Relief - a set of irregularities earth's surface. There are two main landforms: plains and mountains. Plains are a form of relief with small (up to 200 m) differences in relative heights. Mountains are a form of relief with large (more than 200 m) differences in relative heights. Relative altitude is the elevation of one point on the earth's surface above another, while absolute altitude is the height of a place above sea level.
Most of Russia is occupied by plains. The mountains are located mainly in the south and east of our country, which leads to a general slope of the territory of Russia to the north.
Relief formation is influenced by internal and external forces. First of all, the main landforms depend on the tectonic structure of the territory. Platform areas - the ancient Russian and Siberian platforms or the young West Siberian plate - are characterized by plains: the East European Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau and the West Siberian Plain, respectively. On the territory of ancient platforms, all types of plains can be found: lowlands, uplands, and plateaus, while lowlands predominate on the territory of young platforms.
Lowland is a type of plains with absolute heights up to 200 m (Caspian lowland, West Siberian plain, North Siberian, Kolyma lowlands).
Elevation is a type of plains with absolute heights from 200 to 500 m (Central Russian, Smolepsko-Moscow, Valdai, Volga, Stavropol).
The plateau is a type of plains with absolute heights of more than 500 m (Central Siberian Plateau).
If the crystalline foundation of ancient platforms comes to the surface (shields), then elevated forms of relief arise - hills (the Central Russian Upland on the Voronezh massif), plateaus (on the Anabar Shield - the Anabar Plateau) or even platform mountains (Khibiny on the Baltic Shield and the Aldan Highlands on the Aldan Shield ).
The largest plains of Russia are the East European (Russian), West Siberian Plain and the Central Siberian Plateau.
Folded areas (geosynclines) correspond to mountainous relief.
By absolute height, low, medium and high mountains are distinguished.
Low mountains are mountains with absolute heights below 2000 m (Khibiny, Ural Mountains, Byrranga).
The middle mountains are mountains with absolute heights from 2000 to 5000 m (Altai, Sayans, Aldan and Chukchi highlands, Verkhoyansk Range, Chersky Ridge, Sikhote-Alin).
High mountains are mountains with absolute heights of more than 5000 m (Great Caucasus).
For ancient mountains (Baikal, Caledonian and Hercynian folding), as a rule, low mountains (Urals) are characteristic, medium-altitude mountains correspond to areas of medium (Mesozoic) folding (Verkhoyansky Range, Chersky Range, Chukchi highlands, Sikhote-Alin), and for young mountains (Cenozoic, Alpine or Pacific folding) high mountains are characteristic (Caucasus). The areas of young folding are characterized by active manifestations of seismicity and volcanism (Kamchatka and Kurile Islands), where all active volcanoes in Russia are located - Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Koryakskaya Sopka, Tolbachik, Shiveluch, Tyatya and others.
A special group is formed by renewed (or revived) mountains: these mountains are of ancient age, but in their history they have experienced additional uplifts and reach quite large absolute heights: the mountains of Southern Siberia - Altai, Sayan Mountains, Stanovoe Upland and others.
by the most high mountains Russia is the Greater Caucasus, the highest point of which is the extinct volcano Elbrus - 5642 m. In Kamchatka there is the highest active volcano in the world in terms of cone height - Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4688 m).
The lowest point in Russia is the level of the Caspian Sea: -28 m.
Main external forces landforms are the activity of glaciers, wind, flowing waters and a person.
As a result of ancient glaciation, moraine (glacial) landforms arose - "sheep foreheads" in Karelia, moraine hills and ridges (Valdai Upland, Smolensk-Moscow Upland, Northern Uvaly, Siberian Uvaly).
As a result of wind activity, eolian landforms are formed - dunes in deserts and remnants (for example, Krasnoyarsk pillars or Mount Koltso in the Kislovodsk region).
Under the influence of flowing waters, ravines and gullies are formed, which are characteristic of the southern part of the Russian Plain, as well as landslide and karst landforms.
Under influence economic activity human waste heaps (mountain dumps) and quarries are formed in places of mining, as well as mounds, etc.
2) The role of water transport in Russia has always been enormous. In which regions of the country is it especially high?
What kind natural features Are rivers and lakes important for the development of water transport? How do human activities and the development of science affect the possibilities of using water transport in the country's economy?
Water transport includes river (inland water) and sea transport.
The greatest value river transport in the Volga region, the Volga-Vyatka region, European North, in the north of Siberia and the Far East, where it accounts for over a third of all transported goods.
The development of river transport requires large flat navigable rivers (Volga, Neva, Svir, Dnieper, Don, Northern Dvina, Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Angara, Lena, Amur, etc.) and lakes (Ladoga, Onega, etc.). For most regions of Russia, river transport is seasonal, due to ice formation in the winter season. A great difficulty for river transport in the north of Siberia and the Far East is ice jams that form in the spring. a huge role navigable river channels play (the Moscow Canal, the Volga-Baltic, the White Sea-Baltic, the Volga-Don), forming a single deep-water system of the European part of Russia with a system of rivers and lakes, thanks to which Moscow is called the “port of five seas”. The emergence of new types of ships (hydrofoils, hovercraft, river-sea, container ships, modern icebreakers) significantly expand the possibilities of river transport.
Maritime transport is of great importance in the coastal regions of Russia: in the North-Western region (Baltic Sea), in the North Caucasus (Azov-Black Sea and Caspian basins), in the European North and northern Siberia (access to North Atlantic and the Northern Sea Route), as well as in the Far East (Pacific basin). For the development of maritime transport in Russia, it is necessary to modernize existing and build new deep-water ports, modernize existing merchant fleet and the construction of modern specialized ships (ferries, tankers, gas carriers, container carriers, lighter carriers, refrigerators, nuclear icebreakers, etc.), as well as the development of the cruise fleet. Without the development of water transport, it is impossible to develop the regions of the Far North and develop Russia's foreign trade.
1. The relief of Russia: a) monotonous b) diverse
2. The most elevated part of Russia is: a) European b) Asian
3. To the east of the Yenisei, the territory is: a) lowered b) raised
4. The largest lowland in Russia is: a) Caspian b) North Siberian c) West Siberian
5. Match: a) Caucasus b) Sikhote-Alin c) Eastern Sayan d) Western Altai
1 - Baikal _ 2 - Mesozoic __
3 - Cenozoic _ 4 - Hercynian __
6. A table containing information about the successive change of eras, periods, major geological events, etc. ………………………………..
7. On the ancient platforms are located:
a) East European and West Siberian Plains
b) West Siberian Plain and Central Siberian Plateau
c) Central Siberian Plateau and East European Plain
8. Volcanism and earthquakes are typical for areas of ... folding:
a) Hercynian b) Cenozoic c) Baikal d) Mesozoic?
9. The lowest point of the Russian surface) is located:
a) on the shore of Lake Elton b) in the Minusinsk basin c) on the shore of the Caspian Sea d) in the Vasyugan marshes
10. Mountains are located on: a) platforms b) in folded belts c) plates
RELIEF RF FI: _____________________ / 8 _ cl.
1. The general slope of the territory of Russia to: a) north b) west c) east
2. The largest active volcano in Russia: a) Klyuchevskaya Sopka b) Kazbek c) Kronotskaya Sopka d) Shiveluch
3. To tectonic structures not include: a) platforms b) plains c) folded belts d) shields
4. The highest mountains in Russia: a) Altai b) Caucasus c) Sayans d) Alps
5. Explaining placement large forms relief on the territory of Russia, you must use the map:
a) geological b) tectonic c) physical
6. Stable plots h. are called: a) platforms b) folded areas c) shields d) plates
7. A common feature of the Central Siberian Plateau and the East European Plain is:
a) plateau terrain b) the presence of shields c) the same prevailing heights
8. Modern period geological history refers to:
a) Neogene period cenozoic era b) the Paleogene period of the Cenozoic era
c) the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era d) the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic era
9. Establish a correspondence between the mountains and their highest peaks:
10. In which of the listed territories of Russia are earthquakes most likely?
b) islands New Earth G) Kola Peninsula
RELIEF RF FI: _____________________ / 8 _ cl.
1. Specify the mountains that limit West Siberian Plain on the west: a) Caucasus b) Altai c) Urals d) Sayans
2. The relief is dominated by: a) plains b) mountains c) plateaus
3. West of the Yenisei is dominated by: a) low plains b) plateaus and mountains
4. Mountains dominate in: a) north and west b) east and south c) north and south
5. The highest point in Russia is: a) Elbrus b) Belukha c) Klyuchevskaya Sopka
6. The areas of Alpine folding on the territory of Russia include:
a) Altai b) Caucasus c) Kuriles d) Urals
7. The foundation of the East European Plain comes to the surface in the form of ... a shield
a) Baltic b) Anabar c) Aldan
8. Indicate the geological era in which the highlighted the largest number periods:
a) Cenozoic b) Mesozoic c) Paleozoic d) Archean
9. Volcanoes in Russia are located in: a) Altai b) Kamchatka c) Kuriles d) Urals
10. Mountain systems with the Verkhoyansk and Chersky ridges are located ...
a) in Kamchatka b) along the Pacific coast c) in the south of the Asian part of Russia d) east of the Lena River
RELIEF RF FI: _____________________ / 8 _ cl.
1. Mountains in Russia are located mainly: a) in the north b) in the southwest, south and east
c) in the central part d) in the east
2. The largest plain in Russia: a) East European b) West Siberian
c) Caspian d) Central Siberian flat.
3. The largest plateau in Russia: a) Vitim b) Central Siberian c) Anadyr
4. The longest mountains are: a) Ural b) Sikhote-Alin c) Caucasus
5. Match: a) Ural b) Western Sayan c) Verkhoyansk ridge. d) Median ridge.
1 - Caledonian __ 2 - Hercynian __ 3 - Cenozoic __ 4 - Mesozoic __
6. The youngest mountains correspond to …………………………….. folding.
7. The areas of manifestation of strong earthquakes in Russia are:
a) Ural, Central Siberian plateau b) Kola Peninsula, West Siberian lowland
c) Kamchatka, Kuril Islands, Caucasus
8. The foundation of the Siberian platform comes to the surface in the form of ... shields
a) Baltic and Anabar b) Aldan and Baltic c) Aldan and Anabar
9. Set match:
10. Complete the sentences by choosing necessary words (monotonous, diverse, plains, mountains):
The relief of Russia is very ……………………: there are plains and mountains, but the area is dominated by …………………
RELIEF RF FI: _____________________ / 8 _ cl.
1. The highest point in Russia - Mount Elbrus has a height of: a) 5895m b) 6960 c) 5642m
2. Mountains in Russia occupy about: a) 1/3 of the territory b) ¼ of the territory c) ½ of the territory
3. An extensive, relatively stable area of the earth's crust: a) plate b) shield c) platform d) folding
4. Mountains located in Southern Siberia: a) Sikhote-Alin b) Caucasus c) Khibiny d) Sayans
5. Establish a correspondence between tectonic structures and landforms:
6. Complete the sentences by choosing the necessary words (north, south, west, east):
The main part of the mountains is concentrated in …………… and ……………… Russia.
7. The modern period of geological history refers to ... folding:
a) Caledonian b) Hercynian c) Mesozoic d) Alpine
8. The main patterns in the relief of Russia are:
1) uniform relief and an increase in relative heights to the north
2) varied relief and rising relative altitudes to the south
3) varied terrain and an increase in relative heights to the center
4) varied topography and rising relative heights to the north
9. The Precambrian includes: a) Paleozoic and Mesozoic b) Proterozoic and Paleozoic c) Archean and Proterozoic d) Mesozoic and Cenozoic
10. The highest mountain peak of Altai: a) Shkhara b) Pobeda c) Belukha d) Munku-Sardyk
RELIEF RF FI: _____________________ / 8 _ cl.
1. A stable, relatively leveled area of the Earth, to which plains and sedimentary minerals correspond in relief, is called: a) shield b) platform c) folded area d) marginal trough
2. Choose the highest active volcano in Russia: a) Elbrus b) Kazbek c) Key Sopka d) Kronotskaya Sopka
3. Identify mountains by description. Stretched along the coast of the Lena River in its lower reaches. Formed in the Mesozoic folding. The highest peak has a height of 2389 m.
a) Yablonovy Ridge b) Verkhoyansk Ridge c) Aldan Highlands d) Stanovoye Highlands
4. Mountains in Russia missing in: a) west b) east c) north d) south
5. The young mountains include: a) Altai b) Urals c) Sayans d) Sredinny Ridge
6. The Altai Mountains, the Sayans, the ranges of the Baikal and Transbaikalia, as well as the Stanovoy Range, the Vitim Plateau, Stanovoye, Patomskoye
and the Aldan Highlands are located: a) east of the Lena River b) along the Pacific coast
c) within the Central Siberian Plateau d) in the south of the Asian part of Russia
7. The largest plains of Russia, East European and West Siberian, are separated by: a) the Central Siberian Plateau
b) Median ridge c) Ural mountains d) the highest mountains of Russia - the Caucasus
8. The youngest mountains in Russia are: a) the mountains of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands b) the Urals c) the Caucasus d) the Sayan and Altai
9. In what order geological eras succeeded each other in the history of the formation and development of the Earth?
A. Cenozoic - Mesozoic - Paleozoic - Proterozoic - Archean
B. Archean - Paleozoic - Proterozoic - Mesozoic - Cenozoic
B. Paleozoic - Mesozoic - Cenozoic - Archean - Proterozoic
G. Archean - Proterozoic - Paleozoic-Mesozoic - Cenozoic
10. The highest point of Russia is located within: a) Caucasus b) Tien Shan c) Pamir d) Altai
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Position, orography and hypsometry. The west of the country is occupied by ridges and basins Altai. Alpine Central Altai consists of the ridges: Katunsky with the highest point of the Altai - Sayan country Belukha (4506 m.), North and South Chuysky, Kuraisky, Listvyaga, Terektinsky, Kholzun. They are separated by intermountain basins - "steppes" Abai, Kurai, Uimon, Chui and the Ukok plateau. Southern Altai stretches in a sub-latitudinal direction from Saylyugem in the east through the Tavan-Bogdo-Ula mountain junction up to 4082 m high, the Southern Altai, Tarbagatai, Sarymsakty ridges to Narymsky in the west. ridges Eastern Altai(Shapshalsky, Chikhacheva) have submeridional strike; the Chulyshman Plateau adjoins them. All of the above regions can be combined as high and mid mountain core Altai.
Mid-mountain and low-mountain-foothill ranges scatter fan-shaped from this core. Within Russia, these are numerous ridges Northeast Altai(Aigulaksky, Sumultinsky, Chulyshmansky, Korbu, Iolgo, Altyntu, Seminsky, Cherginsky, Anuysky, Bashchelaksky, Korgonsky, Abakansky, Biyskaya Griva, Koksuysky, Tigiretsky and others). Russian part Altai stands out as Mountain Altai(or Eastern Altai in broad sense term); in tectonic terms, it is characterized by relatively ancient Early Paleozoic (mainly Salair) folded structures. Ranges are located within Kazakhstan Northwestern or Rudny Altai, corresponding to relatively younger (Epihercynian) folded structures. South- East End Altai, located within the PRC and Mongolia, is divided into Mongolian(maximum height 4362 m.) and Gobi Altai(on the northwest– up to 4 km, on southeast- 500 - 1000 m.). The western border of Altai with the Tien Shan and the Kazakh hills is formed by the Zaisan basin and the Irtysh valley, the northern border with the West Siberian Plain is drawn along the "northern face" of Altai - a clearly expressed transition from flat terrain to the mountain.
Salairo-Kuznetsk region located north of Altai. The Salair Ridge, the Tom-Kolyvan Plain, the Kuznetsk Basin and the Kuznetsk Highlands stand out in it. The western and northern borders with the West Siberian Plain are very arbitrary. They approximately coincide with the valleys of the Chumysh, Berd, Ob rivers and the southern boundary of the West Siberian plate. Eastern border The Kuznetsk Alatau is complicated by the presence of a number of basins separated by ridges. From north to south they successively change: the Arga ridge (a distant spur of the Eastern Sayan, bordered on three sides by the Chulym bend, along which a fragment of the administrative border passes Kemerovo region), Nazarovskaya basin, Solgonsky ridge - a distant ledge of the Eastern Sayan with a maximum height of 875 m, Chulym-Yenisei basin, Batenevsky ridge (a spur of the Kuznetsk Alatau), Minusinsk basin.
Western Sayan extends from the river basin. Abakan on southwest to the Uda Range of the Eastern Sayan in the northeast. Its axis is the Sailyg-Khem-Taiga ridges (crowned by Mount Karagosh with a maximum height of 2930 m for the Eastern Sayan), Sayansky, Oisky, Ergaki, Tazarama (Ergak-Targak-Taiga), Kurtushibinsky with heights of 1800-2500 m. They are accompanied by numerous feathering ridges northwestern(Joysky, Dzhebashsky, Borus, Kulumys) and southeastern(Khemchiksky, Mirskoy) macroslopes, inferior to the axial zone in height only on the periphery.
Eastern Sayan extends from the Solgon Ridge in the northwest to the Tunkinskaya Basin, which separates it from the Baikal country, in the southeast. The highest axial ridges are two parallel chains: Udinsky and Kryzhina (Grandiozny peak - 2922 m) and separated from them by the longitudinal valleys of Kazyra and Uda, the Dzhuglymsky ridge and Agulsky Belki with peaks 2-2.5 km high. The valleys of the tributaries of the Kan and Angara separate the feathering ranges of the northeastern macroslope (Biryusinsky, Gutarsky, Tagulsky, Kanskoe and Manskoe Belogorye). In the extreme southeast, there are differently oriented ridges (bald mountains): Okinsky, Belsky, Kitoysky, Tunkinsky, Big Sayan. They distinguish the complexly constructed basin of the upper Oka with heights of 1-1.5 km.
Tuva differs in complexity of orography. To the east of the Shapshalsky ridge stretches a chain of ridges of southern Tuva (Tsagan-Shibetu, Western and Eastern Tannu-Ula, Sengilen). They separate the Ubsunurskaya (its foreign part predominates) and the Tuva depressions. The latter is separated by the Academician Obruchev Ridge from the Todzha Basin.
Geological development and structure. From the fixist point of view, folding in the Altai-Sayan country began in the Riphean period of the Proterozoic and continued until the end of the Paleozoic era. It first manifested itself in the northeast, near southwestern the outskirts of the Siberian platform, in the Baikal era of folding. Baikalid sites have been identified in the axial zone of the Eastern Sayan and in Tuva. Folded structures of the Middle Cambrian (salairids) dominate in the more western regions: central Tuva, Eastern Altai, Kuznetsk Alatau and Gornaya Shoria. Caledonian folded structures predominate in the Western Sayan, while Hercynian folding has manifested itself in the extreme west of the Altai-Sayan country. Sometimes the so-called early Hercynides are distinguished, where folding occurred in the Devonian period (according to the terminology of Siberian geologists, this is the Telbes phase of folding) - on Salair and in the eastern part of Rudny Altai. Typical or late Hercynides completed their formation in the Carboniferous-Permian, these are the structures of the Tom-Kolyvan folded zone and the Kazakh part of the Rudny Altai. At the same time, the formation of the Kuznetsk marginal trough and its transformation into an intermountain trough took place.
Regardless of the age of folding, units of more than low rank– structural-formational zones, subdivided into horst-anticlinoria (Katunsky, Kurtushibinsky, Abakansky and others) and graben-synclinoria (Uymeno-Lebedskaya, Anuisko-Chuysky). Within the former, denudation processes predominated, exposing ancient (Precambrian and Early Paleozoic) strata. Sedimentation processes took place in the graben-synclinoria, and strata of relatively young Late Paleozoic or even Meso-Cenozoic deposits accumulated. Structural-formational zones are separated, as a rule, by long-standing, extended and deep (often mantle) zones of deep faults. An example is the Kuznetsk-Altai deep fault, which separates the Kuznetsk Basin and the Kuznetsk Alatau and extends over a significant part of the Altai.
There are also views of the mobilist direction (developed, in particular, by L.P. Zonenshain), considering the development of the entire country or its individual parts (for example, the Kuznetsk Alatau and Salair) as a result of the convergence of small lithospheric plates drifting over considerable distances, which prevail in the Altai-Sayan country. According to the mobilists, the existence of the mechanism of subduction and obduction in the geological past is indicated by a large number of ophiolite plates, which represent fragments of the ancient ocean floor, pushed over the hard edges of blocks of the continental crust. A large number of such plates (allochthons), consisting of ultrabasic rocks of the basalt layer of the oceanic crust or even mantle rocks, were found in the Kuznetsk Alatau and on Salair.
Features of the tectonic structure are reflected in the orography and morphostructure of the region. Horst anticlinoria usually correspond to axial zones of mountain structures, in which crystalline rocks predominate: ancient metamorphic and intrusive rocks of different ages, mainly acid composition(granites and granitoids). Graben-synclinores correspond to intermontane basins composed of relatively young volcanogenic, carbonate and terrigenous (conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, mudstones) rocks. An important role was played by secondary (superimposed) orogenic basins of various ages (Episalairian Minusinsk and Rybinsk, small Mesozoic troughs within the Kuznetsk trough, and others). Deep faults are associated with seismic focal zones that generate enough strong earthquakes. In this regard, not only the entire territory of the Altai-Sayan country, but also the adjacent parts of the plains are seismic. The highest seismicity (up to 9 points or more) is inherent in the extreme southern regions (Tuva, south of Altai). In the northern direction, the degree of seismicity naturally decreases and in the extreme northern territories it is 5-6 points.
With the completion of the formation of folded structures, the leading role passed to block dislocations and structures. In the Triassic, the echoes of the events of the Tunguska syneclise manifested themselves in the Kuznetsk trough, where they led to basalt outpourings, intrusions of diabases, and the formation of thick sequences of tuff-conglomerates of the trap formation. In the Jurassic, differentiated block movements led to the emergence of a highly dissected relief. Due to the destruction of relief protrusions everywhere from Kuzbass to Baikal, coarse clastic deposits were widely distributed, which served as the source material for the formation of conglomerates and sandstones. At the same time, in numerous lakes that arose in relief depressions, significant reserves of organic remains accumulated, which later turned into fossil coals. However, in the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods, the intensity of tectonic processes noticeably decreased, the processes of peneplanization of the relief and the formation of various weathering crusts became widespread.
Recent tectonics and morphostructure. As in the predominant part of Russia, the formation of the modern morphostructure of the Altai-Sayan country occurred under the influence of recent tectonics. Differentiated recent uplifts appeared regardless of the age of the folded structures. In a number of areas of the region, intensive block and arch uplifts were observed, which led to the revival of the high-mountain and mid-mountain relief of Altai, the Sayan Mountains, the mountains of southern Tuva, the Kuznetsk Alatau and Mountain Shoria. Along their periphery, uplifts were moderate, leading to the renewal of the low-mountain and foothill relief of mountain structures, as well as high plains Salair. Finally, weak uplifts, which led to the emergence of the relief of low and elevated plains, divided their surface into many isolated flat or slightly convex watersheds by deeply incised terraced river valleys.
As a result, the dominant position was occupied by the morphostructure of blocky and arched folded mountains and highlands, as well as erosional denudation plains associated with them. A subordinate role is played by the accumulative plains and lava plateaus of the Eastern Sayan, Tuva, the melafir horseshoe of the Kuznetsk Basin, and other regions. Intense block movements in a developed system tectonic faults covered the Todzha basin at the beginning of the Pleistocene. They were accompanied by active volcanism. Eruptions of the basic composition dominated, forming lava flows at least 80 km long and basalt (lava) plateaus with a thickness of 70 to 200 m. In the early Pleistocene, along with lavas, pyroclastics erupted, due to which shield volcanoes (dominated) and the ethno-Vesuvian stratovolcanoes Sorug were formed. - Chushka-Azu, Shivit, Derby-Taiga and others - a total of 16 volcanoes. Stratovolcanoes reached 1000 m in height and up to 15 km in diameter.
Minerals. Folded structures of various ages are rich in endogenous deposits. With the global trend towards the depletion of Early Paleozoic structures in metals, the Altai-Sayan country, on the contrary, is rich in iron deposits, sometimes with titanium impurities. They are concentrated in Mountain Shoria and Kuznetsk Alatau. Geologists emphasize their connection with the vast magma chamber enriched in iron that existed in the Cambrian. At present, the presence of the so-called iron belt has been revealed, stretching from the Ampalyk deposit in the north of the Kuznetsk Alatau to titanomagnetite manifestations in the Mrassu basins and magnetite ore deposits in Khakassia. Sulfides of copper, zinc, lead, silver, antimony, arsenic are closely related genetically to magnetites, however, when using Gornoshorsky ores, all these impurities are simply lost. There are deposits of polymetals in Salair, but the deposits of the Kazakh part of Rudny Altai play the main role. Mercury is confined to the zones of deep faults in Gorny Altai (Aktash) and Salair. Tuva is rich in endogenous deposits (cobalt, asbestos, talc, chromium, nickel, etc.). In the Kuznetsk Alatau, the Kiya-Shaltyrskoye deposit of nepheline syenites is distinguished. In all mountain structures, there are numerous outcrops of decorative and ornamental stones (marbles, jaspers, hornfelses, etc.).
Among the exogenous deposits, Paleozoic and Jurassic coals of Kuzbass, as well as Tuva and Khakassia, are especially distinguished; bauxites of the Eastern Sayan and Salair; a variety of building materials and gold placers in many areas.
The impact of the Pleistocene events on modern nature. Morphosculpture. A noticeable cooling and increased aridity of the climate, which manifested itself in the Neogene, reached a maximum in the Pleistocene. The mountainous regions were covered by terrestrial glaciation, and permafrost was widespread on the plains. The heat-loving flora and fauna mostly died, only in rare shelters (refugia) individual representatives preglacial vegetation. The most famous refugium is the Kuzedeevsky "lime island", in which, in addition to the Siberian linden, about 35 relicts of pre-Pleistocene vegetation are known. On the plains, tundra-steppes spread with the dominance of tough cereals and the “mammoth fauna” of cold-tolerant animals with long hair, capable of digesting rough food. The forms of glacial-exaration and glacial-accumulative relief, as well as the corresponding moraine deposits, have survived to this day. It is more difficult to determine the relics of the cryogenic relief, but they were common. Fluvioglacial forms alternated with glacial ones. In extraglacial flat areas located in the periglacial zones, in conditions of significant aridity of the climate, there was an accumulation of fine silty material carried from the surface of glaciers water streams or, rarely, by the wind. Over the course of millennia, strata of loess-like or cover loams of deluvial or eolian genesis were formed from it.
There were several warming epochs, when glaciers were greatly reduced, and interglacials - the complete disappearance of glaciers. The climate simultaneously became humid, black earth steppes, forests and even swamps became widespread. They were inhabited by forest and steppe animals, in particular, small steppe inhabitants, especially rodents, were widespread. The bones of small animals are quickly leached out completely, only the teeth of rodents protected by enamel have been preserved in the loess. Evidence of the existence of repeated relatively warm pluvial epochs in the past are the horizons of buried chernozem soils, perfectly observed in the loam strata within the city of Novokuznetsk and its environs.
Modern landforms are varied. The most common fluvial relief is represented by valley-watershed forms. There are a number of karst regions within the Kuznetsk Uplands, Salair, Altai, Western Sayan.
Climate. The Altai-Sayan country is located closer to the center of the Eurasian continent than the plain countries of Siberia. Nevertheless, researchers (B.P. Alisov, S.P. Suslov and others) note decrease the degree of continentality of its climate in comparison with the plains. The reasons for this paradox lie in the decrease in the indicators of the degree of continentality under the influence of mountainous relief. Winter in the mountains is warmer under the influence of temperature inversions, summer is cooler with normal troposphere stratification, which causes a decrease in the annual temperature amplitude - the main indicator of continentality. Under the influence of the mountainous relief, the amount of precipitation increases (with the exception of special cases) (this is also an important indicator of continentality). The increase in the amount of precipitation under the influence of orography (on the slopes of the western exposure) and the effect of altitude (the higher, the more) is due to the sharp activation of cyclones moving in western trajectories, mainly due to the sharpening of temperature contrasts (often due to a decrease in temperatures of cold sectors). Of course, this increase is facilitated by convective and orographic precipitation, but it appears relatively rarely and only in the warm part of the year. Finally, the contrast between the summer maximum and winter minimum moderates, that is, the continental precipitation regime (also an indicator of the degree of climate continentality) is not as sharp as on the plains.
A characteristic feature of the climate of the Altai-Sayan country, like any mountainous territory, is an diversity of climates, due to differences in altitude, slope exposure, local circulation conditions, etc. It follows from the diversity of the distribution of individual climatic indicators: temperatures, precipitation, moisture, degree of continentality, etc. Finally, there are strictly individual, unique features climate of the mountains of southern Siberia. For example, in accordance with the geographical latitude, Altai, Sayan and Tuva lie in zones of insufficient moisture (steppe, semi-desert), therefore, steppe or semi-desert appear on the vast plateaus and in intermountain basins (noting this feature, the Altai basins were given the name "steppes").
Winter flows under the control of the central part of the Siberian High, anticyclonic weather prevails, during which a particularly variegated temperature distribution is observed. The lowest averages for January and minimum temperatures are installed in intermountain basins, but they also differ greatly: January from -16 ... -18 degrees in foothill areas Altai, Kuznetsk Alatau and Minuses up to -34 degrees in the Tuva basin, lows from -40 to -62 degrees (in the Kemerovo region and within -55 ... -56 degrees). In the low mountains, January temperatures are noticeably higher (in the low-mountain Temirtau -14, and in the basin of Ust-Kabyrze -22 degrees). An increase in temperature is due to the occurrence of cyclones, less often the passage of foehns; in such cases, the temperatures are relatively equalized over large areas. There are only cyclonic precipitations, and they are caused by both the Atlantic cyclones of the Arctic front and the Mediterranean ones of the polar front. In most areas, the snow cover is thick (at least 40 cm), especially on the slopes of the western exposure in the middle and high mountains (100-200 cm). On the eastern macroslopes and in the basins, it decreases to 10-15 cm. In such cases, the soil freezes to a depth of 150-200 cm. February-March is the annual minimum of precipitation. A stable snow cover is established in the mountains in October, on the plains in November. Its destruction occurs on the plains in April, in the mountains a month later.
Summer low atmospheric pressure is established, especially over the Tuva and other basins. Therefore, Atlantic cyclones (there are no Mediterranean ones in summer) freely penetrate the region, bringing an increased amount of moisture. Precipitation of the summer period in Altai is 35 - 50% of the annual amount. To the east and south, their share increases to 55-65% (Tuva), which is one of the indicators of the strengthening of continentality in these directions. In the presence of a summer maximum, the absolute amount of summer precipitation in the basins is insufficient (75 mm in the Chuya steppe, in the Salair region - 185-200 mm). Along with cyclonic precipitation, a certain role is played by convective precipitation, which spreads over limited areas and is of a torrential, but short-term character. Rains prevail, but in June and August snowfalls are not uncommon, at the end of August in the highlands it is possible to establish a temporary snow cover.
In the foothills and basins, the average July temperatures are 18...20 degrees, and at an altitude of more than 1800 m they drop to 8 degrees. With the dominance of the western transport, the northern component often arises, leading to a decrease in temperature, frosts and even noticeable frosts (in the Tuva Basin even in July up to -6 ... -7 degrees). The absolute maximums are 35-39 (in the Kemerovo region everywhere 38) degrees and even in the highlands about 30 degrees. Most often, they are associated with heat advection from Kazakhstan, the Turan Plain, China, and Mongolia.
In the western parts of the region, the climate is continental. For example, in the Kuznetsk Basin, continentality indices are everywhere less than 70%. The growth of continentality in the eastern and southern regions leads to the emergence of a sharply continental climate. In the Kemerovo region, the degree of continentality noticeably increases in small orographic basins (Mrassko-Kabyrzinskaya, Ortonskaya, Tomsko-Mrasskaya) of Gornaya Shoria (due to the increased severity of winters), and the climate can also be called sharply continental. But in the low and middle mountains, due to relatively mild winters with an average January temperature of about -14 ... -15 degrees, the degree of continentality is noticeably reduced.
Inland waters. Rivers belong to the basins of the Ob and Yenisei, flowing into the Kara Sea. Only the sources of the small rivers of the Ubsunur basin carry water into the basin of the internal runoff of this basin. Its watershed with the Yenisei basin runs along the ridges of southern Tuva, and with the Ob basin - along the Chikhachev and Kuraisky ridges, the spurs of the Chulyshman highlands and the Tsagan-Shibetu ridge. The watershed of the two great rivers consists of the Shapshalsky and Abakansky ridges and the watershed zone of the Kuznetsk Alatau.
Most of the rivers have a mixed supply, that is, none of the sources provides half of the annual flow. At the same time, in eastern regions rain supply prevails (due to the significance of the summer maximum precipitation due to a high degree continental climate), in the northern and western regions it is snowy, and in the regions of Central Altai with modern glaciation it is glacial. In the east of the region (east of the Eastern Sayan and Tuva), a regime similar to the Far East is manifested, in the predominant part - the Altai type. The standard of this type is Tom in the Novokuznetsk region.
lakes. A unique lake - "twin" of Baikal - Lake Teletskoye with a tectonic basin processed by a glacier. large lake with a basin of tectonic genesis located on western border Altai - Markakol. There are numerous lakes of the Todzha basin - Noyon-Khol, Kadysh-Khol, Derlig-Khol and others (“hol” - lake). Narrow deep (100-195 m) lacustrine basins predominate among them, formed when trough valleys were dammed by moraines. Shallow lakes of the outwash plain are less common. On the peneplanized surfaces there are many sewage lakes dammed by moraine dams. A large number of small tarn lakes are located in the highlands.
The groundwater. The region alternates hydrogeological mountain-fold areas (Altai, Kuznetsk highlands, Sayan mountains, South Tuva, etc.) and hydrogeological basins of large basins. The hydrogeological basin of the Kuznetsk Basin has been well studied. The areas of its nutrition are located on the Salair and the Kuznetsk Highlands. From them, water migrates to the deep layers of the axial part of the basin. An asymmetry is observed: in the near Salair part of the basin, groundwater is noticeably saline and has a variegated composition, while in the near Alatau part, their composition is homogeneous and there is no salinity. With increasing depth, the degree of mineralization of waters noticeably increases. A well was drilled to a depth of 200 m in the Yerunakov area. Interstratal waters with salinity from 3.2 to 55 g/l were supplied from it. After 6 years of continuous flowing from the well, water with a double content of chlorides came from the well due to the inflow of water from deep horizons. Saline (35 g/l) underground waters were found near Novokuznetsk at depths of about 2.5 km.
Modern glaciation concentrated in Altai (according to M.V. Tronov, 629 sq. km), Sayano-Tuva Highlands (according to M.G. Grosswald, 13 sq. km) and Kuznetsk Alatau (embryonic forms of glaciers) . Most of the glaciers are located in the Central, Southern Altai and on the Chikhachev Ridge. A smaller number of them are found on the ridges of Kholzun, Kuraisky, Sailyugem, Sarymsakty, Shapshalsky. The largest glacial center of Mount Belukha is located in the Katunsky ridge, and on its northern slope the area of glaciers is 170 sq. km, while on the southern slope they occupy 62 sq. km.
W onality can be traced fragmentarily, within the basins, due to which the latitudinal zonality gives way to the island. In the flat version there are "islands" of meadow steppes (forest-steppes), steppes and semi-deserts. Island forest-steppe take place in the Kuznetsk, Chulym-Yenisei, Minusinsk depressions and in Tuva. The Kuznetsk forest-steppe is located along the relatively well-moistened margins of the basin, enclosing the arid steppe core in a semicircle. The main background is meadow steppes and steppe meadows on leached and podzolized chernozems, now almost completely plowed. Among them are scattered birch pegs on podzolized gray forest soils. The steppe core of the Kuznetsk basin is located in the Salair region, it is also completely replaced by agricultural land. In the past, under conditions of the most favorable moisture, forb-grass steppes, in worse moistened areas - feather-grass steppes on black soils. On the slopes of the Salair, they are replaced by stony steppe, and in Predsalairye by halophytic vegetation on saline soils. Semi-desert areas take place in Tuva.
Altitudinal zonation. In many areas of northern and western parts Altai-Sayan country there is a steppe-forest-steppe type altitudinal zonality. In the eastern and southern regions with an increased degree of continentality and aridity of the climate, it is replaced by the southern taiga type of altitudinal zonality. In both cases, the mountain-taiga belt prevails in the structure of altitudinal zonality. In the steppe-forest-steppe type, this belt is dominated by aspen-fir (black taiga), and in the taiga - by light coniferous (Siberian larch) forests. In the lower part of the mountain-taiga belt, only along the slopes of eastern exposure in the foothills (from 250-300 m a.s.l.), the belt spreads in the form of individual forests. birch-light coniferous forests. They are characteristic of the northeastern foothills of the Salair, where Scotch pine clearly predominates, but in the northern direction, the role of Siberian larch increases; northeastern foothills of the Kuznetsk Highlands (with dominance of larch) and Eastern Altai. Along with conifers, birch admixtures are significant, and birch forests are not uncommon. In the absence ("loss") of this belt, a belt is distinguished in the foothills and low mountains. fir-aspen forests (black taiga) with the dominance of Siberian fir, which is replaced in clearings, forest clearings, edges and fires by aspen, less often by birch. There is also an admixture of Siberian cedar, Scotch pine and larch. In conditions of significant steepness of the slopes develops special variety pseudopodzolic mountain taiga soils. The black taiga occupies the largest areas in the Kuznetsk Highlands, Salair, in the foothills of the Kuznetsk Basin, in the northeastern part of the Altai Mountains, in the Sayans and in the east of Tuva.
With height, the admixture of cedar increases, and at altitudes of 800-2000 m (lower boundary of the belt) - 1100-2500 m, a belt of dark coniferous taiga spreads with a significant role of cedar(from a minor admixture to fir to the emergence of pure cedar forests). The nature of soil formation changes with height, leading to the predominance of brown pseudopodzolic mountain-taiga soils. The heights of the belt increase from the foothills of the Kuznetsk Basin to the Western Sayan and Eastern Altai.
Within Rudny Altai, the southern part of Gorny Altai, Tuva, the inner parts of the Sayan, north- east slope Kuznetsk Alatau dominates in the lower part of the mountain-taiga belt Siberian larch. On the slopes of the northern exposure, lichen is developed on the soil, and on the southern slopes - grass cover. With height, the role of the admixture of cedar increases, and then cedar forests. Altitudinal zonality is perfectly traced when crossing the Seminsky pass
Near upper bound cedar forests take on an oppressed look: the trees become stunted, twisted, open places under the influence of frequent strong winds their crown takes on a flag-like shape. There are elfin thickets of coniferous species, more often cedar elfin. Dominance passes to subglottis(or subalpine) belt. Its development takes place on steep slopes dotted with angular granite boulders (kurums), often well camouflaged by vegetation. Along with elfins, tall subalpine shrubs (birch, willow) and tall grass subalpine meadows on subalpine soils are common here. Moss-lichen tundras with an admixture of shrubs and a large number of mushrooms develop on the shady slopes. specific animal world: white partridges, bats, hay pikas, mustelids, occasionally musk deer and reindeer.
Goltsovy (Alpine) the belt is occupied by mountain tundra and alpine meadows. Their distribution is controlled by the thickness of the snow cover: at high thickness, the soils are free from permafrost, which contributes to the appearance of low-grass alpine meadows on alpine soils. The absence or low thickness of snow cover ensures the development of permafrost and the emergence of various types of mountain tundras: moss-lichen, shrubs, sedges, grassy on mountain tundra soils. Above the bald belt, rocky wastelands, rocky cliffs, snowfields and glaciers are developed.
A peculiar manifestation of altitudinal zonality is observed in the intermontane basins of the Altai-Sayan country located at different altitudinal steps. Under the conditions of a sharp deficit of moisture and a significant increase in the degree of continentality of their climate, their bottoms are usually treeless - mountain-steppe landscapes dominate there. There are two types of mountain steppes.
1. Steppes of low- and mid-mountain basins and plateaus with a very short period of flowering and development associated with spring moisture reserves and unfavorable temperature conditions. Subalpine representatives (edelweiss, astragalus) are mixed with typical steppe vegetation (feather grass, thin-legged, alfalfa, sainfoin, buttercup, backache, adonis, anemone) growing on southern chernozems.
2. Steppes of middle and high-mountain basins lying above 1500 m (Chuya steppe, Ukok plateau and others). Undersized and creeping forms of pebbly feather grass, caragana, halophytes and alpine representatives predominate. In more arid conditions (Tuva), on chestnut soils, often stony-gravel, dry steppes and semi-deserts appear with a predominance of cold wormwood, dwarf caragana, and xerophytic grasses. Within the Kemerovo region, in the southern part of Gornaya Shoria, in small basins in the basins of the Kondoma, Mrassu and upper Tom rivers (Kabyrzinsko-Mrasskaya, Verkhnekondomskaya, Ortonsko-Mrasskaya), there are sections of mountain-steppe landscapes. Under conditions of an increased degree of climate continentality (Ivanov's continentality index is 71-75% instead of 55-65% in most of the highlands), low precipitation (850-870 mm versus 900-1175 mm in the highlands), low snow cover (75 cm, highlands - over 100 cm), freezing of soils (the temperature of their surface is up to -24 degrees (usually -17 degrees), chievo-hairy, aquiferless and small sedge steppe meadows and steppes develop on mountain meadow soils with signs of salinity.
Physical-geographical zoning. The allocation of a unit of the highest rank - physical geographical country made according to the following criteria. A. Geomorphological criterion: according to the dominance of the mountainous relief, it is clearly opposed to the large plains of neighboring countries. B. Geotectonic criterion: uneven-aged mountain-folded area against the background of platform (plate) structures of lowland Siberia. B. Macroclimatic criterion - the "variegated" climate of a mountainous country with a reduced degree of its continentality in comparison with the comparative uniformity of the climate lowland countries. D. The presence of altitudinal zonality of soil and vegetation cover instead of dominance latitudinal zonality neighboring plains.
Two physical-geographical areas. The selection criterion is the type of altitudinal zonation. Within the regions, using a genetic criterion, physico-geographical provinces and districts(units of the third and fourth ranks). The scheme of internal zoning of the Altai-Sayan country takes the following form.
A. Kuznetsk-Altai region. It is dominated by the steppe-forest-steppe type of altitudinal zonality. There are two provinces: a. Altai, b. Salairo-Kuznetskaya. The latter is divided into regions (Tom-Kolyvan Plain; Kuznetsk Basin; Salair; Kuznetsk Alatau; Mountain Shoria). Genetic differences in physico- geographical areas are predetermined by the specificity (total amplitude and speed) of the latest tectonic uplifts. This led to differences in relief, climate, hydrology, soil and vegetation cover, fauna, and, ultimately, to the emergence of different natural complexes (physico-geographical regions or landscapes).
B. Sayano-Tuva region with the dominance of the (southern) taiga type of altitudinal zonality and the allocation of provinces: a. Sayanskaya, b. Tuva.
In our vast country, there are many mountain ranges that differ from each other in the height of their ridges, as well as in climatic conditions. Most of these massifs are little mastered by man, poorly populated, and therefore nature here managed to preserve its original, natural appearance.
Of all the mountain systems located in our country, the most remarkable, the most unknown, the most beautiful are the Sayans. These mountains are located in the south of Eastern Siberia and belong to the Altai-Sayan folded region. The mountain system consists of two ranges called the Western and Eastern Sayan. The Eastern Sayan is located almost at a right angle relative to the Western.
The Western Sayan stretched for about six hundred kilometers in length, and the Eastern Sayan for a thousand. Consisting of peaked and leveled ridges, which are separated by intermountain basins, the Western Sayan is sometimes considered a separate mountain system - the mountains of Tuva. Eastern Sayans - mountains, which are pronounced mid-mountain ranges; on them are located the water of which forms the rivers belonging to the Yenisei basin. Between the Sayan ridges there are more than a dozen basins, of various sizes and depths. Among them is Abakano-Minusinskaya, very well known in archaeological circles. The Sayans are relatively low mountains. most high point The Western Sayans are Mount Mongun-Taiga (3971 m), and the Eastern - Munku-Sardyk (3491 m).
According to written documents and maps dating back to the 17th century, the Sayan Mountains were first considered as one object - a relatively small Sayansky Kamen ridge, now called the Sayansky ridge. Later this name was extended to a wider area. Abutting their southwestern part in the Sayans, they extend to the Baikal region.
The slopes of the Sayans are covered mainly with taiga, which passes into subalpine and alpine meadows, and in more high places- in the mountain tundra. The main obstacle to agriculture is the presence of permafrost. In general, the Sayans are mountains covered with light larch-cedar and dark-coniferous spruce-cedar and fir forests.
There are two largest wildlife reserves on the territory of the Sayan Mountains. In Vostochny - the famous Stolby, famous for its rocks of volcanic origin, so popular among rock climbers. The Western Sayan Mountains are the territory of the Sayano-Shushensky Reserve, where wolverines, sables, lynxes, deer, musk deer and many other animals live, including those listed in the Red Book (for example, snow leopards, or
Man began to settle in the Sayan intermountains about forty thousand years ago, as evidenced by the remains of stone tools found at primitive sites. In the Western Sayan, traces of the Uyuk culture were found. So, in one of the burials in the Valley of the Kings on the Uyuk River - in the grave of a Scythian leader - 20 kilograms of gold items were found. Russians began to settle here in the 17th century, having founded along the banks of local rivers, which at that time were the only by transport, fortified settlements - prisons. And today the Sayans are a sparsely populated territory. The population prefers to live near roads and large rivers, although there are minorities living far from civilization. So, in one of the hard-to-reach areas - Tofalaria - the Tofalari (Tofy) people live, the number of which is less than 700 people.
Flat mountains or even a plain left in the place of the destroyed mountain system are sometimes subjected to a new influence of mountain-building forces; they create new mountains in the old place, which can be called reborn, but these mountains always differ in their forms and in their structure from those destroyed.
A new period of compression of the earth's crust puts forward whole blocks along the old cracks of ruptures, remaining from the former mountains and consisting of folded sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks that have intruded into them. These boulders rise to various heights, and the destructive forces immediately begin their work, cut, dismember the boulders and turn them into a mountainous country. In this case, narrow, raised boulders can take on alpine forms, even crowned with snow and glaciers.
The Ural represents such revived mountains. The chains of the Urals, created in its geosyncline at the end of the Paleozoic era, were long ago turned into a hilly plain, on which then the young movements of the earth's crust again pushed out long and narrow blocks, which had already turned into destructive forces into rocky ridges, such as Taganai, Denezhkin stone, Kara-tau, etc. Altai in Siberia is also a revived mountain system, created by young vertical movements in place of an almost plain left over from the Paleozoic Altai. Some narrow and especially highly raised boulders have been turned by destructive forces into the Katun, North and South Chunek Alps with eternal snows and glaciers.
The revived mountains are also the long chains of the Tien Shan in Central Asia. But in these mountains the boulders into which almost the plain was broken, which remained on the site of the old Tien Shan, underwent some additional folding during the epochs of compression that succeeded the epochs of expansion; this complicated their structure. In addition, there are mountains that are more correctly called not reborn, but rejuvenated. These are the mountains that the destructive forces have not yet managed to turn into almost plains, but have already significantly lowered. The renewed movements of the earth's crust cannot completely restore their original appearance; but the long and narrow boulders, into which these mountains were broken by new movements, were raised higher and again dissected deeper, cut by destructive forces and therefore became more picturesque. An example of such mountains is the Chersky Range in the basin of the Indigirka and Kolyma rivers in northeastern Siberia.
But the revived mountains in the distant future will have the same fate - they will be destroyed again, smoothed out by destructive forces, turned a second time into a plain.
This is how the circulation of substances takes place in inanimate nature, in the kingdom of stones. One replaces the other - one grows, ages and seems to disappear, and another appears in its place. But only forms, outlines change and disappear, and the very substance of which the Earth consists, changing its appearance or moving to another place, remains eternal.
