting children's ill-being in the kindergarten group and the main stages of work
In the process of joint role-playing, the attitudes of children and attitudes towards children are manifested in the form in which they are perceived by the children themselves. It is due to the unity of the psychological nature of communication and play that the latter can have a high psychotherapeutic effect. The use of the game as a therapeutic tool by domestic psychologists is based on the following provisions:
1) the theory of activity of A.N. Leontiev, which consists in the fact that to positively influence the development process means to manage the leading activity, in this case, influencing the leading activity of a preschooler - the game;
2) D.B. Elkonin that the corrective potential of the game lies in the practice of new social relations in which the child is included in the process of specially organized game activities;
3) developed in the theoretical concept of V.N. Myasishchev, according to which personality is the product of a system of meaningful relationships.
The psychotherapeutic functions of the game are that it can change the child's attitude towards himself and others: change mental well-being, social status, ways of communicating in a team.
In addition to therapeutic play psychotherapy also performs diagnostic and educational functions. Therapeutic games aim to eliminate affective obstacles in interpersonal relationships, while educational games aim to achieve more adequate adaptation and socialization of children.
In the process of game correction, specially developed techniques and methods of game lessons were used, the content of which corresponds to correctional tasks. In the classroom, the children were offered a large selection of role-playing games: special dramatization games; games that remove barriers in communication; games aimed at the development of operations. It can be argued that many of the games proposed in the work are polyfunctional, i.e. when they are used, it is possible to solve a variety of tasks, and the same game for one child can be a means of increasing self-esteem, for another it can have a tonic effect, for a third it can be a lesson in collective relations.
Before proceeding to the methodology, it should be said about general principles considered variant of game correction, such as:
a) unconditional sympathy for the child;
6) the minimum number of restrictions;
c) the activity of the child himself.
Play psychotherapy performs three functions: diagnostic, therapeutic and educational.
Therapeutic games aim to eliminate affective obstacles in interpersonal relationships, while educational games aim to achieve more adequate adaptation and socialization of children.
In our work, we used game therapy in the form of relationship therapy, where the game acts as a kind of sphere in which the child's relationship with the world around him and people is established.
Below is a description of the main stages of the work carried out in the middle group of kindergarten No. 391, and an analysis of the results.
The work consists of diagnostic, corrective and control stages.
The diagnostic stage is a preliminary testing of children and adults (parents and caregivers).
The correctional stage is carried out in the form of play therapy. The duration of one game lesson is 50-60 minutes. Changing the types of correctional work avoids the problem of overworking children in the classroom. Classes are held 2 times a week. A total of 12 classes were organized; 11th and 12th lessons - together with parents and educators.
The control stage consists of the final testing of children and adults, the final meeting with parents and caregivers.
Corrective stage. In the process of game psycho-correction, a variety of game and non-game techniques were used that entertain children, test the ability to prevent conflict situations, promote mutual understanding, reflection and control of their behavior, and are also aimed at improving the operational side of children's play activities, at children's awareness of their place in a peer group. . In the course of game therapy, three areas of work are distinguished, which have their own methodological techniques that ensure the solution of the tasks.
The first direction (2 lessons) includes the grouping of children into subgroups. Most of the proposed techniques ensure the creation of a kind, safe situation where the participant feels mutual understanding, support, desire to help in solving problems (entertaining, subject and outdoor games). Mostly entertaining (contact) games were used.
The second direction (7 lessons) carries out the main correctional work in subgroups of children. In addition to correcting negative personality traits and teaching socially desirable forms of communication, diagnostic data are collected regarding the psychological characteristics of children. These data, in the process of a formative experiment, allow us to supplement, change the planned methods and correction techniques in order to take into account the individual problems of each child.
In this work, we used mainly play (with the adoption of roles, rules, etc.), as well as non-play techniques (joint activities, reading fairy tales, stories, visual activity, etc.).
Mostly corrective-directed and educational games were used.
The third direction (3 lessons) includes consolidating the acquired skills and forms of communication in the joint games of children. A variety of game and non-game techniques were used that entertain children, test the ability to prevent conflict situations, promote mutual understanding between children and adults, develop reflection skills and control their behavior.
The main games of this direction are entertaining, educational and control. In order to consolidate the positive experience gained by the child in the process of participating in the correctional group, the last two sessions are held with parents and caregivers, who, in turn, learn to understand and recognize the child's communication difficulties.
Sample plan of play therapy with children.
1 lesson
1. Parsley doll invites you to play.
2. Acquaintance with the participants of the game with the help of puppet dramatization: fox, cockerel, cat, hare. Children tell dolls and game participants about their toys, favorite activities, favorite fairy tales.
3. The game "Cats and mice" to unite the participants.
4. Playing in the orchestra.
5. Subject game with musical instruments: metallophone, harmonica, children's piano, tambourine.
6. Dancing with puppets, round dance.
2 lesson
1. Object game with toys - vegetables and fruits.
2. Conversation about favorite vegetables and fruits (at home, in kindergarten, etc.).
3. The game "Edible-inedible."
4. Mobile game "Locomotive".
5. The game "Who works like that?" (to improve non-verbal communication skills).
6. The game "The sea is worried, once!" (to reveal the creative potential of each child).
3 lesson
1. Dramatization game with the Cat (introduce the Cat to the guys).
2. The game "Affectionate name" (to develop the ability to make contact).
3. Etude "Kitten" (facial expressions, pantomimics).
4. Etude "Little Dragons" (facial expressions, pantomimics).
5. Etude "Fear" (facial expressions).
6. Theatrical game "Cat, rooster and fox" (the last part of the tale).
7. Game-maze "Fox hole".
8. Song about kittens (choral singing).
4 lesson
1. Etude "Pippi Longstocking" (facial expressions).
2. Etude "A very thin child" (pantomime).
3. The game "Who came?" (identification of emotions).
4. Study "Egoist".
5. Conversation "Who is called an egoist?"
6. Model of desirable behavior in the study "Egoist".
7. "Minute of prank."
8. The game "Group drawing".
9. The game "Who is behind whom?" (observation).
10. Complex "Bells" (self-relaxation).
5 lesson
1. The game "Nice words."
2. The mobile game "Needle and thread".
3. Reading the Russian folk tale "Fable".
4. The game "Let's show a fairy tale."
5. The game "Little sculptor" (facial expressions, pantomime).
6. "The dragon bites its tail" (outdoor game).
7. Etude for relaxation "Everyone is sleeping."
6 lesson
1. Etude "The Timid Child".
2. Etude "Brave Child".
3. Conversation "Who is afraid of what or whom."
4. Drawing your fear.
5. The game "In the dark hole" (removing the fear of the dark).
6. The game "Remember your position" (memory).
7. Etude "Tumbler" (relaxation, feeling of the group).
7 lesson
1. Etude for compassion "The hostess abandoned the bunny."
2. Etude "Funny kittens" (for a cheerful mood).
3. The game "Flower-Semitsvetik" (for color perception, attention).
4. Drawing on the topic: “What or who am I no longer afraid of” (reinforcement).
5. The game "Talking on the phone" (to develop the ability to conduct a dialogue).
6. Exercise "How do body parts say?"
8 session
1. Composition by all children together with the host of "a common magical story, fiction."
2. Dramatization of the "common magical story."
3. The game "The Blind Man and the Guide".
4. Etude "What do you hear?"
5. The game "Orchestra" (to develop attention to a communication partner).
6. Complex "On the magic island" (self-relaxation).
Lesson 9
1. Etude "Angry child" (facial expressions).
2. Etude "Stubborn boy" (facial expressions).
3. A conversation about stubbornness.
4. The game "Well, well!" (on the development of the moral qualities of the individual).
5. Etude "Polite child" (pantomime: puppets from the theater are used, "magic words" are recalled).
6. Finger painting on the topic: "Cheerful mood" (material: ink, toothpaste, large long sheet of paper).
10 session
1. Theatrical game "Two Greedy Bears".
2. Etude "Greedy" (facial expressions, pantomime).
3. Talk about greed.
4. Model of desirable behavior in the etude "Greedy".
5. The game "Salochka-lifesaver" (for the development of moral qualities).
6. The game "Mirror" (for the ability to coordinate actions with the group).
11 lesson
1. The game "Cat and Mouse".
2. The game "Transfer of feelings."
3. The game "Harmful ring" (to compare positive and negative character traits). The game uses the etude "Hush", "Guilty", "Good mood" (facial expressions, pantomime).
5. Competitive game "Joint drawing in the magic screen".
6. Test game "Guess what I'll say."
Lesson 12
1. The game "Flies - does not fly" (for association, entertainment).
2. The game "Fox, where are you" (an outdoor game with rules for the development of strong-willed qualities).
3. Role-playing game "Vasilisa the Beautiful".
4. Discussing the role of each participant in the game (each share their impressions and receive feedback from all participants in the game).
5. Competitive games for collecting figures from parts.
6. Dancing with children.
7. Rewarding children with a "medal" with commemorative drawings, signatures of all participants in play therapy.
At each lesson of the course of play therapy, a tambourine was used to relieve aggression, and a “Minute of prank” was used to relieve children psychologically.
In the process of play therapy with children, the characteristics of children's behavior, their emotional reactions, involvement in games, relationships with other children, attitudes towards classes, as well as all emerging and manifesting problems of the child were recorded in the protocols. A binder folder was created for each child for protocols, test results, drawings and other records of the psychologist.
The correction of violations of relations with peers among preschoolers allows us to draw the following conclusions:
1. The mere improvement of the operational side of the child’s play activity and changes in the motivational side of the child’s activity, as well as the organization of the child’s interaction with the children in the process of its joint implementation (external plan) is not enough to establish full-fledged (by nature) relationships with children.
Within play activity, already at a younger preschool age, interpersonal relations of a rather rigid and rigid structure are formed. Therefore, a necessary condition for the correction of children's relations is the reorientation of negativism (or indifference) of peers, which is possible only when the child is included in a special system of play relations, which in this case was the developed program of play therapy.
2. The existing conflict is not completely eliminated in all cases. Establishing positive relationships with peers is especially complicated by the child's long-term trouble in the children's team. The length of the conflict in time, as a rule, is fraught with the fact that its primary causes are masked by secondary ones. As a result, it is very difficult to identify the original cause, and, consequently, to choose the right methods of pedagogical influence. The foregoing allows us to speak about the need for early diagnosis of such conflict relations.
3. In the event of a conflict in operations, the essential need for younger preschoolers to play together is blocked. However, forced "isolation" from it (due to failure in play) does not blunt this need, as evidenced by the active participation of these children in experimental play exercises.
4. Reorientation of selfish motives and opposition to them of socially useful ones, support of individual specific needs stabilizes the business relationships of these children with their peers, expands the scope of gaming communication.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to note the following. Communication has a positive effect on children's relationships if it is saturated with socially significant motivation, expressed in the desire to develop a common game, to maintain the community of children in a play association, and if the subject of the child's awareness in the game is another child - a partner in the game, as well as the area of relations with him. Mastering the ways of communication is an important condition for building relationships between children in the game.
An analysis of the results of psychological and pedagogical correction gives reason to believe that game therapy, aimed at eliminating violations of relations with peers in a preschooler, helps to eliminate affective obstacles in interpersonal relationships of children, as well as to achieve more adequate adaptation and socialization of preschoolers. When diagnosing a conflict in motives and a conflict in the operations of the game and teaching the child in a playful way to communicate with peers by creating socially significant motivation and developing a common game, it was proved that if the child’s interpersonal relations are unfavorable, internal emotional discomfort, full-fledged intellectual development can be disrupted. his personality, since the well-being of the child's relationships with peers directly determines the formation of the actual psychological structures of the personality: emotions, motives, self-awareness, personal activity and initiative.
An attempt to diagnose and correct the level of communication and relationships of pupils preschool groups kindergartens with the help of game methods, as the experience of many researchers shows, is very effective. These methods make it possible to identify the main parameters of communication, interpersonal relationships and the main motives that determine the importance of a peer for a preschool child. Given in this study methods can be used to diagnose the level of development of interpersonal relations of a group in kindergarten, as well as to correct children's problems in this group.
Bibliography
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2. Raising children in the game: A guide for a kindergarten teacher / Comp. A. K. Bondarenko, A. I. Matusik. - 2nd ed. revised and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1983
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Raising children in the game: A guide for a kindergarten teacher / Comp. A. K. Bondarenko, A. I. Matusik. - 2nd ed. revised and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1983
Bozhovich L.I. Problems of Personality Formation: Edited by D.I. Feldstein - M .: Publishing house "Institute of Practical Psychology", Voronezh: NPO "MODEK", 1997
Kozlova S.A., Kulikova T.A. Preschool Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. avg. ped. textbook establishments. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2000
In developmental psychology, preschool age is described as one of the most important stages in personality development. It is during this period that the child's perception of himself and his capabilities, attitude to the world and communication stereotypes are laid. Psychology of preschool age helps parents understand the developmental features and reasons for the behavior of the baby.
Preschool in modern psychology is considered to be the age of 4 to 7 years. The beginning of this period is preceded by a crisis of three years. This is a rather difficult period in the life of parents, since the child shows extreme negativism and strong stubbornness.
It is this crisis that means that the child differentiates, separates from the mother and manifests itself as a separate person with his own opinions and desires. In order for him to successfully pass this stage, parents should in no case humiliate or break a preschooler. It is necessary to show him that he is being heard, and he has the right to his feelings, but it is the right of adults to decide.
Having passed this crisis, the child enters a new level of relations with adults. If earlier he was the "navel of the earth", his mother's continuation, now he becomes a separate person and a full member of the family. He must follow the family rules, and he has his first duties (clean up toys).
The boundaries of the family are revealed, and the child discovers the world. At this time, he usually starts attending kindergarten, where he learns to interact with peers, as well as other adults. Here is the first social role.
The desire for independence is an important characteristic of preschool age. The child strives to be an adult, but cannot yet be one. This is what gives rise to the role-playing game as an opportunity to "play as an independent adult."
A preschooler tries to imitate the elders in everything, from intonation to gestures and behavior. At this age, the child, like a mirror, reflects his parents. For them, this is a great opportunity to look at themselves from the outside and think about what they teach their children.
Game as a way of development
Preschool psychology defines play as a leading activity in the development of children of this age. What does "leading activity" mean? This means that it is this activity that has the main influence on the development of the child's personality and all his mental processes.
During the game, the child learns to control his behavior according to the chosen role. This is how his arbitrary behavior is formed. But do not think that the game for the baby is just a fantasy, a pretense. No. For him, the game is an emotionally rich and absolutely real activity, where he can become anyone: a doctor, a salesman, a teacher, a knight or a princess.
Joint play helps children develop communication skills, and also contributes to the emergence of social motives (success, leadership).
In the process of a role-playing game, the following neoplasms appear in a preschooler:
- subordination of motives, that is, the ability to subordinate one's personal desires to the rules of the game;
- learning to communicate with other children. He masters the skills of interaction with peers, getting both positive communication experience (friendship, common toys) and negative (resentment, quarrels);
- mastering the word "NECESSARY", and understanding that it is much stronger than the word "I WANT".
Cognitive processes of a preschooler
Preschoolers develop rapidly mental processes. A distinctive feature of all cognitive processes in preschool age is their acquisition of arbitrariness.
At a younger preschool age (3-4 years), perception is closely related to the child's emotions, and the more positive feelings and vivid impressions the child experiences when exposed to some kind of stimulus, the more accurate the perception will be. But already at an older age (5-7 years), perception becomes not just a reaction to a stimulus, but a tool for understanding the world around. Visual perception is especially developed in preschoolers.
Attention and memory retain their involuntary character, but towards the end of the period their arbitrariness develops. By the age of 5, the stability of attention and its volume increase. Moreover, it was found that the stability of attention is associated with the nature of the child. In calm children, it is 2 times higher than in emotional ones.
The most important mental function that affects the development of a preschooler is memory. The child is able to memorize a lot of various information, but only when he is interested, and this happens during the game. No special memorization techniques will work.
The development of the thinking of a preschooler goes through several stages. At the beginning, the child has developed visual-effective thinking, then - by the middle of preschool age - it turns into visual-figurative thinking, and at the end verbal-logical thinking begins to form.
These psychological features of the development of preschool children, and in particular, the features of thinking, must be taken into account when communicating with a child. For example, a child of 4-5 years old asks when his mother will return home. You answer that she will come home after work. And after a couple of minutes the child asks the same question. No, he is not joking with you and heard your answer well. Simply due to the specifics of children's thinking, he did not understand him.
The words "after", "then" refer to the category of time (past, present, future), and this refers to verbal-logical thinking. And the child operates visually and effectively. Therefore, in order for the child to understand you, list after what actions and events the mother will appear at home. For example: “we will take a walk now, then we will have a meal, we will watch a cartoon, it will become dark outside the window, and then mom will come.”
At preschool age, the centers responsible for speech functions mature in the child's psyche, and the process of mastering native speech is completed. The vocabulary of the little man is greatly increased. At six years old, a child's active vocabulary contains 2500-3000 words. This is three times more than a three-year-old baby.
However, these figures are completely dependent on the environment in which children grow up. Preschoolers have a large vocabulary if their parents talk a lot with them and read fairy tales and stories with them (this is how they get acquainted with literary speech).
This period is characterized by the so-called word creation of children, the ability to form bizarre forms of words or use words in an unusual sense.
Leading needs of a preschooler
The psychology of preschool children often contains contradictions. For example, at this age they have two new needs:
- communication with other children;
- the need to be engaged in some important activity for society.
But the child cannot fulfill the second need in society. How can he resolve this contradiction? This is what leads to the emergence of a role-playing game, which enables a preschooler to play the role of adults who are engaged in socially important activities.
An important need for a baby at this age is the need for acceptance and unconditional love. It is important for him to feel that he is special for his parents, and they love him simply for what he is. Acceptance and love from parents creates a solid foundation for healthy self-esteem. Having matured, the child will not be "curried" to earn love.
Unconditional love does not mean the absence of punishment for wrongdoing. But parents need to separate personality and actions and punish the child precisely for misconduct, and not for the fact that he is “bad”. It is necessary to explain to him that he is good, and they love him, but parents should punish him for his misconduct.
Personal development
According to preschool psychology, in the period from 4 to 7 years, the foundation of the personality is laid: self-esteem, subordination of motives, the assimilation of moral norms and rules, as well as the ability to evaluate and control one's behavior.
The preschooler learns to name emotions and recognize their manifestations in themselves and others. It is very important during this period to teach him a healthy attitude towards negative emotions and how to express them correctly. To do this, adults themselves must have a well-developed emotional intelligence.
At this age, the child shows such emotions as empathy and care. “Social” emotions develop: a sense of pride and joy for a good deed, a sense of shame for a bad one.
Self-Esteem and Self-Consciousness
At this stage of development, the child develops the ability to evaluate his own actions and the actions of others. And it is then that self-esteem and self-image are formed.
Self-esteem is based on the self-concept. Although it would be more correct to say: “You are a concept”, since at first the preschooler’s self-image is formed from how his parents evaluate him. Therefore, parents should be careful in evaluating their child, more often pay attention to his dignity and abilities, so that he grows up as a self-confident person.
Moral development and the hierarchy of motives
A preschooler actively learns the norms of behavior and morality and begins to think in moral categories: bad - good, kind - evil, honest - dishonest. Parents play a significant role in the moral development of a small person, and it is they who pass on their values to children.
An important neoplasm of this age is the subordination of personal motives to public ones. In early preschool age, children show personal motives, one of which is to win the approval of a significant adult. At senior school age, motives are subordinated: personal motives are inferior to social motives (to do a good deed, or to obey the desire of the group).
Knowledge of the norms and rules of behavior, as well as the ability to evaluate their actions at senior preschool age, lead to the fact that the child learns to control his actions and manage his behavior.
gender
Awareness of oneself as a being of a certain gender is already present in three-year-olds. Moreover, at first, children can copy the behavior of a parent of their own gender - girls put on jewelry like mothers, and boys conduct business conversations on a toy phone. Growing up, they will already try to behave accordingly: the daughter will ask to help in the kitchen, the boy will repair the car with his grandfather.
Interestingly, preschoolers tend to be friends only with peers of their own gender: girls with girls, and boys with boys. At the same time, disparaging statements towards the opposite sex are possible.
There is no end to the creative flight of the child. Imagination takes the baby far, far away. He is interested in drawing, sculpting, gluing, and much more. Encourage these activities. This is how his imagination develops, his talents and self-confidence are revealed.
Pochemuchki, greedy and brawlers
Preschool is the age of a thousand and one questions. The kid is actively exploring the world, and he is interested in knowing everything: what the sun is made of, and why the bag rustles. Although sometimes these questions are inappropriate, always take the time to answer them. So you expand the horizons of the baby and strengthen your relationship.
On the playground, you can often see little "greedy" who do not want to share toys with other children. Mothers who do not want conflicts encourage their children to give the toy to play. But is it right? Preschool children are still selfish and it is important for them to "own" their toys. Besides, there is nothing wrong with having a sense of ownership in relation to your toys. Imagine if a person came up to you and asked you to play on your phone. You would refuse, and others would call you greedy.
This is how a child feels when he is asked to give his toy to another. Better explain to your child that the toy belongs to him, and if he wants (I emphasize: if he wants), he can give it to someone to play, but that child will definitely return it. If the baby does not want to give, it is his right to dispose of his toy.
There are also children who strive to hit, push or call names. Firmly, but without anger, stop the child. Usually at the age of 4, the baby begins to test the boundaries of other people. In other words, "How can I interact with others?" And if undesirable behavior is not stopped, it will continue to manifest itself.
How to help a child develop?
There is a concept of "zone of proximal development". He was introduced into psychology by the famous Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky. The zone of actual development is the child's skills that he performs on his own, without the help of adults.
Also, at preschool age, the child actively develops many mental functions, and with the assistance of an adult, he can learn a lot. Only you need to do it not FOR him, but TOGETHER with him. What a preschooler can do with the help of an adult, a little later he will be able to do himself. This is called the zone of proximal development. If you want to teach your child something, do it with him first. In addition, this is how we develop his confidence in his abilities.
We are always in a hurry somewhere, and it seems to us easier and faster to do something for the child. But then we expect that he himself will be able to put away toys, cut out paper and put clothes in a closet.
Children are capital in which you need to invest time and attention, and they will pleasantly surprise you.
The end of preschool age is also marked by a crisis. This period is difficult for both parents and the child himself. He can be stubborn, argue, refuse to carry out your instructions, make claims and even be cunning.
The psychology of a preschooler sees the reason for such behavior in the new social role that the child is mastering. It is included in new system relationships where he has his own responsibilities, which may seem difficult to the baby.
The most important characteristic of this crisis is that the child is no longer as clear as before. His experiences are now stored within and are not always visible on the surface. The reason for this is the loss of childish spontaneity and the desire to imitate an adult. But only these imitations in the form of grimacing and antics are not cute and funny, but cause irritation.
- Be patient. A newly minted student can be touchy and quick-tempered. It has to do with his self-esteem. In school, learning involves some competition over who is better and more successful. This creates internal tension.
- For the same reason, the child needs your support and faith in his strength. Express them to him more often.
- And of course, spend time with the whole family. The feeling of family unity will instill in him the confidence that he is always loved, no matter what happens.
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1. General questions of child psychology
1.1 Subject of child psychology
Child psychology, along with other sciences (pedagogy, physiology, pediatrics, etc.), studies the child, but has its own special subject, which is the development of the psyche during childhood. Childhood, according to the periodization adopted in Russian psychology (D.B. Elkonii), covers three large eras: early childhood - the age from birth to 3 years, childhood - from 3 to 10 years and adolescence. Preschool psychology, being an integral part of child psychology, studies the mental development of a child during the first 7 years of life.
The specificity of the study of the child in psychology lies in the fact that it is not so much mental processes and qualities that are studied in themselves, but the laws of their emergence and formation. Child psychology shows the mechanisms of transition from one age stage to another, the distinguishing features of each period and their psychological content.
Mental development cannot be viewed as a decrease or increase in any indicators, as a simple repetition of what was before. Mental development involves the emergence of new qualities and functions and at the same time a change already existing forms psyche. That is, mental development acts as a process of quantitative and qualitative changes that are interconnected in the sphere of activity, personality and cognition. The continuity of the development of the psyche is interrupted when qualitatively new acquisitions appear in it and it makes a sharp leap.
Consequently, the development of the psyche is not a simple repetition of what has been passed, but a very complex, often zigzag process that proceeds along an ascending spiral, like a progressive transition from one step to another, qualitatively different and unique.
Mental development implies not only growth, but also transformations, in which quantitative complications turn into qualitative ones. And the new quality, in turn, creates the basis for further quantitative changes.
1. 2 Basic patterns of mental development
The development of each mental function, each form of behavior is subject to its own characteristics, but mental development as a whole has general patterns that manifest themselves in all areas of the psyche and persist throughout ontogenesis. Speaking about the laws of mental development, they mean the description and explanation not of random facts, but of the main, essential tendencies that determine the course of this process.
First, psychic development is characterized by unevenness and heterochrony. Each mental function has a special pace and rhythm of becoming. Some of them, as it were, "go" ahead of the rest, preparing the ground for others. Then those functions that "lagged behind" acquire priority in development and create the basis for further complication of mental activity. For example, in the first months of infancy, the sense organs develop most intensively, and later objective actions are formed on their basis. In early childhood, actions with objects turn into a special type of activity - object-manipulative, during which active speech, visual-effective thinking and pride in one's own achievements develop.
The periods most favorable for the formation of one or another side of the psyche, when its sensitivity to a certain kind of influence is aggravated, are called sensitive. Functions develop most successfully and intensively. Such for mastering the native language is the age from 2 to 5 years, when the baby actively expands his vocabulary, learns the laws of the grammar of the native language, eventually moving to coherent speech.
Secondly, mental development proceeds in stages, having a complex organization in time. Each age stage has its own pace and rhythm, which does not coincide with the pace and rhythm of time and changes in different years of life. So, a year of life in infancy in its own way objective value and the ongoing transformation is not equal to a year of life in adolescence. The fastest mental development occurs in early childhood - from birth to 3 years.
The stages of mental development follow one after another in a certain way, obeying their own internal logic. Their sequence cannot be rearranged or changed at the request of an adult. Any age stage makes its own unique contribution, and therefore has its own enduring significance for the mental development of the child, has its own value. Therefore, it is important not to accelerate, but to enrich mental development, to expand, as A.V. Zaporozhets emphasized, the child's capabilities in the types of life inherent in this age. After all, only the realization of all the possibilities of a given age ensures the transition to a new stage of development.
A child of a certain age occupies a special place in the system public relations. And the transition from one stage of development to another is, first of all, a transition to a new, qualitatively higher and deeper connection between the child and society, of which he is a part and without which he cannot live (A.V. Zaporozhets).
The characteristics of the stages of mental development are the social situation of development, the main neoplasms and the leading activity.
The social situation of development is understood as the ratio of external and internal conditions for the development of the psyche (L.S. Vygotsky). It determines the child's attitude to other people, objects, things created by mankind, and to himself.
As age-related neoplasms, there are a new type of personality structure and its activities, mental changes that occur at a given age and determine the transformations in the mind of the child, his internal and outer life. These are the positive acquisitions that allow you to move on to a new stage of development.
Each age is characterized by a leading activity that provides the cardinal lines of mental development during this particular period (A.N. Leontiev). It most fully represents the typical for a given age relationship between a child and an adult, and through this, his attitude to reality. Leading activity connects children with the elements of the surrounding reality, which in a given period are sources of mental development. In this activity, the main personality neoplasms are formed, the restructuring of mental processes and the emergence of new types of activity take place. So, for example, in substantive activity at an early age, “pride in one’s own achievements”, active speech are formed, the prerequisites for the emergence of playful and productive activities are formed, elements of visual forms of thinking and sign-symbolic functions appear.
The true content of mental development is the struggle of internal contradictions, the struggle between obsolete forms of the psyche and new emerging ones (L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinshtein, etc.). Internal contradictions are the driving forces of mental development. They differ at each age and at the same time proceed within the framework of one, main contradiction, between the child's need to be an adult, to live a common life with him, to occupy a certain place in the life of society, to show independence and the lack of real opportunities to satisfy it. At the level of the child's consciousness, it appears as a discrepancy between "I want" and "I can". This contradiction leads to the assimilation of new knowledge, the formation of skills, to the development of new ways of activity, which allows expanding the boundaries of independence and increasing the level of opportunities. In turn, the expansion of the boundaries of possibilities leads the child to the “discovery” of more and more new areas of adult life, which are still inaccessible to him, but where he seeks to “enter”.
Thus, the resolution of some contradictions leads to the emergence of others. As a result, the child establishes more and more diverse and broad connections with the world, the forms of effective and cognitive reflection of reality are transformed. L.S. Vygotsky formulated the basic law of mental development as follows: “The forces that drive the development of a child at a particular age inevitably lead to the denial and destruction of the very basis of the development of the entire age, with internal necessity determining the annulment of the social situation of development, the end of this era development and transition to the next, or higher, age level.
Thirdly, in the course of mental development there is a differentiation and integration of processes, properties and qualities. Differentiation consists in the fact that they are separated from each other, turning into independent forms or activities. Thus, memory is separated from perception and becomes an independent mnemonic activity.
Integration ensures the establishment of relationships between individual aspects of the psyche. So, cognitive processes, having gone through a period of differentiation, establish interconnections with each other at a higher, qualitatively new level. In particular, the relationship of memory with speech and thinking ensures its intellectualization. Therefore, these two opposing tendencies are interrelated and do not exist without each other.
Cumulation is associated with differentiation and integration, which involves the accumulation of individual indicators that prepare qualitative changes in different areas of the child's psyche.
Fourthly, during the course of mental development there is a change of determinants - the reasons that determine it. On the one hand, the relationship between biological and social determinants is changing. On the other hand, the ratio of different social determinants also becomes different. At each age stage, conditions are prepared for the child to master certain types of activities, special relationships are formed with adults and peers. In particular, as they grow older, contacts with comrades begin to influence the mental development of a preschooler more and more. mental development preschooler memory attention speech
Fifthly, the psyche is plastic, which makes it possible to change it under the influence of any conditions, assimilation different experience. So, a born child can master any language, regardless of his nationality, but in accordance with the speech environment in which he will be brought up. One of the manifestations of plasticity is the compensation of mental or physical functions, in case of their absence or underdevelopment, for example, with deficiencies in vision, hearing, and motor functions. Another manifestation of plasticity is imitation. AT recent times it is regarded as a peculiar form of orientation of the child in the world in a specific way. human species activities, ways of communication and personal qualities by assimilation, modeling them in their own activities (L.F. Obukhova, I.V. Shapovalenko).
1 .3 Mental development as the assimilation of socio-historical experience
In domestic psychology, mental development is considered as the assimilation of social and historical experience (A.N. Leontiev), in the process of which the human psyche of the child takes place. Animals have two types of behavioral mechanisms. First, the innate, hereditary mechanisms in which the behavior itself, the innate, species experience itself, is fixed. Secondly, the mechanisms of acquired behavior, in which the ability to acquire individual experience is fixed.
A person has a special experience that animals do not have - this is a socio-historical experience, which determines to a large extent the development of the child. Children are born different in individual characteristics in the structure and functioning of the body and its individual systems. For full-fledged mental development, the normal functioning of the cerebral cortex and higher nervous activity is necessary. In case of underdevelopment or brain injury, the normal course of mental development is disrupted. But the biological factor, which includes hereditary and innate characteristics, is only a prerequisite for mental development. The child acquires congenital features in the course of its intrauterine life. Changes in the functional and even anatomical structure of the embryo can be caused by the nature of the mother's diet, her work and rest regimen, diseases, nervous shocks, etc.
Hereditary features are transmitted in the form of a specific physical and biological organization. So, these include the type of the nervous system, the makings of future abilities, the structural features of the analyzers and individual sections of the cerebral cortex.
Both hereditary and congenital features are only possibilities for the future development of the individual. Mental development largely depends on what system of relationships this or that inherited feature will be included in, how the adults raising him and the child himself will treat it.
The main, determining role in the mental development of the child is played by social experience, fixed in the form of objects, sign systems. He does not inherit it, but assigns it. The mental development of a child proceeds according to the pattern that exists in society, being determined by the form of activity that is characteristic of a given level of development of society. Therefore, children in different historical eras develop differently. Thus, the forms and levels of mental development are set not biologically, but socially. And the biological factor influences the process of development not directly, but indirectly, refracting through the peculiarities of the social conditions of life.
With this understanding of development, a different understanding of the social environment is also formed. It acts not as an environment, not as a condition for development, but as its source, since it contains in advance everything that the child must master, both positive and negative, for example, some antisocial forms of behavior. Moreover, the social environment does not consist only of the immediate environment of the child. It is a combination of three components. The macroenvironment is society, as a certain socio-economic, socio-political and ideological system. Within its framework, the entire life activity of the individual takes place. The mesoenvironment includes the national-cultural and socio-demographic features of the region in which the child lives. The microenvironment is the immediate environment of his life activity (family, neighbors, peer groups, cultural, educational and educational institutions that he visits). Moreover, in different periods of childhood, each of the components of the social environment has an unequal effect on mental development.
The conditions for the assimilation of social experience are the active activity of the child and his communication with an adult.
Thanks to the activity of the child, the process of influence of the social environment on him turns into a complex two-way interaction. Not only the environment affects the child, but he also transforms the world, showing creativity. The objects around the child contribute to the formation of his ideas (you can write with a pen, sew with a needle, play the piano). The result of mastering the experience is the mastery of these objects, which means the formation of human abilities and functions (writing, sewing, playing music).
In the objects themselves, a way of using them is fixed, which the child cannot independently discover. After all, the functions of things are not given directly, like some physical properties: color, shape, etc. An adult owns the purpose of an object, and only he can teach a child how to use it. Child and adult do not oppose each other. The child is initially a social being, since from the first days of birth he enters the social environment. An adult, ensuring his life and activity, uses socially developed objects. He acts as an intermediary between the child and the world of objects, as a carrier of the ways of using them, directing the process of mastering objective activity. At the same time, the child's activity becomes adequate to the purpose of the object. The adult organizes and directs the child's activity into appropriate forms, with the help of which he assimilates socio-historical experience. With the help of subject, household, game, labor, productive activity the child through communication with an adult masters different areas of activity. Two of its most important components are being formed - motivational-target (“For the sake of what, why carry out actions?”) And operational-technical (“How to do it, with what means, methods?”). The carrier of both components is an adult. In the process of mental development, the child masters one or another side of the activity (D.B. Elkonin). Thus, in infancy, the child masters the motivational side of adult activity, at an early age, methods of action with objects, and in preschool, he again begins to receive orientation in a broader sphere of adult life and activity.
The main mechanism of human mental development is the mechanism of assimilation of social, historically established types and forms of activity. Mastered in external form flows, processes are transformed into internal, mental ones (L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, P.V. Galperin, etc.).
Society specially organizes the process of transferring socio-historical experience to the child, controls its course by creating special educational institutions: kindergartens, schools, universities, etc.
Learning is the process of mastering knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities. We emphasize that a child begins to learn from the moment of birth, when he enters the social environment and an adult organizes his life and influences the baby with the help of objects created by mankind. Children's activities are different depending on the circumstances applied pedagogical influences and age, but in all cases there is learning in the broad sense of the word (A.V. Zaporozhets). If an adult sets a conscious goal to teach a child something, selects methods and techniques for this, then learning becomes organized, systematic and purposeful. With appropriate training, the nature of individual mental processes or functions changes, some contradictions are resolved and new ones are created.
Education involves the formation of certain attitudes, moral judgments and assessments, value orientations, that is, the formation of all aspects of the personality. As well as education, education begins immediately after the birth of a baby, when an adult, with his attitude towards him, lays the foundations for his personal development. The way of life of parents, their appearance, habits, and not only specially composed conversations and exercises are educating the child. Therefore, every moment of communication with elders is of great importance, each, even the most insignificant, from the point of view of an adult, element of their interaction.
At the same time, although mental development is determined by the conditions of life and upbringing, it, as already noted, has its own internal logic. The child is not mechanically exposed to any external influences, they are assimilated selectively, being refracted through already established forms of thinking, in connection with the interests and needs prevailing at a given age. That is, any external influence always acts through internal mental conditions (S.L. Rubinshtein). The peculiarities of mental development determine the conditions for the optimal terms of training, the assimilation of certain knowledge, the formation of certain personal qualities. Therefore, the content, forms and methods of training and education should be selected in accordance with the age, individual and personal characteristics of the child.
Development, education and training are closely interconnected and act as links in a single process. S.L. Rubinshtein wrote: “The child does not mature at first and then is brought up and trained, that is, under the guidance of adults, mastering the content of culture that mankind has created; the child does not develop and is brought up, but develops, being brought up and being taught, i.e., the very maturation and development of the child in the course of education and upbringing is not only manifested, but also accomplished.
2 . Principles and methods of child psychology
Any science begins with the collection of facts. Therefore, it must first of all answer the question: how to collect necessary facts. What methods are used to fix, register, reveal psychological facts, accumulate them, in order to then subject them to theoretical analysis.
Considering the nature of the psychological fact, S.L. Rubinshtein, A.A. Lyublinskaya, A.V. Petrovsky emphasized that it has an essential specific feature: constituting the inner essence of human manifestations, such a fact is accessible to study only indirectly. For example, a child feels joy because he has drawn a picture. Outwardly, this is expressed in facial expressions, pantomime, speech utterances. But the psychic phenomenon itself, in this case the experience of joy, remains hidden. To study this experience, and use special methods. The main factors used by the researcher are the actions of the child and his speech, since they primarily objectify mental processes and states. Expressive movements are considered as additional psychological facts: facial expressions, gestures, intonations of speech, which express the general emotional state and attitude to what the baby is doing or what he is talking about. The course of action depends on the objectively collected psychological facts. further research. And the collection of facts, in turn, depends on how the researcher owns the methods of studying the child's psyche.
2 .1 Principles of studying the psyche of the child
The specificity of the methods of child psychology is determined by the specificity of its object. This is the development of the child's psyche from birth to seven years, which during this period is most vulnerable and subject to external adverse influences. Rough intervention on the part of adults can slow down or distort the course of a child's mental development. Therefore, the main principle of the study of child psychology is the principle of humanism and pedagogical optimism, which consists in the requirement not to harm. The psychologist should feel a special responsibility and not rush, the main thing is to understand the true causes of the child's behavior, highlight the psychological characteristics and patterns, while showing a tactful, sensitive, caring attitude towards the baby.
The principle of efficiency and scientific character implies the study of psychological development, its mechanisms and patterns in terms of child psychology, and not from the point of view of other sciences. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that a child is not a small adult, but a full-fledged person who has his own vision of the world, way of thinking, content and expression of experiences. The inner world of a preschooler develops according to its own laws, which the researcher must comprehend. Therefore, before embarking on the study of this world, it is necessary to master special psychological knowledge, concepts, to assimilate the basic ideas of psychological science.
The principle of determinism proceeds from the fact that the formation of mental functions and properties, as well as the features of their manifestation, are associated with both external and internal causes. These reasons are due to the conditions of life, upbringing of the child, the characteristics of his social environment, the nature of the communication of the baby with adults and peers, the specifics of his activities and activity. Initially, there are no “good” or “difficult” children, there is only a variety of reasons that subsequently influence the appearance of one or another trait inherent in this particular child. The task of the researcher is to understand the cause of a psychological fact, and therefore to explain it.
The principle of the development of the psyche, consciousness in activity shows that activity acts as a condition for the manifestation and development of the child's psyche. Therefore, to study his mental characteristics, it is necessary to organize appropriate activities, for example, creative imagination can be fixed in drawing or in writing a fairy tale.
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity (developed by S.L. Rubinshtein) means the mutual influence of consciousness and activity. On the one hand, consciousness is formed in activity and, as it were, “leads” it. On the other hand, the complication of activity, the development of its new types enriches and changes consciousness. Therefore, consciousness can be studied indirectly, through the study of the child's activity. Thus, the motives of behavior become clear from the analysis of actions.
The principle of age individual and personal approach implies that general laws mental development are manifested in each child individually, including regular and special features. Each child masters speech, learns to walk, act with objects, but the path of his development is individual.
The principle of complexity, consistency and systematicity suggests that a single study does not give a complete picture of the child's mental development. It is necessary to analyze not disparate facts, but to compare them, to trace all aspects of the development of the child's psyche in the aggregate.
2. 2 Methods of child psychology
Recall that a method is a method by which scientific facts are collected. The main methods of child psychology include observation, experiment, conversation and analysis of the products of children's activities. The leading method is observation.
Observation involves purposeful perception and fixation of psychological facts. Any observation has a clearly defined goal. Before observation, a diagram is drawn up that will later help to correctly interpret the data. Even before the observation begins, the researcher must assume that he can see, otherwise many facts may be missed due to ignorance of their existence. We emphasize that there are no insignificant facts, each of them carries certain information about the psychological life of the child.
Observation allows you to see the natural manifestations of the child. Not knowing what is the object of study, the baby behaves freely, uninhibitedly. This allows you to get objective results. In the process of observation, the researcher develops a holistic view of the child's personality. Objectivity of observation is achieved under three conditions.
First condition: the child does not know that he is the object of study.
The famous psychologist M.Ya. Basov proved that the age from 3 to 7 years is the most favorable for observation, because children of this age are still far from fully comprehending their position as subjects and their role in relations with the observer.
Second condition: observation is carried out not on a case-by-case basis, but systematically. Indeed, in the process of observation, a whole group of facts appears before the researcher, and it can be very difficult to separate the characteristic, the essential from the accidental and secondary.
Let's take an example. The teacher, observing the behavior of the child during lunch, noticed that the baby refuses to eat, repeating: “I don’t want, I don’t want.” Should we conclude that the baby is capricious? Of course not. After all, the reasons for the described behavior can be, for example:
Capriciousness as a stable characteristic of the baby's personality;
Overwork or illness of the child;
Feeling offended if the child was not given the desired toy;
The dissatisfaction of the child with the style of communication of the teacher with him (frequent sharp shouts, unfair remarks, etc.), etc.
The above example confirms that the same psychological fact can have different meaning depending on the reasons for it. Repeated observation allows you to reveal the true causes.
The third condition ensuring the objectivity of observation, consists in the correct position of the researcher. Often, being under the influence of social stereotypes, the teacher perceives and interprets psychological facts in a distorted way. negative attitude to the child leads to the fact that the adult does not notice positive features or explains them as accidental, highlighting and emphasizing the negative aspects. And vice versa, a positive attitude towards the baby, preference for other children makes the teacher pay attention only to the positive aspects, exaggerate achievements, and negative points do not see. To avoid such mistakes, it is necessary to form an objective opinion about the child on the basis of scientific observation. And then turn to the opinion of parents and other adults working with the child.
The objectivity of observation largely depends on the ability to correctly record psychological facts in the protocol. Such a “photographic record”, as defined by M.Ya. Basova, describes in detail mimic, pantomimic expressions of emotions, literally, without changes, conveys the child's speech in a direct form, notes pauses, intonation, voice power, tempo, indicates to whom the speech is addressed. The record, naming the actions, reflects in detail all the operations that make up these actions. The “photographic record” presents a complete picture of the situation in which the child is included, therefore, the protocol notes the replicas of adults, peers, addressed to the child, the actions of others directed at him.
Let us give an example of a “photographic record” of observation of Lena Sh. (4 years, 3 months).
Educator: Guys, now let's go to the locker room and get dressed for a walk.
Lena goes to the locker, opens it, sits on the bench, takes off her socks, puts it in slippers and puts it in the locker, takes tights and trousers, sits on the bench, puts on tights, pants on them, takes them out of the locker and puts on a sweater, goes to the teacher and asks: Fill me, please, dress.
The teacher tucks in the dress.
Lena: Thank you... So at least the wind won't get in.
He goes to the locker, takes out and puts on a fur coat, then a hat.
caregiver: Come on, I'll tie my hat.
Lena: No need. I can do it myself. (He ties his hat, making several attempts. Sits on a bench, puts on first the left, then the right boot. He gets up and goes to the teacher. He asks again.) Fasten only the top button. The rest I myself.
The teacher fastens the top button. The rest the girl fastens herself. The teacher ties Lena's scarf.
Lena: No, I'm like this (pulls the scarf tighter). And now the mittens.
The teacher puts on her mittens.
Lena: Thanks. ( FOOTNOTE: "Hereinafter, the original protocols obtained in studies under the supervision of the author are used.)
Since the observations are recorded in the protocol in a descriptive form, to process them (especially with the help of mathematical methods) quite difficult. It must be borne in mind that it is impossible to quickly collect large factual material with the help of observation, since only one child can be observed at a time. When observing, an adult cannot intervene in children's activities, cause the necessary mental phenomenon, he takes a wait-and-see attitude.
There are several types of observation: full and partial, included and not included. Full involves the study of all mental manifestations, partial - one of them, such as speech or play. Observation depends on the position of the observer, who can be included in a group of children and interact with them while observing, or is outside the child's activity.
The experiment involves specially created conditions for studying the child's psyche. These conditions are determined by the methodology of the experiment, which contains the purpose, description of the material, the course of the study, criteria for data processing. All recommendations specified in the methodology are strictly observed, because they are subordinate to the purpose of the study.
So, if the experiment requires pictures on a white background, then you should not use another one, because it can cause background reactions. On the contrary, when studying the reactions of children to background stimuli, the pictures are specially made against a color background. The instruction of the experiment, that is, the formulation of the task, is learned by heart and, if necessary, repeated to the child without change. Preliminary selection of the material, formulation of instructions ensure the standard of repetition of the study, and therefore allow you to repeat the experiment and cause the same type of phenomena, thereby creating the opportunity to verify and refine the data obtained. Therefore, experiment is a more objective method than observation. It is the variation of its conditions that makes it possible to reveal the patterns and mechanism of mental development. The active position of the researcher, the presence of clear criteria for analysis, and schemes for fixing the results make it possible to collect rich factual material and process it quite easily. The experimental data are subjected to mathematical processing and expressed in numerical terms. We emphasize that in the experiment the researcher deals with only one side of the psyche. Therefore, one cannot draw hasty conclusions without examining other aspects in order to avoid fragmentary, one-sided ideas about the psyche as a whole.
There are several types of experiment: laboratory and natural, ascertaining and forming. The most acceptable in working with preschoolers is the natural experiment proposed by the famous Russian psychologist A.F. Lazursky. Unlike the laboratory, it retains the dignity of observation - the naturalness of the conditions for conducting, without allowing distortion of mental manifestations. Its merit lies in the fact that, by creating habitual conditions, the researcher is active in relation to the child. For example, an adult organizes a game, revealing the volitional actions of preschoolers.
The ascertaining experiment fixes in children the level of development of the process under study, which has developed in normal conditions training and education.
A formative experiment involves the creation in children of certain features of mental processes, qualities, properties. This type of experiment should be distinguished from pedagogical. The latter is used to test the effectiveness of programs and methods of training and education, establishing how, in what ways, high results in training and education can be achieved.
When planning an experiment with preschoolers, one should remember about their age characteristics. We emphasize that children are very prone to imitate each other, they are easily distracted, so sometimes it is necessary to exclude contacts between children. To do this, they think over the situation in detail so that it does not contain distracting irritants. That is, they do not use a gym, theater, zoological or fairy tale room for the experiment, they choose how to seat the baby so that he is not distracted and at the same time does not feel the distance between himself and the adult, which can lead to a psychological barrier.
It is best to put the baby with his back to the window at a small children's table, and an adult to sit next to him. The main thing is that the child feels goodwill and friendly disposition towards an adult. You should not tear the baby away from an interesting activity, impose a task on him, but try to establish contact in a generalized form: "Let's look at the pictures", "Would you like to draw?", "I brought you toys, let's see them." If the child refuses, then the offer is repeated after a while. Participation in the study should not become a duty for the baby. In order not to use experimental material to establish contact, you should stock up on pictures, paper, and pencils. First, you can offer the child some kind of activity so that he gets used to it, and then go directly to the experiment. The study cannot be long (no more than 10-20 minutes). It stops with overwork, signs of boredom, unwillingness to continue further. For research in kindergarten, the second half of the day is most favorable, when the children are not overtired and not overexcited. Experimental data, as well as observations, are "photographically" recorded in the protocol.
Let us give an example of recording an experiment with Natasha V. (5 years 9 months).
The experimenter lays out 10 pictures in front of the child and addresses the girl: Natasha, remember as many pictures as possible.
Natasha(looks at the pictures): So, to myself, then I will repeat, if so (moves his lips). Tired. I'll rest first. So I will call now, and then others (turns away).
Experimenter: Memorize as many pictures as you can.
Natasha looks at the pictures.
After 20 seconds, the experimenter removes the pictures and turns to the girl: Please name the pictures that you remember.
Natasha(looks at an adult): Watering can, watering can, what else was there? Hedgehog, lamp, yes. Well, what else was there? I can't remember at all. There was a lamp, well, a lamp, well, a shovel, but what else?
Experimenter: Do you remember anymore?
Natasha: I'll think about it now. Bus. Now I remember.
The conversation is included in the experiment or used as an independent method. The conversation as a research method differs from ordinary conversations with children in that it has a clearly conscious purpose and a pre-prepared system of questions that are formulated clearly, concisely and accurately. Questions should not prompt the child any answer, for example: "Is it good to be greedy?" You should not use words with an ambiguous interpretation or meaning that is unclear to the child, words that are not familiar to him. A complete picture of the phenomenon under study is given not by unambiguous answers, but by detailed and motivated ones, so it is important to try to get just such an answer. You can ask the baby: “Explain why you think so. Tell". We emphasize that there are topics that cause negative experiences in the child, which he prefers not to touch. Therefore, the conversation requires special tact. The conversation should last no more than 10-15 minutes. When talking with a child, it is desirable to arouse his interest in the topic of conversation. The conversation can be carried out in two forms: using additional material, such as fairy tales, pictures, drawings, toys, or as a verbal dialogue. Moreover, the older the children, the more space occupies the second form. The results of the conversation are also "photographically" recorded in the protocol.
Here is a recording of a conversation about work with Katya S. (4 years 6 months).
Experimenter: Katya, do you help your mother at home, do you work at home?
Katia: Yes, I help.
Experimenter: And what do you do?
Katia: I wash the dishes, I clean my doll corner, I collect toys. After the game I make a house, I have it in the middle.
Experimenter: Why do you work: wash the dishes, do the cleaning?
Katia: I help my mother.
Experimenter: Katya, if a little boy or girl who can’t do anything comes to visit you, what kind of work will you teach them?
Katia: I will teach them to wash dishes, clean up and teach them something else.
Experimenter: How would you teach a girl to wash dishes?
Katia: I would take a dirty plate, a rag, and lather it, and begin to wash. And the girl would say: "Watch how I wash."
Experimenter: What does your mother tell you when you have completed the work?
Katia: She thanks me, says: "Well done."
Experimenter: If you do not get any work or you are tired, what will you do?
Katia: If it doesn't work, I'll ask my mom to help me. She explains and everything works out. And if I'm tired, I'll go and tell my mother that I'm a little tired and I'll go lie down, or maybe I'll play.
Experimenter: And if mom is busy and she asks you to help her?
Katia: I quickly wash, clean.
Experimenter: If your mother told you: "You did a good job," what do you think it means?
Katia: It means that I did everything well. She did everything that her mother asked. Did it quickly.
In order for the analysis to be accurate, conversation is usually used in combination with other methods, while the adult has in mind the level of development of the child’s speech, the study of his ability to fully and accurately convey his thoughts, which is not always owned by a child under 7 years old.
The variety of activities of a baby aged 3 to 7 years leads to the fact that a special place in the study of the psyche of a preschooler is occupied by the method of analyzing the products of activities such as fairy tales, poems, stories, drawings, designs, applications, songs, etc. When studying the product of a child's activity, it is always taken into account how the process of its creation proceeded. The products of the preschooler's activity reflect his inner world, thoughts, experiences, ideas. The products of activity provide the richest material for research, which makes it possible to reveal aspects of the psyche that cannot be studied using other methods.
Let's take an example. Boy 6 years 7 months, performing a drawing on the theme " New Year's celebration”, In the middle of the album sheet he depicted a bird in black paint (as he later explained - an ugly duckling). Behind it, throughout the rest of the space of the sheet, there were dark blue spots (traces).
During the study, it turned out that this boy's mother did not have time to bring a suit to the New Year's party. Therefore, he could not read the poem, which he had been preparing for a long time. So the child in a figurative form expressed in the drawing his experiences, which were not reflected in speech.
The richest material for research is provided by fairy tales composed by a child. They not only allow one to judge the development of imagination and coherent speech, but also help to identify the interests of a preschooler, the formation of ethical instances and moral judgments, as well as figurative generalization!
As an example, consider a fairy tale composed by Maxim D. (5 years 9 months).
"How a tiger cub stood up for a little hare." There lived a bunny. And he sees - a hedgehog is coming. Bunny asks: "What's your name?" - “I am a thorn. And you?" - "And me - a jumper." And they became friends. Some time passed and the hedgehog became dishonest. Once a hare brought a delicious carrot. And the hedgehog said: “Give me all this carrot.” And when the hare left, he ate it himself. And when the hare came, he said: “Where is the carrot?” The hedgehog says: "I didn't eat it." And the hare said: “You are all lying! You ate it. You are a bad friend." And then the hedgehog got offended and left. So they quarreled. And then the hedgehog said: "Let's make friends." The hare says: "No, you are dishonest." The hedgehog then pouted even more and began to prick the hare. Hedgehog stabbed a hare with his needles. And suddenly a tiger came out of the forest and said: “What is happening here?” And the hare says: "The hedgehog pricks me." And the tiger said: “Why are you pricking him?” And he growled so that the hedgehog curled up into a ball. And didn't get out for a long time. And the hare and the tiger became friends and never quarreled.
Summing up, we can conclude that only the complex use various methods research can give a complete, objective picture of the mental characteristics of the child.
2.3 How can an educator study the mental characteristics of a child
One of the functions of the professional pedagogical activity of a kindergarten teacher is gnostic. This function assumes that the educator is able to learn the individual, age and personality characteristics of children, which is necessary for the teacher to ensure an individual approach to children. The need for an individual approach in education has been repeatedly emphasized by teachers and psychologists (Arkin E.A., Basov M.Ya., Kovalchuk Ya.I., Sukhomlinsky V.A., Usova A.P., etc.). Based on the knowledge of the age and individual characteristics of the child, it acquires special significance for the implementation of a personality-oriented model of interaction between an adult and children. This approach assumes that the educator has the ability to observe, record, analyze, compare psychological facts. The kindergarten teacher observes the child for a long time, for several years. Day after day, he performs all household processes with him, organizes his activities, reads books to him, takes him for walks. Gradually, he accumulates knowledge about the course of the mental development of the baby. That is, while raising and teaching a child, the teacher simultaneously studies him, and such a study is included in the context of educational work and is inseparable from it. Organizing a retelling of a fairy tale, the teacher simultaneously examines the level of development of coherent speech, and looking at their drawings together with the children, finds out the manifestations of creativity. It was about such an organization of the work of a kindergarten teacher that M.Ya. Basov: “There cannot be such a situation that at first only research, and then only pedagogical work. The whole meaning and importance of the question lies in the fact that research should be wholly included in pedagogical work, and the latter - in the first, merging into one organic whole.
The purpose of the psychological research of the educator is distinguished by its practical orientation. The educator does not formulate psychological laws, does not single out the mechanisms of mental development, but traces their manifestation in each specific case in his pupils. Thus, the meaning of studying children by a kindergarten teacher is to understand the causes of their behavior, notice their inclinations and create conditions for their development, choose the right methods and techniques for influencing kids and check their effectiveness, notice deviations in the course of mental development in time, its shortcomings, to design the further psychological development of pupils, taking into account their present, past and future. And as a result, the educator will be able to help the child realize his abilities, ensure the normal course of the child’s mental development and the formation of formations in him that allow him to move to a new age level, ensure the formation of his individuality. Thus, a special research orientation of the teacher is the basis and condition of pedagogical creativity and the pedagogical process, which go to the goal in the shortest way with the least expenditure of effort with the greatest results. It is very important for the educator:
Firstly, to have a clear idea of the central lines of the child's mental development in preschool childhood, such as personality development, the formation of activities and cognitive processes, directions, patterns, dynamics, relationships, central neoplasms.
For example, in the development of thinking - we are talking about its forms, as well as mental operations.
Secondly, it is important for the educator to see the relationship in the development of all central lines and properties of the psyche. (So, speech acts as a means of mental activity and communication; attention is a condition for the successful flow of practical and mental activity, etc.)
Thirdly, it is important for the educator to represent the continuity in the development of the psyche of children of early and preschool age in order to set certain educational tasks related to the development of voluntary behavior, properties of attention or mental operations.
3. General characteristics of the mental development of a child from birth to 7 years
3.1 Features of mental development at an early age
Early childhood - age from birth to 3 years special period for development. Consider the features of this period (N.M. Aksarina).
In early childhood, development proceeds as quickly as possible, as at no other age. The most intensive formation and development of all the features characteristic of a person takes place: the basic movements and actions with objects are mastered, the foundations for mental processes and personality are laid.
The spasmodic and uneven mental development in this period is more pronounced than at other ages. The slow accumulation of certain features is rapidly replaced by the most rapid transformations in the psyche. And the pace and meaning different lines mental development at different age stages children's lives are not the same. For example, at the age of 2.5-3 months. the leading line in the development of the psyche is the formation of visual and auditory orienting reactions. From 3 to 5-6 months. on the basis of the development of visual concentration, hand movements are improved, grasping is formed, the child begins to manipulate objects. Visual, auditory, tactile and motor relationships are established.
A child, unlike the cubs of an animal, is born with a minimum number of innate reflexes, but with a rich potential for life development. Almost the entire variety of forms of behavior, both positive and negative, is formed in the process of interaction with the social environment. And even the very time of occurrence of certain mental reactions can be accelerated by the appropriate influence of an adult. For example, if he shows kind attention and care to the child, speaks affectionately, then the smile of the baby appears earlier.
An essential feature of early childhood is the relationship between physical and neuropsychic development. Mental development is largely determined by the health of the baby. A slight deterioration in health affects the emotional well-being of the child, the disease can destroy the formed forms of behavior. Conversely, positive emotions speed up recovery.
The mental and physical state of the child at this age is very unstable. There is great physical and mental vulnerability. Children get sick quickly, get tired easily, their mood changes frequently.
Young children are characterized by high plasticity of the whole organism, and primarily of mental and higher nervous activity. This feature creates, on the one hand, great opportunities for education and training, and on the other hand, it makes it possible to compensate for the impaired function with the help of other functions and systems of the body.
Despite the rich opportunities for development, the emerging skills and abilities of the baby are unstable, incomplete and easily destroyed under adverse conditions. So, in children attending a nursery, after several days of rest spent at home, it is necessary to reinforce the habit of washing hands again. That is, at an early age, not so much the skills themselves are formed, but the prerequisites for their further improvement.
In a normal healthy child in the first three years of life, orienting reactions are pronounced. They stimulate the development of sensorimotor needs for movement and impressions. Sensory needs encourage the child to motor activity. And in turn, movements contribute to the intellectual development of the baby. If children are limited in obtaining information, then their mental development is significantly delayed.
Of particular importance in mental development is the emotional state of the child and his attitude to the environment. Positive emotions create favorable conditions not only for regime processes, but also for the formation of behavior. They influence the establishment of social ties, first with adults, and then with peers, the formation of personality prerequisites, the maintenance and development of interest in the environment. Besides Small child easily infected by the emotional state, the mood of the adult raising him.
The leading role in the mental development of a young child belongs to an adult. It provides the baby with optimal conditions not only for survival, good health and physical development, but also takes care of mental development. He not only cares for the baby, but also introduces him to others, directs and shapes his activity. And in response to an interested, benevolent attitude of an adult, a child develops a need to communicate with him very early.
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