Sociological analysis activities of the Institute of Science in modern society gives grounds to assert that main function science is the production and multiplication of reliable knowledge, which makes it possible to reveal and explain the patterns of the surrounding world. scientific explanation in turn, it allows predicting and controlling the development of phenomena in the surrounding reality. And this makes it possible for a person to “dominate nature” and use knowledge about natural and social world for the accelerated development of society.

The above main function of science in modern society can be concretized and differentiated into a number of more specific, closely interconnected. Let's name the most significant of them:

1) worldview function;

2) technological;

3) rationalization function human behavior and activities.

Let's take a closer look at these functions.

The ideological function of science is one of the most ancient, it has always existed. But in pre-industrial society, this function was subject to the prevailing mythological and religious beliefs in society. Singling it out as an independent, independent of religious values occurs only during the formation of modern industrial society with the progress of scientific knowledge and the secularization of religion. Large scientific discoveries, the formation of new theories have a serious impact on the culture of society, lead to a breakdown of the prevailing stereotypes and attitudes of perception of the social and natural world.

scientific progress leads to the fact that the system of scientific knowledge becomes not only prerequisite successful development of the economic and technological sphere, but also obligatory element literacy and education of any person. Modern society is interested in scientific knowledge have become the property of every person, because they rationalize his relationship with the outside world, allow you to quite clearly formulate your own worldview concept.

For this reason, the study of the complex of the most important scientific achievements, even in the most generalized and accessible form, is an required attribute socialization of the individual, occurring in the process of secondary, and then higher education. Scientific knowledge plays important role in public administration social processes help to plan a strategy for the development of society, to implement expert assessment various social projects.

Technological function of science. If the ideological function of science is closely connected with the human desire to understand the world, to know the truth, and the so-called Platonic ideal of science existed in previous eras, the technological function began to clearly form only in modern times.

Her herald is rightfully considered English philosopher Francis Bacon, who declared that “knowledge is power” and it should become a powerful tool for transforming nature and society. The technological function began to develop rapidly along with the formation of an industrial society, ensuring the accelerated development of its productive forces due to the introduction of scientific achievements in various industries- industry, Agriculture, transport, communication, military equipment and etc.

This built environment Thanks to the accelerated development of science and the rapid introduction of scientific and technological innovations into practice, it was created in less than one century.

The environment in which he lives modern man, is almost entirely a product of scientific and technological progress - aviation and mechanical transport, asphalt roads, high-rise buildings with elevators, means of communication - telephone, television, computer network etc. Scientific and technical progress not only radically changed the human environment, creating, in fact, a second “artificial nature”, but also radically changed the whole way of human life, including the sphere interpersonal relationships. Huge Impact scientific and technological achievements on society sharply raises the question of their social consequences because not all of them turn out to be favorable and predictable. innovative creative activity conditioned in many respects by the needs of constant progress and social development, becomes the predominant type social action. Any new invention is considered desirable, recognized as social value. This, in turn, poses new challenges for the education system, designed to form a socially active personality.

The third function of science - the rationalization of human behavior and activity - is closely related to the previous one, with the only difference being that it refers not so much to the material and technical sphere as to the social and humanitarian one. It could only be realized in the last two or three decades thanks to advances in the field of social sciences- psychology, economics, cultural anthropology, sociology, etc. The impact of these technologies is most noticeable in the field of production organization. The use of the achievements of scientific management can significantly increase labor productivity and efficiency. That is why scientific management training is one of the most actual tasks economic development in the country. Another example - educational technologies vigorously implemented, including in our country, in various educational institutions. Political technologies, which are much written and talked about during election campaigns, are also a prime example using rational behaviors to achieve political leaders their goals.

We encounter such technologies at almost every step: from a beautiful and equipped store counter and trained sales assistants to the realm of high politics. All these examples show that scientific rationality is indeed highest value modern society and its further progress leads to the expansion of the use of rational valid types activities.

Functions of science in society. Science plays an essential role in public life. As time goes by, it becomes more and more important. In addition, the impact of science on social processes is quite unexpected, and sometimes dramatic. However, even everyday life cannot be imagined without it.

person. The scientific space is expanding and very rapidly. At the same time, the number of scientists is growing, suffice it to recall that in the 19th century there were several hundred of them, and today there are tens of thousands. Science can be considered as knowledge and cognition, as an element of culture, as an academic and social system. This indicates that there are quite a lot of functions of science in society. They are constantly changing. At various periods of history, certain functions of science come to the fore. Three groups of functions that science performs in society can be distinguished: the cultural and ideological function of science as a direct productive force of society; the function of science as a social force. In the XVII-XVII centuries, the role of science was revealed primarily in the sphere of worldview Then there was an active criticism of religion, the task arose of a scientific interpretation of nature, as well as substantiation of the needs of a new stage in the development of society - the stage of the birth, development and establishment of the capitalist mode of production. To the first serious The clashes of science and religion include the creation of the heliocentric system of the cosmos by N. Copernicus. Science for the first time invaded the area where theology had previously reigned supreme. To agree with the system of N. Copernicus, a person had to give up some religious and dogmatic postulates. In addition, these ideas are sharply contradictory to the ordinary perception of the world. the worldview had to change - the system of views on the objective world and the place of a person in it, on the attitude of a person to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the basic life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and activity, value orientations conditioned by these views. Quite a lot of time passed before scientific knowledge about nature, society, man became an integral part of the education system, that is, recognized as socially significant. Scientists have long been perceived as sorcerers and heretics. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, when science became a generally recognized social institution, science became a respected area of ​​human activity. technology, made science and productivity a force. Industrialists and scientists realized that science can dramatically accelerate the process of improving production, which depends primarily on their cooperation. Finally, in the 20th century, science also acts as a social force. The emergence of global problems arising as a result of the objective development of society, posing a threat to the entire human

humankind and requiring the combined efforts of the entire world community for their solution, has accelerated the formation of this function of science. Among global problems it is possible to single out problems of a political and socio-economic nature (prevention of nuclear war, the normal functioning of the world economy, the overcoming of backwardness by underdeveloped countries); natural and economic nature (environmental, energy, food, raw materials and the problem of the world ocean); social nature (demographic, interethnic relations, the crisis of culture and morality, the lack of democracy, urbanization, health care). For example, science is also involved in solving environmental problems ( the ozone hole, greenhouse effect, carcinogens, etc.). It should be noted that scientists first signal danger. Significant is the fact that the role of scientists as experts in decision-making by politicians is also growing. The special status of science in contemporary culture determined new features of its interaction with various layers and forms of social consciousness. The problem of the interaction between science and art, scientific knowledge and ordinary consciousness, the problem of scientific methods in social management, as well as everything related to the causes, course and consequences of the scientific and technological revolution. At the same time, it is necessary to note the negative impact of science in modern society, not only in terms of the environment, but primarily in the spiritual sphere. Scientific rationalism, its absolutization, is considered today one of the main reasons that destroy the spiritual world of a person, which becomes flawed without emotional, moral, irrational, religious components. scientific truth. The problem of the correspondence of our knowledge to objective reality in the philosophy of science is called the problem of truth. AT this case the concept of "truth" is conditional, it does not mean complete, comprehensive, knowledge about the world. The problem of truth boils down to the following points: 1) in what relation is our knowledge to outside world(as far as it is adequate, corresponds to realities); 2) how to establish the correspondence of our knowledge to realities, that is, how to make sure of their adequacy. This problem is difficult because this process <препятствуют» социокультурные факторы. Адекватное содержание нашего знания, соответствие его реальности, принято называть объективной истиной, то есть истиной, исключающей всякого рода субъективные и культурные факторы. Каким же способом можно выявить объективную истину в наших знаниях? И имеется ли она там? Первый способ - логический анализ. Платон, в частности, полагал, что истинным может быть только знание о сущности вещей. Оно и достигается 117

with the help of logic. Plato singled out opinion, that is, knowledge about various constantly changing objects, due to which this knowledge cannot be obtained and verified using logical reasoning. That is, objective truth, according to Plato, is the knowledge of the eternal, unchanging, absolute. The second way to establish the objective content of our knowledge is sensory contemplation. The solution to this problem lies on the path of synthesis of sensual and rational approaches. The basis of cognition and the criterion (sign) of the objectivity of human knowledge about the world is the subject-practical activity, or practice, which is considered both as the basis for the formation of knowledge, including scientific knowledge, and as a means of verifying their objectivity. But since the practice itself is changeable and constantly evolving, the idea of ​​development must also be included in the theory of knowledge. Cognitive truth is not something eternal, unchanging, it cannot be established once and for all. The entire development of human knowledge, including science, is a constant replacement of some relative truths by other relative truths. However, one can recognize the existence of absolute cognitive truth, if we understand it as a limit, goal, landmark. Therefore, completely complete, accurate, comprehensive, exhaustive knowledge about the world is called absolute truth. Scientific rationality and the structure of science. AT In connection with the complication of processes in the information society, the regulatory function of rationality increases. In the history of culture, ancient, medieval, classical (New Time), non-Yuthassic (since the end of the 19th century) types of cultural rationality are distinguished. In addition, there are scientific rationality, religious, magical and other types of rationality. The rationality of science and other forms of human activity acts as historically changeable, which leads to the need to consider this phenomenon in the aspect of successive styles or types of rationality, to describe changes in scientific and cultural norms, values, rules, and standards. For methodologists of science, it has recently become increasingly clear that there can be no generally accepted definition of scientific rationality. In accordance with one of the many definitions, rationality is a system of closed and self-sufficient rules, norms and standards accepted and generally significant within a given society to achieve socially meaningful goals (A. I. Rakitov). With a change in goals, there is a revision of the rationality existing in a given society. In the history of philosophy, the problem of correcting, expanding and overcoming the boundaries of scientific rationality has always existed. The specificity of a particular historical culture determined the field for discussion. 118

Scientific rationality includes the components that determine the totality of scientific research in a given era. These are the foundations of science and paradigm. The foundations of science are the necessary conditions that are the prerequisite for any scientific research. Such grounds usually include the scientific picture of the world, which is the most general ideas about the world that are developed by science in a certain historical period, the ideals and norms of scientific knowledge that perform a regulatory function, the philosophical principles of scientific knowledge, which are the link between the scientific picture of the world and ideals and norms of scientific knowledge. The concept of a paradigm refers to the set of beliefs, values ​​and technical means adopted by a given scientific community. The concept was invented by the American philosopher T. Kuhn, who believed that a paradigm is what unites the members of a given scientific community, and, conversely, the scientific community consists of people who recognize this paradigm. The paradigm includes criteria for the scientific nature of knowledge, that is, a certain set of features that make it possible to distinguish scientific knowledge from myth, ideology, religion and other systems of knowledge. Today, there are several dozen such criteria: consistency, objectivity, problematicity, experimental verification, systematic presentation of the material, etc. Within the framework of research programs (a series of successive theories), theoretical and empirical levels of research are distinguished. At the empirical level, phenomena and connections between them are studied, the essence of the object is revealed through phenomena. Theoretical knowledge, on the other hand, studies the essential connections in its pure form, that is, it recreates the relationship between patterns and thus reveals the essence of the object. In the history of modern science, classical, non-classical and post-non-classical types of rationality are distinguished, characterized by a different depth of reflection in relation to the scientific activity itself. Concentrating attention on the object, the classical type of scientific rationality seeks to eliminate everything related to the subject, operations and means of its activity in the course of theoretical explanation and description. Such a position is a condition for obtaining objectively true knowledge about the world. Classical science does not comprehend worldview attitudes and value orientations. The non-classical type of scientific rationality seeks to take into account the connections between knowledge about the object and the nature of the means and operations of activity, which is a condition for understanding the world. However, the connections between intrascientific and social values ​​and goals are again not the subject of scientific reflection. Finally, the post-nonclassical type of scientific rationality takes into account the correlation of acquired knowledge 119

about the object, not only with the peculiarity of the means and operations of activity, but also with value-target structures. At the same time, the connection between intra-scientific goals and extra-scientific, social goals and values ​​is explicated. Scientism and anti-scientism. To middle XIX century in philosophy, two main directions have developed in the interpretation of the relationship between science and culture, which in modern terminology is defined as scientism and anti-scientism. Scientism is characterized by the fact that it glorifies science, focuses on "science-research", absolutizing its role and possibilities in solving social problems. The ideal for him is not any scientific knowledge, but, first of all, the methods and results of natural scientific knowledge, which are least affected by "science-world outlook". Concrete manifestations of this trend are the concepts of science developed within the framework of modern schools of neopositivism, technocracy, and also the views of a number of representatives of the humanities who are trying to develop social cognition strictly along the lines of the natural sciences. This trend has deep roots in European culture. The focus of anti-scientism is a person, his interests and values. Science and the technology created on its basis are the essence of the force of alienation, dehumanization, domination. The social meaning of antiscientism's criticism of science is not unambiguous and depends on specific social circumstances. The most striking expression of this trend is existentialism. Directions of philosophy of science. At present, a number of main directions of the philosophy of science are distinguished. First, it is relativism, rooted in the American pragmatist philosophy of science, which adopted the tradition of the ancient sophists and skeptics (the well-known principle of the sophists, who interpret man as the “measure of all things”) and approved the relativity, conventionality, situationality of scientific knowledge; secondly, fallibilism is a direction that cultivates the fallibility of knowledge (it claims that theories are not only erroneous, but that all theories are erroneous) and goes back to the American philosopher C.S. neopositivism, but at the same time borrowing a lot from it; thirdly, evolutionary epistemology, behind which is the tradition of natural-scientific and philosophical understanding of the world as becoming, evolving; fourthly, a synthetic direction, which is conditionally called the concepts of scientific rationality, which arose in opposition to skepticism and fallibilism, which narrowed the field of rational thinking (they are rooted in European rationalism, one of the latest manifestations of which was neopositivism). 120

Currently, one more direction stands out - empirical constructivism, which considers knowledge in its formation, the regulators of which are looking for in practical activities, understanding the latter as the daily laboratory activities of a researcher or the conceptual operations of a theoretician. B. van Fraassen, by promoting such a radical concept as constructive empiricism, challenged the community of philosophers of science and gave rise to many discussions. Methods and proceduresscientific research. A method is a way of theoretical research or practical implementation of something. The methods and procedures of scientific research include: synthesis - the combination of previously isolated parts of an object into a single whole; analysis - the division of an integral object into its constituent parts for the purpose of their comprehensive study; abstraction generalization, measurement, comparison; induction - when a general conclusion from reasoning is based on private premises; deduction - when a conclusion of a particular nature necessarily follows from general premises; analogy; modeling - the study of an object by creating and examining its copy; observation; experiment; axiom; hypothesis; formalization - the essence of the technique lies in the fact that an abstract mathematical model is built that reveals the essence of this phenomenon, that is, the law; historical method, logical method, etc.

As the main criteria for distinguishing the functions of science, it is necessary to take the main activities of scientists, their terms of reference and tasks, as well as the areas of application and consumption of scientific knowledge.

The main functions of science are as follows:

1) cognitive the function is set by the very essence of science, the main purpose of which is precisely the knowledge of nature, society and man, the rational-theoretical comprehension of the world, the discovery of its laws and patterns. 2) worldview the function is certainly closely related to the first, its main goal is the development of a scientific worldview and a scientific picture of the world, the study of the rationalistic aspects of a person’s attitude to the world, and the substantiation of a scientific worldview. 3) production, technical and technological the function is designed to rationalize, "learn" the sphere of material production, ensure its normal functioning and development of technical and technological progress, the introduction of innovations into production, innovations, new technologies, forms of organization, etc. 4) managerial and regulatory the function is expressed in the fact that science must develop the ideological, theoretical and methodological foundations of management and regulation, first of all, this concerns social phenomena and processes. 5) cultural and educational, the educational function lies mainly in the fact that science is a cultural phenomenon, a noticeable factor in the cultural development of people and education. Her achievements, ideas and recommendations have a noticeable effect on the entire educational process, on the content of program plans, textbooks, on technology, forms and methods of teaching. 6) ideological succession, the traditional function ensures the inheritance, the preservation of all the achievements of scientific "collective intelligence", scientific memory, the connection of times, the continuity of different generations of scientists, 7) practical-effective function, to a certain extent, integrates all other functions of science, characterizes it as a universal transforming social force that is capable of changing the whole society, all its spheres, aspects and relations. 8) methodological the function is designed to investigate the problems of the methodology of science, to develop ways, means and methods of scientific knowledge to “arm” scientists with solid and effective research tools; 9) production, reproduction and training of scientific personnel- this function of science, like the previous one, is inside scientific, provides the sphere of scientific production with the necessary specialists, researchers, scientists,

It is obvious that almost all the functions of science are connected in one way or another.

The functions of science in the life of society, its place in culture and its interaction with other areas of cultural creativity change from century to century.

5. Logical-epistemological approach to the study of science. The positivist tradition in the philosophy of science.

The main aspects of the existence of science. Aspects of science:

science as a system of knowledge (as a specific type of knowledge).

science as a kind of activity (as a process of obtaining new knowledge)

science as a social institution

science as a special area and side of culture.

Science as a system of knowledge- this is a special knowledge received and fixed by specific scientific. methods and means (analysis, synthesis, abstraction, systemic observation, experiment). The most important forms and components of science as a special knowledge: theories, disciplines, fields of study, fields of science (physical, historical, mathematical), scientific laws, hypotheses.

Science as an activity- this is a specific type of cognitive activity by an object, which yavl. set of possible objects (empirical x and theoretical x). The goal is the production of knowledge about the properties, relationships and regularities of objects. The means of activity are the appropriate methods and procedures for empirical and theoretical research.

Distinctive properties:

object objectivity (empirical and/or theory)

focus on creativity

validity

validity (empiric-I, theory-I)

accuracy of the results

verifiability (empirical, logical)

reproducibility of subject knowledge and its results (fundamentally infinite)

objective truth. Truth (according to Aristotle) ​​is an adequate correspondence of knowledge to the actual relation of things. Kinds of truths: subjective truth(this is some knowledge recognized as true as a result of the agreement of a certain group of people), empiricist truth(knowledge that is verified by direct reference to reality), formal logical knowledge(justified by derivation from general theoretical positions, axioms), pragmatic truth, objective truth.

usefulness (praxeological) - can be practical and theoretical.

Science as a social institution- this is a professionally organized functioning of the scientific community, the effective regulation of relationships m / y of its members, as well as m / y science, society and the state with the help of a specific system of internal values ​​inherent in this social structure, with the help of scientific. technical policy of society and the state, and besides. With the help of the corresponding system of legislative norms (civil, economic law, etc.).

Value empiratives of science as a social structure (social self-evaluation of science): universalism, collectivism, disinterestedness, organizational skepticism, rationalism (in the sense in which it is accepted at this stage of scientific development), emotional neutrality. Positivism is a combination of logical and empirical methods, everything can be obtained by experience.

6. Post-positivist philosophy of science. The concept of K. Popper. The problem of the development of knowledge has been especially actively developed since the 1960s. XX century, supporters of postpositivism, currents of philosophical and methodological thought of the XX century, which came in the 60s. to replace neopositivism (logical positivism). It is conditionally possible to single out two main directions (of course, revealing commonality among themselves): relativistic, represented by Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend; and fallibilist, this group should include primarily Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos. Representatives of the first trend argue the relativity, conventionality, situationality of scientific knowledge, pay more attention to the social factors of the development of science, philosophers of the second - build philosophical concepts based on the thesis of the "error" of scientific knowledge, its instability in time.

Turning to history, the development of science (and not just to the formal structure), representatives of postpositivism began to build various models of this development, considering them as special cases of general evolutionary processes taking place in the world.

Thus, in postpositivism there is a significant change in the problems of philosophical research: if logical positivism focused on a formal analysis of the structure of ready-made scientific knowledge, then postpositivism makes understanding the growth and development of knowledge its main problem. In this regard, representatives of postpositivism were forced to turn to the study of the history of the emergence, development and change of scientific ideas and theories. The first such concept was concK. Popper's knowledge growth option. (Fallibilist current. K. Popper: at the origins, the problem of demarcation). Popper considers knowledge (in any of its forms) not only as a ready-made system that has become, but also as a changing, developing system. He presented this aspect of the analysis of science in the form of the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. Rejecting ageneticism, anti-historicism of logical positivists in this matter, he believes that the method of constructing artificial model languages ​​is unable to solve the problems associated with the growth of our knowledge. But within its limits, this method is legitimate and necessary. Popper is clearly aware that highlighting the change in scientific knowledge, its growth and progress, may to some extent contradict the prevailing ideal of science as a systematized deductive system. This ideal has dominated European epistemology since Euclid.

For Popper, the growth of knowledge is not a repetitive or cumulative process, it is a process of eliminating errors, "Darwinian selection". When he speaks of the growth of knowledge, he does not mean the mere accumulation of observations, but the repeated subversion of scientific theories and their replacement by better and more satisfactory theories. According to Popper, "the growth of knowledge proceeds from old problems to new problems, through conjecture and refutation." At the same time, “the mechanism of assumptions and refutation remains the main mechanism for the growth of knowledge.” In his concept, Popper formulates three basic requirements for the growth of knowledge. First of all, a new theory must start from a simple, new, fruitful and unifying idea. Second, it must be independently verifiable, i.e., lead to the presentation of phenomena that have not yet been observed. Thirdly, a good theory must withstand some new and rigorous tests.

Forms of manifestation of spiritual culture: religion, art, morality, philosophy, science, their relationship and role in culture. Art teaches the culture of contemplation and creation of beauty (the entire sphere of aesthetics), the culture of emotional and intellectual comprehension of the individual. Religion is a culture of faith. Morality is a culture of choice and distinction between good and evil. Philosophy is a culture of reflecting, transcending and existing thought, a culture of comprehension of the universal. Science is a culture of searching for truth, a culture of rationality. Science is the environment of other forms of knowledge, four forms of manifestation of the spirit.

The main functions of science in the life of society:

1) cognitive (the threefold root of cognitive activity: description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena being studied);

2) cultural and ideological (the formation of a scientific picture of the world, the desire to comprehend the general principles of the world order);

3)Instrumental function includes two levels:

− science as a direct productive force of society (combination of science with technology and modern production);

− science as a social force (wide application of science in the social sphere in solving global problems of modern society).

Science and religion. The problem of the relationship between science and religion. Polysemantic concept of "religion". The irremediable conflict of scientific and religious consciousness, faith and reason. Religious ideas at the basis of science (for example, the impact of the ideas of the Reformation on the formation of mathematical science). Attempts to combine science and religion, faith and reason (for example, "philosophical faith" by K. Jaspers, "Anthropic cosmological principle" (1986) by J. Burrow, "Tao of physics" (1975) by F. Capra). Problematic field: studies lying on the border of the philosophy of religion and the philosophy of science.

Science and art. Features of the difference between scientific and artistic activity: rational and sensual, abstract and concrete, cognitive-theoretical, value-emotional. Features of similarity between art and science: expand the horizons of knowledge, provide versatile knowledge about the world, models of reality, etc. The multifunctional nature of science and art: cognitive, meaning-forming, educational, innovative, communicative. Art as a mirror, a symbol of the era, the visible essence of the world and the human spirit, a form of communication between people through centuries and spaces. Science as a boundless desire to know the laws of being. The influence of science on art in modern culture. The emergence of new types of artistic creativity as phenomena of technological progress (cinema, TV, photography, computer graphics, interactive art, etc.) The influence of art on science. Aesthetic criteria of scientific creativity: the simplicity of the concept, its logical harmony, the harmony of mathematical formulas, the beauty and perfection of the universe, expressed in exact laws, the wit and elegance of the proof, the conciseness of the presentation. Art as a factor stimulating the creative activity of a scientist, liberating fantasy, intuition and imagination.

Problematic field: the idea of ​​a unified artistic and scientific knowledge (for example, Leonardo da Vinci, I.V. Goethe. Vl.S. Solovyov and their concepts of an integral comprehension of the world).

Science and morality. Two poles of human ethical consciousness: the pole of morality and the pole of morality. Morality as a system of rules, principles, norms of behavior that are prescribed to a person from the outside on behalf of a group, class, society as a whole. Morality is the rules, regulations, coming from the inside of human consciousness, spiritual experience of a person. These are the imperatives of good, where the imperative is a moral law chosen by the person himself. Morality as the realization of the spiritual freedom of a person, as the freedom of a conscious choice of the Good, based on the assertion of the self-worth of a person. Types of ethical systems: naturalistic, rationalistic, ethics of duty, metaphysical, etc. The problem of the relationship between scientific education and moral education, knowledge and morality (for example, Socrates and Confucius). Science and morality and their role in modern culture. Freedom and social responsibility of a scientist. Problem field: is science moral or immoral?

Forms of non-scientific knowledge

The variety of forms of knowledge: scientific, artistic, religious, philosophical, moral, everyday, as well as extra-scientific.

Parascientific- (from Gr. para - near, near) knowledge, including reflections on phenomena, the explanation of which is incompatible with the scientific cognitive standard, since it does not meet the criteria of scientificity (for example, the UFO phenomenon).

Para-scientific knowledge includes:

- occultism - deals with mysterious knowledge about supernatural forces and makes this knowledge available to everyone;

- esotericism - secret knowledge, intended only for initiates;

−theosophy - a religious and mystical doctrine of the unity of the human soul with the deity;

- hermeticism - deals with the construction of knowledge known only to the initiates;

- mysticism - through the procedures of purification, inspiration, renunciation from the world brings a person to the cosmic consciousness.

pseudoscientific knowledge - consciously exploit conjectures and prejudices. Symptoms of pseudoscience are illiterate pathos, fundamental intolerance of refuting arguments, as well as an attraction to sensationalism. For example, Lysenkoism is known in the history of Soviet science. Denial of cybernetics, genetics, etc.

anti-scientific knowledge is utopian and deliberately distorts ideas about reality. For example, the search for a "panacea" for all diseases.

Pseudoscience- knowledge is an intellectual activity that speculates on the totality of popular theories (signs of secrets, riddles, research through interpretation). For example, a story about ancient astronauts, about Bigfoot, about a monster from Loch Ness.

Ordinary-practical knowledge - it contains elementary information about nature and the surrounding reality. Unlike science, it is fragmented, unsystematic, unproven. Ordinary knowledge includes common sense and signs, edifications, recipes, personal experience, traditions.

deviant(from Latin deviatio - deviation from the path) - knowledge that deviates from the accepted standards of cognitive activity. Moreover, the comparison takes place not with a focus on the standard, but with the norms shared by the majority of members of the scientific community. For example, the works of Fomenko, Muldashev in the field of history. Problematic field of research: due to the limitations of rationalism, since the truth is sometimes found on the border of scientific and extra-scientific knowledge, the development of extra-scientific forms of knowledge cannot be prohibited, but pseudoscience should not be cultivated exclusively.

TOPIC 3. THE ORIGIN OF SCIENCE AND THE MAIN STAGES OF ITS HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

3.1. The genesis of science and the problem of its historical periodization

On the issue of the genesis of science as a unique component of culture and a special type of spiritual and cognitive activity, there is no single and generally accepted point of view. There are four most common points of view on the question of when and in what sociocultural conditions science first appears:

1) Science arises in the structure of the civilizations of Egypt, China, India, Mesopotamia and other regions of the Ancient World. The further development of science appears as an evolutionary process from the ancient stage to the modern one. This point of view was formulated within the framework of positive philosophy (O. Comte, G. Spencer and others). The basis of this position is the identification of science with everyday knowledge and forms of experience that serve the needs of the primary forms of practice in traditional societies.

2) According to the second point of view, shared by many foreign and domestic scientists (J. Bernal, B. Russell, P. Gaidenko, etc.), the first scientific programs arose in the context of ancient culture and are the result of that greatest spiritual revolution, which culminated in the formation of principles theoretical thinking in ancient Greek civilization.

3) According to the third point of view, the main prerequisites for the formation of science are formed in the XIII-XIV centuries, i.e. during the late Middle Ages in Western Europe. In medieval universities, a culture of abstract-theoretical thinking is formed, the foundations of experimental activity are laid, aimed at changing the properties and qualities of cognizable phenomena.

4) The most popular and widespread point of view on the issue of the genesis of science is the concept of its emergence in the modern era as a result of the great intellectual revolution of the 16th-17th centuries, which culminated in the creation of classical mechanics and the formation of the first forms of institutionalization of science. During this period, a special way of scientific thinking is formed, combining the principles of mathematical description of the phenomena of reality and the requirements of their experimental verification.

Social

- Cultural and ideological.

– The function of direct productive force.

- The function of social power.

The latter function assumes that the methods of science and its data are used to develop large-scale plans for social and economic development. It manifests itself in solving global problems of our time. In this function, science affects social management. Some researchers led the design-constructive function of science, tk. it precedes the phase of real practical transformation and is an integral part of the intellectual search.

General

– Descriptive

– Explanation

– Prediction of the phenomena of reality on the basis of the laws discovered by science.

More:

The social functions of science are not something given once and for all. On the contrary, they historically change and develop, representing an important aspect of the development of science itself.

Modern science is in many respects essentially, radically different from the science that existed a century or even half a century ago. Its entire appearance and the nature of its interrelations with society have changed.

Speaking about modern science in its interaction with various spheres of society and the individual, we can distinguish three groups of social functions performed by it. These are, firstly, cultural and ideological functions, secondly, the functions of science as a direct productive force, and, thirdly, its functions as a social force, due to the fact that scientific knowledge and methods are now increasingly used in solving a variety of problems. problems that arise in society.

The order in which these groups of functions are listed essentially reflects the historical process of the formation and expansion of the social functions of science, that is, the emergence and strengthening of ever new channels of its interaction with society. So, during the period of the formation of science as a special social institution (this is the period of the crisis of feudalism, the birth of bourgeois social relations and the formation of capitalism, that is, the Renaissance and the New Age), its influence was found primarily in the sphere of worldview, where during all this time there was an acute and stubborn struggle between theology and science.

As for the functions of science as a direct productive force, these functions seem to us today, perhaps, not only the most obvious, but also the first, primordial. And this is understandable, given the unprecedented scale and pace of modern scientific and technological progress, the results of which are tangibly manifested in all sectors of life and in all spheres of human activity.

The purely empirical basis of practical activity is too narrow and limited to ensure the continuous development of the productive forces and the progress of technology. Both industrialists and scientists began to see in science a powerful catalyst for the process of continuous improvement of the means of production. The realization of this drastically changed the attitude towards science and was an essential prerequisite for its decisive turn towards practice, material production. And here, as in the cultural and ideological sphere, science was not limited to a subordinate role for long and quite quickly revealed its potential as a revolutionary force that radically changes the appearance and nature of production.

Today, in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, another group of functions is more and more clearly revealed in science - it begins to act as a social force, being directly involved in the processes of social development. This is most clearly manifested in those rather numerous situations today, when the data and methods of science are used to develop large-scale plans and programs for social and economic development.

The functions of science as a social force in solving the global problems of our time are very important. An example of this is environmental issues.
The growing role of science in social life has given rise to its special status in modern culture and new features of its interaction with various layers of social consciousness. In this regard, the problem of the peculiarities of scientific knowledge and its correlation with other forms of cognitive activity (art, ordinary consciousness, etc.) is acutely posed.