Validity (valid, fit, valid) - fundamental concept experimental psychology. The degree of validity determines how the results of the experiment correspond to the task. In psychodiagnostics, validity is called comprehensive description methodology (test), including information about the area of ​​the studied phenomena and the representativeness of the diagnostic procedure in relation to them. A. Anastasi gives a simpler definition of validity in psychodiagnostics - "... a concept that tells us what the test measures and how well it does."

In the dictionary L.F. Burlachuk provides definitions of more than 10 types of validity used in psychodiagnostics to characterize the measurement capabilities of tests. In experimental psychology, four types of validity are mainly used: external, operational, internal, and environmental.

External validity. V.N. Druzhinin defines external validity as a characteristic of a measure of conformity experimental procedure reality. The degree of external validity depends on the eligibility of transferring the results of the study from laboratory conditions to real processes and their generalization to other spheres of reality. Moreover, the connection between theory and reality is reflected in the adequacy of the theory, reality and predictability of its predictions.

K.A. Ramul cites an experiment conducted in the 7th century BC. Egyptian pharaoh Psammetich. This pharaoh set out to find out which people of all those living on earth are closest to God. In the language of modern experimental psychology, this question (the question of being chosen by God) was the problem of research. The main theoretical position, put by Psammetichus as the basis of the study, argued that God's chosen people have a first language. The experiment tested the hypothesis that it was the people of Egypt who had the first language. If this hypothesis was not refuted, the Egyptian people received proof of their being chosen by God, which was of great importance. political significance(one of the first recorded cases in the history of attempts to apply the results psychological research to practical tasks).

The experiment itself was carried out as follows. Two newborn children were sent to the mountains to shepherds with strict instructions: to feed the children with goat's milk and in no case utter a single word in front of the children. The purpose of the experiment was to find out the first, genetically incorporated word.

Two years later, the children ran out to meet the experimenter shouting "bekos" (in Russian transcription).

Thus, the first genetically incorporated word was determined, but, to the annoyance of the ancient Egyptian researchers, in the dictionary Egyptian language this word was missing. But this word was found in the dictionary of the Phrygian language, moreover, among the Phrygians this word meant “bread”, i.e. a concept that plays a paramount role in the life of every nation.

Psammetichus, as an honest scientist, was forced to admit that the Phrygians were God's chosen people, or to abandon the original theoretical constructions. What exactly he preferred, history is silent.

To what extent does the described experiment meet the criterion of external validity?

It is difficult to find fault with the organization and conduct of the experiment itself. Doubts are raised by the theoretical substantiation and formulation of the problem of the experiment. Today from above contemporary ideas the incorrectness of the very statement of the problem and the main theoretical position experiment of Psammetichus. Leaving aside the question of "is there a God", we know that their language and speech are not genetically laid down in a ready-to-use form, but are the product of social development based on genetic predispositions. But we would try to state it in Ancient Egypt, in best case we would be considered illiterate lunatics.

More modern example violations of external validity - the application of the provisions of information theory in psychology. Along with the undoubted benefits - the involvement of mathematicians, physicists and engineers in the problems of psychology, the need for mathematics for psychologists, who determine more rigorous thinking, operating strictly certain concepts(signal, noise, communication channel, etc.) - there is enough in this big problems. The direct application of the modern mathematical apparatus of information theory to a person raises some doubts, mainly because we still do not know the principles of the receiver (the system for processing information by our psyche). But experiments on the application of information theory in psychology were very popular in their time. The scheme of these experiments is as follows: they describe a set of stimuli with a term from information theory, most often entropy (H=U P1lgP1,, where P1 is the probability of the appearance of a stimulus in the set), and the dependence of the response time to stimuli on entropy is investigated. If any dependence appears, then information theory is suitable for describing the work of the psyche. But the connection between reaction time and set structure is obvious even without information theory. Again, non-observance of external validity.

Violation of external validity does not always lead to incorrect conclusions. Recall the homunculus theory - little man, which lives in our head and carries out all our mental processes. Based on this theory, we will construct an experiment to test the hypothesis: the number of perceived signs increases with increasing exposure (presentation time), i.e. the longer we present a picture to our homunculus, the more detailed it perceives it (more details). The experiment does not refute our hypothesis, but this does not mean that the homunculus theory is correct.

So what is external validity? Compliance of the results of the experiment with the "truth", which, as is known, is unattainable, or accepted in given time scientific paradigm? Probably the last one anyway.

The scientific paradigm is a fairly stable formation. The change of paradigms happens very rarely, and this process is very painfully experienced by the scientific community. No wonder Kuhn called the shift scientific paradigm revolution. Therefore, the results of experiments that contradict the existing paradigm are usually referred to as artifacts.

An example is the famous Michelson-Morali experiment, the results of which contradicted the dominant theory of the ether at that time. Subsequently, these results were recognized as confirming special theory relativity, but it was the field of how Einstein developed this theory and it received, if not recognition, then at least fame. Moreover, Einstein himself, when creating his famous theory, did not know about the Michelson-Morali experiments. To change the scientific paradigm is not enough even a large number experimental results that contradict it. The main thing for this is the emergence of an equivalent theory explaining these results.

According to Toulmin, the task of the scientist is to adapt some new discovery to inherited ideas in an intellectual situation that makes a number of demands, without needlessly creating threats to the intellectual achievements of his predecessors. (10).

The scientific paradigm does not appear on empty place. Before assuming their dominant position, theories representing the paradigm showed their adequacy to reality and their predictive power.

Internal validity reflects the degree to which changes in the dependent variable correspond to changes in the independent variable. Complete internal validity is achieved if it is possible to establish a strict functional relationship between these variables: R= f(S), where R is the dependent variable (response of subjects); S - independent variable (relevant stimulus).

If when checking general erudition we ask questions, but there are no answers, this does not mean that erudition is low and the subject cannot study at the institute. Look at the questions we ask. In versions of the texts, Veksler was asked about the colors of the Soviet flag and the names of the first three cosmonauts who flew after Gagarin. but today few people remember the cosmonauts after Titov, and where could a five-year-old kid see the Soviet flag? One young English-speaking psychiatrist worked as an orderly in the ward for violent in a Spanish-speaking clinic. At that time, the drug "reserpine" was being tested in the country. He firmly believed in the effectiveness of reserpine, and indeed, in the department, where earlier orderlies could enter only two or three, after the use of reserpine, which coincided with his arrival, the psychiatrist entered calmly and was met by calm, friendly patients. Of course, he wrote an account of the miraculous effect of reserpine. But it turned out that it was to his clinic that a placebo was sent, i.e. tablets that do not contain reserpine, just some calcium glucanate. And it was not the effect of the medicine that calmed the sick, but the calm, benevolent smile of the doctor, who replaced the orderlies who were angry from fear.

A number of factors have been identified that may threaten internal validity. The most common of them are the following:

• 1) Change in time. Time of day, season, a person changes all the time, fatigue grows, attention is scattered, interest changes, etc.
• 2) sequence effect. The influence of one of the conditions on the next one (transfer) - learning during the experiment, fatigue aftertaste when tasting, iconic or echonic memory (residual excitation of receptors), adaptation, attempt to guess the correct answer or the appearance of a stimulus (subjective probability);
• 3) Rosenthal (Pygmalion) effect. The influence of the experimenter's bias on the results of the study, attempts to fit the results to the desired theoretical design.
• 4) Hawthorne effect. The subject tries to please the experimenter, tries to please him, is afraid to offend. This affects the choice of strategy for solving experimental problems.
• 5) Placebo effect. The subject is affected by the very atmosphere of the experiment.
• 6) Audience effect. In the presence of spectators, behavior changes, results change. Especially in groups where there are representatives of different sexes.
• 7) impression effect. It, as a rule, dominates, and it is difficult for the subject to change the initially formed opinion, especially when assessing the personality.
• 8) Barnum effect. The tendency for people to take descriptions or overall ratings their personality, if they are given under a scientific, magical or ritual sauce.
• 9) Concomitant mixing. The influence on the dependent variable of irrelevant stimuli, from which it is fundamentally impossible to get rid of.
• 10) sampling factor. An illiterate sample of subjects can completely destroy internal validity.

operational validity determines the degree of compliance of the methodology and the experimental plan with the tested hypothesis. Operational validity is special case external.

An example of violation of operational validity is the experiment conducted by Kurt Lewin. He set himself the task of investigating under which regime - democracy, anarchy or dictatorship - people feel most comfortable. The models of the study were artificially created situations of communication between children and adults in children's health camps. Democracy corresponded to a group in which children and adults jointly solved everyday issues. In the dictatorship model, all decisions were made exclusively by adults. Anarchy was modeled by a group in which there were no adults and the children made all the decisions themselves. According to the results of the study, it was concluded that a person feels best in a democratic society (2 p. 464). It is clear how far from reality the experimental models of Kurt Lewin were.

Ecological validity determines to what extent the conditions of the experiment imitate the reality under study. In field experiments, ecological validity reaches a maximum in a natural way, respectively, in laboratory experiments, observe a high degree ecological validity is quite difficult, and it is not always necessary .(6 p.62)

Operationalization of Variables, Operational and Construct Validity

Funds operationalization of variables- this is psychological methods and their choice. The values ​​of the variables are the results of using the methods.

In an experimental study, there may be both at least two methods: for NP assignments and RF measurement. They are evaluated in terms of the representativeness of the NP and RFP constructs, compliance with real conditions, aspects of the cat. are modeled.

Operationalization of funds, i.e. the development of a methodological arsenal for testing pi hypotheses is a creative component.

The path of connection of the essence of the psycho. variable with the technique– an indirect reconstruction of what is represented by the indicator. 2 conditions:

1) the empirically loaded concepts of NP and ZP presented in the hypothesis should be operationalized ( the way of their methodical presentation in the study should be specified);

2) Operationalization should be such that the control of the experimental factor or changes in the basic process can be represented in the form of a scale, i.e. could be measured.

It is necessary to separate the concepts method" and " technique» as multi-level units of analysis of psi reality. Method does not follow from methodology. Method - more large unit research analysis.

Psychological technique- methods of fixing psycho. data, techniques for constructing psycho. indicators.

The relationship of method and technique important in the methodical operationalization of variables. This concept covers solving the problem of choosing methods for setting, fixing and measuring variables as representing:

Some constructs;

Specification of variables in the experimental hypothesis;

The realities of the simulated subject (exp) activity;

Conditions for updating the basic processes under study.

The levels of experimental factors become psychological due to the fact that in the EG they are associated with expected changes in the underlying process.

Basic process – central link regulation of changes reflected in the indicators of HR.

operational validity – evaluation of the experiment from the point of sp. the degree of compliance with the empirically loaded concepts of NP, ZP and DP of those methods for setting and measuring variables that are used in the study.

Assessment of operational validity connected with the How successful is the transition from the formulation of hypotheses to the choice of methods.

Construct validity - this is an assessment of the validity of the transition from the concepts presented in the theoretical hypothesis - psychological constructs - to their empirical representations as NP, ZP and DP.

Assessing the possibility of generalization depends on construct validity (and external).

Relationship between operational and construct validity.

These types of validity allow evaluate meaningful research design .

Psychological hypothesis derived as a consequence of a theoretical concept , upon repeated checks may change somewhat , if the means of operationalization of variables are changed . conceptual replications - when it is supposed to identify the same theoretical dependence, but psi constructs are specified by different methodological methods. With multiple RF measurements different methods increases the validity of the statement about the nature of the process under study. IM job type dimensions also expand the range of generalizations.

In psychology, when using one concept, one often studies multilevel basic processes. Example: the concept of impulsivity (as a generalized trait, as cognitive style etc.).

The concept of the validity of an experiment includes at least three basic concepts: operational validity, external validity and internal validity. Let us consider these concepts and the realities denoted by them in more detail.

operational validity

The concept of operational validity is closely related to a certain problem that objectively exists not only in the experimental, but also in any other empirical research. In particular, in an experimental study, this problem lies in the fact that the studied reality is represented in it in two ways. Firstly, in the research hypothesis, it is presented in the form of its verbal description, a Secondly, in the research methodology, it is presented in the form of specific phenomena that have certain characteristics. Obviously, from the point of view of the ideal requirements for conducting pilot study it must be organized in such a way that there is a complete correspondence between these two forms of representation of the reality under study. If this correspondence is not achieved, then the experimental study is inadequate in the sense that its results cannot be used either to confirm or to refute the hypothesis.

In connection with this problem, the concept of operational validity can be defined as the legitimacy of the conclusion about the completeness of the correspondence of the studied reality, presented in the research hypothesis in verbal form, the reality that is presented in the research methodology in the form of specific phenomena.

Depending on the degree of completeness of this correspondence, an experimental study may have operational validity in varying degrees, i.e. be more or less operationally valid.

In practice, in order to assess the operational validity of an experimental study, it is necessary to resolve the issue of the validity of the correspondence between the contents of the main terms that are used to describe the reality under study in the research hypothesis, and how these contents are presented in the research methodology.

To illustrate the problem of operational validity, one can use following example. For example, the research hypothesis includes the term “attention volume”, which means the number of elements that a person can perceive simultaneously clearly and distinctly, and the research methodology uses a tachistoscope to measure the attention volume, which allows visual presentation simultaneously on a short time set of elements, and as specific phenomenon, which characterizes the amount of attention, is the number of elements that the subjects can reproduce. In this case, the experimenter conducting this study must inevitably face next question, which is directly related to the problem of operational validity, namely, whether the number of elements reproduced by the test subjects corresponds to the number of elements perceived by them clearly and distinctly. As is known from the history of experimental psychology, W. Wundt allowed the existence of such a correspondence. However, in the experiments of J. Sperling using the partial report technique, it was shown that the number of elements reproduced by the test subjects may be less than the number of elements perceived by them clearly and distinctly. It follows from the above example that the author of this hypothetical study needs to explain more carefully why he believes it is possible to use the index of reproduction productivity to measure attention span, otherwise his study may be operationally invalid.

The validity of the technique is a measure of the compliance of the diagnostic technique with the subject of diagnosis. The validity of the experimental study methodology is essential in the study. Reliability - a characteristic of the repeatability of results after a certain time.

Validity psychological experiment- this is a qualitative characteristic of psychological research in terms of the correctness of its organization. Validity is affected by the sample (i.e., how representative it is). concept natural experiment introduced by A.F. Lazursky. Types of validity in a psychological experimental study the following types the validity of a psychological experimental study: 1Internal validity - represents a specific version of an ideal experiment without the disadvantages inherent in a true experimental study; 2. External validity (environmental); 3. Operational validity; 4. Construct validity.

The Perfect Experiment This is an experiment in which the influence of side variables is excluded. This is a speculative construction, the possibility of which, however, cannot be ruled out (for example, a development factor). The independent variable affects the dependent variable. But there are also side variables. If the influence of side variables is very significant, then you can get a shift in the graphs. Thus, it can be seen that one should strive to exclude Internal Validity - Measure of Conformity real experiment ideal. The ratio of the influence of NP and side variables on the RFP. The more NPs, the higher the Validity. To increase it, you need to identify third-party variables and eliminate or average. High internal validity will make it possible to consider the conclusions about dependence as reliable. External validity is the transferability of the obtained results in real world. "Full compliance experiment" - absolute portability. Operational validity - compliance of the methodology and experimental design with the hypothesis being tested (correspondence of what we are looking for with what we are testing) Constructive validity - a measure of the correspondence of the interpretation of experimental data to the theory. Characterizes the correct designation of cause and effect using terms.

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So far, some types of psychological data have been presented separately - as fixed indicators and in the context of the problem of statistical decisions. Now you should do the next step- reveal the problem of choice psychological methods as a means of operationalizing variables. In relation to the sample values ​​of the RFP, the following are accepted: statistical solutions, according to the values ​​of the variables are the results of the use of certain psychological techniques.

To obtain data, the psychologist records both psychophysiological indicators, if the hypothesis involves consideration of their connection with the process being studied, and self-reports of the subjects. He can observe the behavior, or he can specifically highlight only some, methodically specially selected aspects of the subject's activity - reaction time, the number of proposed solutions, the characteristics of the response in an uncertain situation. He uses standardized and non-standardized methods, with the help of which indicators of a person's cognitive sphere (perception, attention, memory, thinking), as well as his emotional and personal sphere (motives, characterological properties, etc.) are recorded.

From the characteristics used methodologies should not be what method research was carried out. External characteristic An experimental study can serve as an indication that it should contain at least two methods: for setting the NP and measuring the RFP. And both of them are evaluated in terms of representativeness - the constructs of NP and RFP or compliance with those real conditions, the aspects of which are modeled.

Operating cash- evaluation of the experiment in terms of the degree of compliance with the empirically loaded concepts of NP, ZP and DP of those methods for setting and measuring variables that are used in the study.

Most simple way it would be the definition of a psychological variable by linking it with the method of obtaining certain data. Indeed, if we define the differences between the concepts "method" and "method", then this would seem like a logical path. Method is the largest unit of study type analysis. A technique is a smaller unit. Techniques can migrate from one study to another and be used in different ways research organization.

Psychological technique- these are ways of fixing psychological data, "techniques" of building psychological indicators. Students usually get acquainted with the variety of psychological methods in subject and research practicums.

At the same time, the technique may not look psychological, but be used to set, say, the levels of the independent variable or to measure the dependent variable. For example, in the assessment different kind advertising - as organized psychological impact- its effectiveness is presented in the number of units of the product sold. This is an economic indicator. It becomes a psychological variable only in one case - when it is associated in a psychological hypothesis with the mediating process of psychological influence. Then different types advertisements for the same product appear different levels NA (for example, advertising permanent or not, in print or electronic media, etc.).

Isolation of NP levels can also be carried out, it would seem, regardless of the arsenal of psychological techniques. In the example of the artificial environment "The Fifth Dimension" given in Section 5.3.3, it can be interpreted as a single (active) level of NP. Then the control (inactive) level will be normal conditions education and leisure activities for the child. Numerous engineering psychology studies have compared different conditions human performance professional activity, despite the fact that the difference in conditions is set by the features of the instruments used, their location, etc. Without continuing the examples, we can say that these levels of experimental factors become psychological precisely due to the fact that in the link experimental hypothesis they are associated with the expected changes in the studied basic process.

In the very general view the basic process can be understood as the central link in the regulation of changes reflected in indices, or indicators, 311. The indicator fixed by the methodology as a response to the influence of NP does not in itself reduce to the basic process under study.

In a psychological experiment, this is also included in the stage of meaningful research planning - to justify what is meant by changes in the index. For example, behind the reaction time indicator, one can assume completely different processes (denoting what exactly happens in fixed periods of time before the subject's response).

If we are talking about more complex techniques, which include a significant layer interpretations psychologist of one or another of its indexes, then the interpretive process will directly determine the method of constructing the variable. For example, in relation to the projective method of the thematic apperceptive test (TAT) by E. T. Sokolova, a change in the ways of interpreting how it is possible to establish the manifestation of projection mechanisms in stories using indefinite pictures (photographs) psychological protection etc. From the end of the 30s to the end of the 60s. 20th century interpretations changed significantly depending on the inclusion of assumptions about the manifestation of their rational "I" in the stories of the subjects [Sokolova, 1980].

The same types of deep motivation (sociogenic needs in G. Murray's classification) can be diagnosed using a questionnaire proposed by L. Edwards [Kornilova, 1997]. projective test and verbal, built in the Edwards questionnaire based on the method of forced choice of preferences, can give different locations of the subject in relation to a specific motivational scale, since they imply the manifestation of different basic processes behind the used indices of two procedurally different methods.

Thus, the same psychological constructs (achievement motivation, aggression, affiliation, etc.) are operationalized in different ways. Their difference is connected precisely with the implied mechanisms of conscious evaluation of preference or unconscious manifestation in the subject's story of one or another deep motivation (with the instruction "imagination is explored").

So, the simplest way of linking the essence of a psychological variable with one method or another can be misleading as to what the fixed indicator represents. Another way is more adequate - an indirect reconstruction of what is represented by the indicator. Two conditions must be met.

First. Presented in the hypothesis as empirically loaded concepts - independent and dependent variables - must be operationalized, i.e. the way of their methodical presentation in the study should be specified.

Second. This operationalization should be such that the control of the experimental factor or changes in the basic process can be represented in the form of one scale or another, i.e. measured.

Not all methods allow you to select variables. For example, observation methods that involve fixing data in units natural language or in legend, do not yet act as methods for extracting variables. Watching changes is not the same as measuring them. Modern research, performed by the method of observation, include a huge arsenal of standardized techniques. Software to proceed to the measurement procedures must be performed additional terms, as a result of which the possibility of isolating the rules for assigning numbers to psychological objects is achieved.

It is the measurement of variables that is the condition for conducting a psychological experiment, as well as for implementing a number of other methods - correlation, quasi-experiment, longitudinal.

The enumeration of events, the establishment of their frequency is not yet a measurement, but a procedure that allows you to build an RFP. Let us give an example of how such a ZP is constructed when its index is derivative, and does not reflect the fixation of any methodologically specified indicator.

In the example with artificial experimental condition"The Fifth Dimension" by M. Cole, which will be presented in chapter 5 (excursion 5.8), many variables can be distinguished. AT real conditions on the beach, psychologists created a special situation of relaxation for children, who, at the same time, game situation- mastered a number of means (in particular, a computer) of their activities. 311 was a few. One of them is the mention in the diary entries of students who worked with children of certain "artifacts" in their instrumental meaning or in the form of references as guidelines for mediating the actions of the child. The number of mentions of the same objects of the environment in two contexts - orientation to the possibility of their use or mediation of actions by their use - made it possible for the author to trace the temporal dynamics of the "culturation" process in an indirect (reflected by a psychologist's assistant) form.

Rice. 3.1. Dynamics of variables reflecting the instrumental and orientational attitude to "artifacts" in the created game context

In the diagram shown in fig. 3.1, it can be seen how it grows with the time spent in built environment The "fifth dimension" is a quantitative indicator of the instrumental attitude to its elements in comparison with another trend - a decrease in the indices of the general orientation towards the elements of the environment. Thus, in the natural conditions of this study, those indicators were singled out, the dynamics of which served as verification (empirical verification) theoretical hypothesis about the role of "artifacts" as means given to the child to transform his gaming activity and thus its development.