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The basis of nitrocellulose powders is nitrocellulose plasticized with one or another solvent (plasticizer). Depending on the volatility of the solvent, nitro-cellulose powders are divided into the following types.
1. Nitrocellulose powders, prepared using a volatile solvent, which is almost completely removed from the powder during the manufacturing process. Behind these gunpowders kept
the name of pyroxylin; they are prepared from nitrocellulose with a nitrogen content, usually more than 12%, called pyroxylin.
2. Nitrocellulose gunpowder, produced on a non-volatile or non-volatile solvent (plasticizer), completely remaining in the gunpowder; another characteristic feature of these gunpowders is that they are made on the basis of nitrocellulose with a content, as a rule, less than 12% nitrogen, called colloxylin. These gunpowders are called ballistites.
Before World War II, nitroglycerin was used as a plasticizer. Since the Second World War, ittrodiglycol has also been used as a plasticizer. The names of ballistites were established according to the technical name of the plasticizer nitrate: nitroglycerin, nitrodiglycole. Nitroglycol ballistites are similar in composition and many of their properties to nitroglycerin ballistites.
3. Nitrocellulose gunpowder, produced in a mixed solvent (plasticizer), called cordites.
Cordites are prepared either on the basis of pyroxylin with a high nitrogen content, or with a high content of colloxylin. In both cases, nitroglycerin or itrodiglycol, which is part of cordite, does not provide complete plasticization of nitrocellulose. To complete plasticization, an additional volatile solvent (plasticizer) is used, which is removed, but not completely, from gunpowder in the last stages of production. Acetone is used as a volatile solvent for high-nitrogen pyroxylin, and an alcohol-ether mixture is used for colloxylin.
§ 3. COMPONENTS OF NITROCELLULOSE POWDERS
Nitrocellulose gunpowder got its name from its main component - nitrocellulose. It is nitrocellulose, appropriately plasticized and compacted, that determines the main properties characteristic of nitrocellulose powders.
To convert nitrocellulose into gunpowder, a solvent (plasticizer) is needed first of all.
Additives are used to impart a number of special properties to gunpowder: stabilizers, phlegmatizers, and others.
1. Nitrocellulose. For the production of nitrocellulose, cellulose is used, which is contained in cotton, wood, flax, hemp, straw, etc. in an amount of 92-93% (cotton) to 50-60% (wood). For the manufacture of high-quality nitrocellulose, pure cellulose is used, obtained from the specified vegetable raw materials by special chemical processing.
M8
The cellulose molecule consists of a large number of identically constructed and "linked" glucose residues CeHjoOs:
That's why general formula cellulose has the form (CoHyO6)n, where n is the number of glucose residues. Cellulose does not consist of identical molecules of a certain length, but of a mixture of molecules with different number glucose residues, which, according to various researchers, ranges from several hundred to several thousand.
Each glucose residue has three OH hydroxyl groups. It is these hydroxyl groups that react with nitric acid according to the scheme
. „ + + re(mH20),
where m=1; 2 or 3.
As a result of a reaction called esterification, OH groups are replaced by ON02 groups, called nitrate groups. Depending on the conditions, not all hydroxyl groups, but only a part of them, can be replaced by nitrate groups. For this reason, not one, but several nitrocelluloses are obtained. varying degrees esterification.
Nitration of cellulose is carried out not with pure nitric acid, but with its mixture with sulfuric acid. The interaction of cellulose with nitric acid is accompanied by the release of water. Water dilutes nitric acid, which weakens its nitrating effect. Sulfuric acid binds the released water, which can no longer prevent esterification.
The stronger the acid mixture, i.e., the less water it contains, the greater the degree of esterification of cellulose. By appropriate choice of the composition of the acid mixture, it is possible to obtain nitrocellulose with a given degree of esterification.
Types of cellulose nitrates. The structure of cellulose cannot be expressed by any specific formula due to the fact that it is heterogeneous in molecular size. This applies even more to cellulose nitrates, which also consist of molecules that are heterogeneous in terms of the degree of esterification.
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Therefore, nitrocellulose is characterized by its nitrogen content, determined by chemical analysis, or according to the degree of esterification (the number of nitrate groups per one glucose residue on average).
Practically distinguish the following types of nitrocellulose used in the production of gunpowder.
a) colloxylin. The nitrogen content is 11.5-12.0%. Completely soluble in mixtures of alcohol with ether.
b) Pyroxylin No. 2. Nitrogen content 12.05-12.4%. Soluble in a mixture of alcohol and ether at least 90%.

Around smokeless powder

Man lives in search.
Robert Walser

It will not be about those people whose fate turned out to be connected with the use of firearms, but about those who created gunpowder and looked for new areas of its application.

The oldest invention

First, let's pay tribute to the predecessor of smokeless powder - its smoky "brother". Black powder (also called black powder) is a carefully mixed mixture of potassium nitrate KNO 3 , charcoal and sulfur. The main advantage of gunpowder is that it can burn without air. Combustible substances are coal and sulfur, and saltpeter supplies the oxygen necessary for combustion. Another important property of gunpowder is that it forms a large amount of gases during combustion. Chemical equation for burning gunpowder:

2KNO 3 + S + 3C \u003d K 2 S + 3CO 2 + N 2.

The first mention of a recipe for the preparation of a combustible mixture of saltpeter, sulfur and coal (obtained from bamboo sawdust) is found in an ancient Chinese treatise of the 1st century BC. n. At that time, gunpowder was used to make fireworks. Widespread use of black powder as a weapon explosive began in Europe at the end of the thirteenth century. The combustible components of gunpowder, coal and sulfur, were readily available. However, saltpeter was a scarce product, since the only source of potassium nitrate KNO 3 was the so-called potassium or Indian saltpeter. There were no natural sources of potassium nitrate in Europe, it was brought from India and used only for the production of gunpowder. Since more and more gunpowder was required every century, and there was not enough imported saltpeter, which was also very expensive, its other source was found - guano (from Spanish. guano). These are naturally decomposed remains of bird and bat droppings, which are a mixture of calcium, sodium and ammonium salts of phosphoric, nitric and some organic acids. The main difficulty in the production of gunpowder from such raw materials was that guano contains not potassium, but mainly sodium nitrate NaNO 3 . It cannot be used to make gunpowder, because it attracts moisture, and such gunpowder quickly becomes damp. In order to convert sodium nitrate to potassium nitrate, a simple reaction was used:

NaNO 3 + KCl \u003d NaCl + KNO 3.

Each of these compounds is soluble in water and does not precipitate out of the reaction mixture, so the resulting aqueous solution contains all four compounds. Nevertheless, separation is possible if the different solubilities of the compounds are used with increasing temperature. The solubility of NaCl in water is low and, moreover, changes very little with temperature, and the solubility of KNO 3 in boiling water is almost 20 times higher than in cold water. Therefore, they mix saturated hot aqueous solutions NaNO 3 and KCl, and then the mixture is cooled, the precipitated crystalline precipitate contains fairly pure KNO 3 .

However, not all problems have been solved. Majority constituent parts Guanos are soluble in water and are easily washed away by rains. Therefore, in Europe, accumulations of guano could only be found in caves where colonies of birds or bats used to nest. Caves containing accumulations of guano were found, for example, in the foothills of the Crimea, which made it possible to organize a small gunpowder factory on the "cave raw materials" in Sevastopol during the Anglo-Franco-Russian war of 1854-1855.

Naturally, all European reserves were small, and they were quickly developed. Huge reserves of guano along the Pacific coast of South America came to the rescue. Millions of colonies of fish-eating birds - gulls, cormorants, terns, albatrosses - nested on rocky shores along the coasts of Peru, Chile and offshore islands (Figure 1). Since there is almost no rain in this area, guano accumulated on the coast for many centuries, forming in some places deposits tens of meters thick and over 100 km long. Guano was not only a source of saltpeter, but also a valuable fertilizer, the demand for it was constantly increasing. As a result, in 1856, the United States even adopted a special “Guano Islands Law” (sometimes called the “Guano Law”). According to this law, the guan islands were considered the possession of the United States, which contributed to the accelerated capture of such islands and the creation of control over the sources of a valuable resource.

The need for guano reached such a scale that at the beginning of the 20th century. its exports amounted to millions of tons, all explored reserves began to rapidly deplete. A problem arose, similar to which chemistry has always been able to solve, a fundamentally different gunpowder was created, for its manufacture saltpeter was not required at all.

It all started with polymers

Mankind has learned to use natural polymers(cotton, wool, silk, animal skins). The forms of the resulting products - fibers for the manufacture of fabrics or layers of leather - depend on the source material. To change the shape fundamentally, it was necessary to chemically modify the source material in some way. It was cellulose that paved the way for such transformations, which ultimately led to the creation of polymer chemistry. Cellulose consists of cotton wool, wood, linen threads, hemp fibers and, of course, paper, which is made from wood.

The polymer chain of cellulose is assembled from cycles connected by oxygen bridges, outwardly it resembles beads (Fig. 2).

Since there are many hydroxyl HO groups in the composition of cellulose, it was they who began to be subjected to various transformations. One of the first successful reactions is nitration, i.e. introduction of NO 2 nitro groups by the action of nitric acid HNO 3 on cellulose (Fig. 3).

To bind the released water and thereby speed up the process, concentrated sulfuric acid is added to the reaction mixture. If cotton wool is treated with the specified mixture, and then washed from traces of acids and dried, then outwardly it will look exactly the same as the original one, but unlike natural cotton, such cotton wool is easily soluble in organic solvents, such as ether. This property was immediately used, varnishes began to be made from nitrocellulose - they form a magnificent shiny surface that can be easily polished (nitro-varnishes). For a long time, nitro-varnishes were used to coat car bodies, now they have been replaced by acrylic varnishes. By the way, nail polish is also made from nitrocellulose.

It is no less interesting that the first plastic in the history of polymer chemistry was made from nitrocellulose. In the 1870s on the basis of nitrocellulose mixed with camphor plasticizer, a thermoplastic was first created. Such plastic was given a certain shape by elevated temperature and under pressure, and when the substance cooled down, the given shape was preserved. The plastic got its name celluloid, the first photographic and film films, billiard balls (thus replacing expensive ivory), as well as various household items (combs, toys, frames for mirrors, glasses, etc.) began to be made from it. The disadvantage of celluloid was that it was flammable and burned very quickly, and it was almost impossible to stop the burning. Therefore, celluloid was gradually replaced by other, less flammable polymers. For the same reason, artificial silk made from nitrocellulose was quickly abandoned.

The once popular celluloid is not forgotten today. famous rock band Tequilajazz released an album called Celluloid. The album includes some tunes written for films, and the word "celluloid" refers to the material from which the film was previously made. If the authors wanted to give a more modern name to the album, then it should have been called "Cellulose Acetate", since it is less flammable and therefore replaced celluloid, and the ultra-modern name would be "Polyester", which begins to successfully compete with cellulose acetate in the manufacture of film.

There are products where celluloid is still used, it turned out to be indispensable in the manufacture of table tennis balls; According to the guitarists, picks (plectrums) made of celluloid give the best sound. Illusionists use small sticks made of this material to display bright, fast-fading flames.

The combustibility of nitrocellulose, which interrupted its "career" in polymeric materials, opened wide road in a completely different direction.

Fire without smoke

Back in the 1840s. researchers noticed that when wood, cardboard and paper were treated with nitric acid, fast-burning materials were formed, but the most successful method for obtaining nitrocellulose was discovered by accident. In 1846, the Swiss chemist K. Schonbein spilled concentrated nitric acid on the table while working and used a cotton rag to remove it, which he then hung to dry. After drying, the fabric from the brought flame instantly burned down. Schonbein studied the chemistry of this process in more detail. It was he who first decided to add concentrated sulfuric acid to the nitration of cotton. Nitrocellulose burns very effectively. If you put a piece of “nitrated” cotton wool on your palm and set it on fire, then the cotton wool will burn out so quickly that the hand will not feel any burn (Fig. 4).

It was possible to make gunpowder based on this combustible material in 1884 by the French engineer P. Viel. It was necessary to create a composition that is easy to process, in addition, it was required that it be stable during storage and safe to handle. Having dissolved nitrocellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether, Viel obtained a viscous mass, which, after grinding and subsequent drying, gave excellent gunpowder. In terms of power, it was much superior to black powder, and when burning it did not give off smoke, so it was called smokeless. The latter property turned out to be very important for the conduct of hostilities. When using smokeless powder, the battlefields were not shrouded in clouds of smoke, which allowed artillery to conduct aimed fire. Also missing was the treacherous puff of smoke after the shot, which previously gave the enemy the location of the shooter. At the end of the XIX century. all the developed countries began producing smokeless powder.

Legends and reality

Each chemical product goes through a complex path from laboratory experiments to industrial production. It was necessary to create different grades of gunpowder, some suitable for artillery, others for rifle shooting, gunpowder must be stable in quality, stable during storage, and its production is safe. Therefore, several methods for the production of gunpowder appeared at once.

D.I. Mendeleev played a significant role in the organization of gunpowder production in Russia. In 1890 he made a trip to Germany and England, where he got acquainted with the production of gunpowder. There is even a legend that before this trip, Mendeleev determined the composition of smokeless gunpowder, using information about the amount of raw materials that were brought to the gunpowder factory on a weekly basis. It can be assumed that for a chemist such high class it was not difficult to understand the general scheme of the process on the basis of the information received.

Returning from a trip to St. Petersburg, he began to study in detail the nitration of cellulose. Before Mendeleev, many believed that the more nitrated cellulose, the higher its explosive power. Mendeleev proved that this is not so. It turned out that there is an optimal degree of nitration, at which part of the carbon contained in the gunpowder is oxidized not into carbon dioxide CO 2, but into carbon monoxide CO. As a result, the largest volume of gas is formed per unit mass of gunpowder, i.e. gunpowder has a maximum gas formation.

During the production of nitrocellulose, it is thoroughly washed with water from traces of sulfuric and nitric acids, after which it is dried from traces of moisture. Previously, this was done using a stream of warm air. Such a drying process was ineffective and, moreover, explosive. Mendeleev suggested drying the wet mass by washing it with alcohol, in which nitrocellulose is insoluble. The water was safely removed. This method was subsequently adopted throughout the world and became a classic technological technique in the manufacture of smokeless powder.

As a result, Mendeleev managed to create a chemically homogeneous and completely safe smokeless powder. He called his gunpowder pyrocollodium- fire glue In 1893, tests of the new gunpowder were carried out when firing from long-range naval guns, and Mendeleev received a congratulatory telegram from the famous oceanographer and remarkable naval commander, Vice Admiral SO Makarov.

Unfortunately, the production of pyrocollodic gunpowder, despite its obvious advantages, did not improve in Russia. The reason for this was the admiration of the leading officials of the Artillery Directorate for everything foreign and, accordingly, distrust of Russian developments. As a result, at the Okhta plant, all the production of gunpowder was under the control of the invited French specialist Messen. He did not even take into account the opinion of Mendeleev, who noticed the shortcomings of production, and conducted the business strictly according to his instructions. But Mendeleev's pyrocollodic gunpowder was adopted by the American army and produced in huge quantities at US factories during the First World War. Moreover, the Americans even managed to take a patent for the production of pyrocollodic gunpowder five years after it was created by Mendeleev, but this fact did not excite the Russian military department, which firmly believed in the advantages of French gunpowder.

By the beginning of the twentieth century. worldwide production of several types of smokeless powder was established. The most common among them were Mendeleev's pyrocollodic gunpowder, in addition, close to it in composition, but having a different technology and more short time storage of Viel's pyroxylin gunpowder (it was described earlier), as well as a powder mixture called cordite.An unusual story is connected with the production of cordite, which will be discussed later.

Chemist President

H. Weizmann (1874–1952)

Since the beginning of the twentieth century. the military industry of England was focused on cordite gunpowder. It contains nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. At the molding stage, acetone was used, which imparted increased plasticity to the mixture. After molding, the acetone evaporated. The difficulty was that by the beginning of the First World War, England imported the bulk of acetone from the USA. by sea, but at that time the German submarines were already completely "hosting" the sea. In England, there was an urgent need to produce acetone on their own. The little-known chemist Chaim Weizmann came to the rescue, who shortly before that had emigrated to England from the village of Motol (near the town of Pinsk in Belarus).

Working for Faculty of Chemistry University of Manchester, he published an article where he described the enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrates. This produced a mixture of acetone, ethanol and butanol. The British War Department invited Weizmann to see if, using the process he had discovered, it was possible to organize the production of acetone in the amount necessary for the military industry. According to Weizmann, such a production could be created by solving small problems. technical problems. For the separation of acetone, simple distillation is quite applicable due to the noticeable difference in the boiling points of the compounds present. However, when organizing production, a completely different difficulty arose. The source of carbohydrates in the Weizmann process was grain, but England's own grain production was completely consumed by the food industry. Additional grain had to be brought in from the US by sea, with the result that German U-boats that threatened acetone imports also threatened grain imports. It seemed that the circle was closed, but still a way out of this situation was found. Horse chestnuts turned out to be a good source of carbohydrates, which, by the way, did not have any nutritional value. As a result, a mass campaign was organized in England to collect horse chestnuts, in which all the country's schoolchildren participated.

Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Great Britain during the First World War, expressing his gratitude to Weizmann for his efforts to strengthen the military power of the country introduced him to Foreign Secretary David Balfour. Balfour asked Weizmann what award he would like to receive. Weizmann's desire turned out to be completely unexpected, he proposed to create a Jewish state on the territory of Palestine - the historical homeland of the Jews, which had been under the control of England for many years by that time. As a result, in 1917, the Balfour Declaration, which went down in history, appeared, in which England proposed to allocate territory for the future Jewish state.

This declaration played its role, but not immediately, but only after 31 years. When the whole world learned about the atrocities of the Nazis during the Second World War, the need to create such a state became obvious. As a result, in 1948 the State of Israel was established. Chaim Weizmann became its first president, as the person who first proposed this idea to the world community. The research institute in the Israeli city of Rehovot now bears his name. And it all started with the production of smokeless powder.

The return of an old "profession"

For a long time, the use of gunpowder in military affairs was limited to two tasks: the first was to set in motion a bullet or projectile located in the gun barrel, the second was that the warhead located in the head of the projectile had to explode when it hit the target and produce a destructive effect. Smokeless gunpowder made it possible to revive at a new level another, forgotten possibility of gunpowder, for which, in fact, it was created in ancient China - the launch of fireworks. Gradually, the military industry came up with the idea of ​​using smokeless powder as a propellant, allowing the rocket to move due to the jet thrust generated when gases are ejected from the rocket nozzle. The first such experiments were carried out as early as the first half of the 19th century, and the advent of smokeless powder brought these works to new level- Rocket technology arose. At first, solid-propellant rockets were created based on powder charges, rockets soon appeared on liquid fuel- mixtures of hydrocarbons with oxidizing agents.

The composition of the gunpowder by this time had been somewhat changed: in Russia, instead of volatile solvents, they began to use the addition of TNT. New pyroxylin-trotyl gunpowder(PTP) burned absolutely without smoke, with huge gas formation and quite stably. It began to be used in the form of pressed checkers, somewhat reminiscent of a hockey puck. Interestingly, the first such checkers were made on the same presses that Mendeleev used during his passion for gunpowder.

One of the first unusual uses solid rockets based on anti-tank missiles were proposed in the 1930s. – use them as aircraft boosters. On the ground, this made it possible to drastically reduce the length of the starting run of aircraft, and in the air it provided a short-term sharp increase in flight speed when it was necessary to catch up with the enemy or avoid meeting him. One can imagine the feelings of the first testers when a torch of furious fire erupted on the side of the cockpit.

Domestic rocket science in the 1930s. led by prominent figures in the field of rocket technology - I.T. Kleimenov, V.P. Glushko, G.E. Langemak and S.P. Korolev (future creator space rockets), who worked in a specially created Jet Research Institute (RNII).

It was at this institute, on the ideas of Glushko and Langemak, that the project of a multiply charged installation for salvo firing of rockets was first created, later this installation became known under the legendary name "Katyusha".

During these years, the flywheel was already gaining momentum Stalinist repressions. In 1937, on a false denunciation, the head of the institute Kleimenov and his deputy Langemak were arrested and soon shot, and in 1938 Glushko (for 8 years) and Korolev (for 10 years) were arrested and convicted. All of them were later rehabilitated, Kleymenov and Langemak posthumously.

In these dramatic events, A.G. Kostikov, who worked at the institute as an ordinary engineer, played an unattractive role. He headed the expert commission, which issued a decision on the wrecking activities of the main management of the institute. Outstanding specialists were arrested and convicted as enemies of the people. As a result, Kostikov took the position of chief engineer, then became the head of the institute and at the same time the "author" of a new type of weapon. For this, he was generously awarded at the beginning of the war, despite the fact that he had nothing to do with the creation of Katyusha.

The recognition by the authorities of Kostikov's merits in the creation of new weapons, as well as his efforts to identify "enemies of the people" at the institute, did not save him from repression. In July 1942, the institute headed by him received a task from the Defense Committee: to develop a fighter-interceptor with a jet engine within eight months. The task was extremely difficult, it was not possible to complete it on time (the aircraft was created only six months after the expiration of the specified period). In February 1943, Kostikov was arrested and charged with espionage and sabotage. However, his further fate was not as tragic as that of those whom he himself accused of wrecking, a year later he was released.

Returning to the story about the Katyushas (Fig. 5), we recall that the effectiveness of the new missile weapon was shown at the very beginning of the war. On July 14, 1941, the first salvo of five Katyushas covered the cluster German troops near the railway station Orsha. Then the Katyushas appeared on the Leningrad front. By the end of the Great Patriotic War, more than ten thousand Katyushas operated on its fronts, firing about 12 million rockets of various calibers.

Peaceful professions gunpowder

Interestingly, gunpowder can save lives not only as a result of being used in firearms to protect against an aggressive attack, but also when it is used quite peacefully.

The intensive development of the automotive industry has posed a number of problems, primarily the safety of the driver and passengers. The most widely used seat belts, which protect against injury during sudden braking of the car. However, such belts cannot prevent the head from hitting the steering wheel, dashboard or windshield and the back of the head during a sharp rearward movement of the body. Most modern way protection - an airbag, it is a nylon bag of a certain shape, which at the right time is filled with compressed air from a special canister (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Airbag test on mannequins

The pillow has small vent holes through which the gas is slowly vented after it "squeezes" the passenger. Filling the bag with gas occurs in 0.05 s, but this time is still not enough in cases where the car is moving at a speed above
120 km/h Smokeless powder came to the rescue. Instantaneously burning a small powder charge allows you to inflate the pillow with combustion products ten times faster than compressed air. Since, after inflating the pillow, gases are slowly bled off, a special composition of gunpowder was developed that, when burned, does not form such harmful products as nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide.

Smokeless powder found another peaceful use where it could least be expected - to fight fire. A small powder charge, placed in a fire extinguisher, allows you to almost instantly "shoot" the extinguishing mixture in the direction of the spreading flame.

Let's also not forget that until now the old "profession" of gunpowder - launching fireworks (Fig. 7) - creates a joyful mood for us on holidays.

Gunpowder is an integral element that is used to equip cartridges. Without the invention of this substance, mankind would never have known about firearms.

But few people are familiar with the history of the appearance of gunpowder. And it turns out that it was invented quite by accident. Yes and then for a long time used only to launch fireworks.

The advent of gunpowder

This substance was invented in China. Nobody knows the exact date of the appearance of black powder, which is also called black. However, this happened around the 8th century. BC. In those days, the emperors of China were very concerned about their own health. They wanted to live long and even dreamed of immortality. To do this, the emperors encouraged the work of Chinese alchemists who tried to discover the magic elixir. Of course, we all know that mankind never received the miraculous liquid. However, the Chinese, showing their perseverance, conducted many experiments, while mixing a variety of substances. They did not lose hope to fulfill the imperial order. But sometimes the tests ended in unpleasant incidents. One of them occurred after the alchemists mixed saltpeter, coal and some other components. A researcher unknown to history when testing a new substance received flames and smoke. The invented formula was even recorded in the Chinese chronicle.

During long period time black powder was used only for fireworks. However, the Chinese went further. They stabilized the formula of this substance and learned how to use it for explosions.

In the 11th century the first gunpowder weapon in history was invented. These were combat rockets, in which the gunpowder first ignited, and then it exploded. This gunpowder weapon was used during the sieges of the fortress walls. However, in those days it had more psychological effect on the enemy than damaging effect. The most powerful weapon invented by ancient Chinese explorers were clay hand bombs. They exploded and showered everything around with fragments of shards.

Conquest of Europe

From China, black powder began to spread around the world. It appeared in Europe in the 11th century. It was brought here by Arab merchants who sold rockets for fireworks. The Mongols began to use this substance for combat purposes. They used black powder to take the previously impregnable castles of the knights. The Mongols used a rather simple, but at the same time effective technology. They dug under the walls and laid a powder mine there. Exploding, this military weapon easily punched a hole in even the thickest barriers.

In 1118, the first cannons appeared in Europe. They were used by the Arabs during the capture of Spain. In 1308, powder cannons played a decisive role in the capture of the Gibraltar fortress. Then they were used by the Spaniards, who adopted these weapons from the Arabs. After that, the manufacture of powder cannons began throughout Europe. Russia was no exception.

Obtaining pyroxylin

Black powder until the end of the 19th century. they loaded mortars and squeaks, flintlocks and muskets, as well as other military weapons. But at the same time, scientists did not stop their research to improve this substance. An example of this is the experiments of Lomonosov, who established a rational ratio of all components of the powder mixture. History also remembers failed attempt replacement of scarce saltpeter with berthollet salt, which was undertaken by Claude Louis Bertolet. The result of this replacement was numerous explosions. Berthollet salt, or sodium chlorate, proved to be a very active oxidizing agent.

A new milestone in the history of powder production began in 1832. It was then that the French chemist A. Bracono first obtained nitrocellulose, or priroxylin. This substance is an ester of nitric acid and cellulose. The molecule of the latter contains a large number of hydroxyl groups, which react with nitric acid.

The properties of pyroxylin have been investigated by many scientists. So, in 1848, Russian engineers A.A. Fadeev and G.I. Hess found that this substance is several times more powerful than the black powder invented by the Chinese. There were even attempts to use pyroxylin for shooting. However, they ended in failure, since the porous and loose cellulose had a heterogeneous composition and burned at an inconsistent rate. Attempts to compress pyroxylin also ended in failure. During this process, the substance often ignited.

Obtaining pyroxylin powder

Who Invented Smokeless Powder? In 1884, the French chemist J. Viel created a monolithic substance based on pyroxylin. This is the first smokeless powder in the history of mankind. To obtain it, the researcher used the ability of pyroxylin to increase in volume, being in a mixture of alcohol and ether. In this case, a soft mass was obtained, which was then pressed, plates or tapes were made from it, and then subjected to drying. The main part of the solvent thus evaporated. Its insignificant volume was preserved in pyroxylin. It continued to function as a plasticizer.

This mass is the basis of smokeless powder. Its volume in this explosive is about 80-95%. In contrast to the previously obtained cellulose, pyroxylin gunpowder showed its ability to burn at a constant rate strictly in layers. That is why it is still used for small arms to this day.

Advantages of the new substance

Viel's white powder was a real revolutionary discovery in the field of small arms firearms. And there were several reasons explaining this fact:

1. Gunpowder practically did not produce smoke, while the explosive used earlier, after several shots fired, significantly narrowed the fighter's field of view. Only strong gusts of wind could get rid of the emerging clouds of smoke when using black powder. In addition, the revolutionary invention made it possible not to give out the position of a fighter.

2. Viel's gunpowder allowed the bullet to fly out from more speed. Because of this, its trajectory was more direct, which significantly increased the accuracy of fire and its range, which was about 1000 m.

3. Due to the large power characteristics, smokeless powder was used in smaller quantities. Ammunition has become much lighter, which made it possible to increase their number when moving the army.

4. Equipping cartridges with pyroxylin allowed them to work even when wet. Ammunition, which was based on black powder, must have been protected from moisture.

Viel gunpowder was successfully tested in the Lebel rifle, which was immediately adopted by the French army. Hastened to apply the invention and other European countries. The first of these were Germany and Austria. New weapons in these states were introduced in 1888.

Nitroglycerine gunpowder

Soon, researchers have obtained a new substance for military weapons. They became nitroglycerin smokeless powder. Its other name is ballistite. The basis of such smokeless powder was also nitrocellulose. However, its amount in the explosive was reduced to 56-57 percent. In this case, liquid trinitroglycerin served as a plasticizer. Such gunpowder turned out to be very powerful, and it is worth saying that it still finds its use in rocket troops and artillery.

pyrocollodic gunpowder

At the end of the 19th century Mendeleev proposed his recipe for a smokeless explosive. A Russian scientist has found a way to get soluble nitrocellulose. He called it pyrocollodium. The resulting substance was isolated maximum amount gaseous products. Pyrocollodic gunpowder has been successfully tested in guns of various calibers, which were carried out at the marine test site.

However, Lomonosov's merits to military affairs and the manufacture of gunpowder are not only in this. He made an important improvement in the technology for the production of explosives. The scientist proposed to dehydrate nitrocellulose not by drying, but with the help of alcohol. This made the production of gunpowder safer. In addition, the quality of the nitrocellulose itself was improved, since less resistant products were washed out of it with the help of alcohol.

Modern usage

Currently, gunpowder, which is based on nitrocellulose, is used in modern semi-automatic and automatic weapons. Unlike black powder, it practically does not leave guns in the barrels. solid foods combustion. This made it possible to carry out automatic reloading of weapons when using a large number of moving mechanisms and parts in it.

Various varieties of smokeless powder are the main part of propellant explosives that are used in small arms. They are so widespread that, as a rule, the word "gunpowder" means smokeless. The substance, invented by ancient Chinese alchemists, is only used in flares, underbarrel grenade launchers and in some cartridges designed for smoothbore weapons.

As for the hunting environment, it is customary to use a pyroxylin variety of smokeless powder. Only sometimes nitroglycerin species find their application, but they are not particularly popular.

Compound

What are the components of an explosive used in hunting? The composition of smokeless powder has nothing to do with its smoky appearance. It mainly consists of pyroxylin. It is in the explosive is 91-96 percent. In addition, hunting gunpowder contains from 1.2 to 5% of volatile substances such as water, alcohol and ether. To increase stability during storage, 1 to 1.5 percent diphenylamine stabilizer is included here. Phlegmatizers slow down the burning of the outer layers of powder grains. Them in smokeless hunting powder is from 2 to 6 percent. An insignificant part (0.2-0.3%) is flame retardant additives and graphite.

The form

Pyroxylin, used for the production of smokeless powder, is treated with an oxidizing agent, the basis of which is an alcohol-ether mixture. The end result is a homogeneous jelly-like substance. The resulting mixture is mechanically processed. As a result, a granular structure of the substance is obtained, the color of which varies from yellow-brown to pure black. Sometimes within the same batch a different shade of gunpowder is possible. To give it a uniform color, the mixture is processed with powdered graphite. This process also makes it possible to level the stickiness of the grains.

Properties

Smokeless powder is distinguished by the ability of uniform gas formation and combustion. This, in turn, when changing the size of the fraction, allows you to control and adjust the combustion processes.

Among the attractive properties of smokeless powder, the following are noted:

Low hygroscopicity and insolubility in water;
- greater effect and purity than the smoky counterpart;
- preservation of properties even at high humidity;
- the possibility of drying;
- the absence of smoke after the shot, which is produced with a relatively quiet sound.

However, it should be borne in mind that white powder:

It emits carbon monoxide when fired, which is dangerous to humans;
- negatively reacts to temperature changes;
- contributes to faster wear of weapons due to the creation high temperature in the trunk;
- must be stored in sealed packaging due to the likelihood of weathering;
- has a limited shelf life;
- can be flammable at high temperatures;
- not used in weapons, the passport of which indicates this.

The oldest Russian gunpowder

Hunting cartridges have been equipped with this explosive since 1937. Gunpowder "Falcon" has a sufficiently large power that meets the developed world standards. It should be noted that the composition of this substance was changed in 1977. This was done due to the establishment of more stringent rules for this species explosive items.

Gunpowder "Falcon" is recommended for use by novice hunters who prefer to self-load cartridges. After all, this substance is able to forgive them a mistake with a sample. Gunpowder "Sokol" is used by many domestic manufacturers of cartridges, such as Polieks, Vetter, Azot and others.

Man has made many discoveries that have great importance in some area of ​​life. However, very few of these discoveries have really changed the course of history.

Gunpowder, his invention, is precisely from this list of discoveries that contributed to the development of many areas of mankind.

Story

The history of gunpowder

Scientists have long debated about the time of its creation. Someone claimed that it was invented in Asian countries, while others, on the contrary, do not agree, and prove the opposite, that gunpowder was invented in Europe, and from there it came to Asia.

Everyone agrees that China is the birthplace of gunpowder.

The available manuscripts speak of noisy holidays that were held in the Celestial Empire with very loud explosions that were not familiar to Europeans. Of course, it was not gunpowder, but bamboo seeds, which, when heated, burst with loud noise. Such explosions made Tibetan monks think about the practical application of such things.

Invention history

Now it is no longer possible to determine with an accuracy of a year the time of the invention of gunpowder by the Chinese, however, according to the manuscripts that have survived to this day, it is believed that in the middle of the VI century, the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire knew the composition of substances with which you can get fire with a bright flame. The Taoist monks advanced furthest in the direction of the invention of gunpowder, who eventually invented gunpowder.

Thanks to the found work of the monks, which was dated to the 9th century, which lists all certain "elixirs" and how to use them.

Much attention was paid to the text, which indicated the prepared composition, which suddenly ignited right after preparation and caused burns to the monks.

If the fire was not immediately extinguished, the alchemist's house burned to the ground.

Thanks to this information, discussions about the place and time of the invention of gunpowder were completed. Well, I must say that after the invention of gunpowder, it only burned, but did not explode.

The first composition of gunpowder

The composition of the gunpowder required exact ratio all components. It took the monks more than one year to determine all the shares and components. The result was a mixture that received the name "fire potion". The composition of the potion included molecules of coal, sulfur and saltpeter. There is very little saltpeter in nature, with the exception of the territories of China, where saltpeter can be found directly on the surface of the earth with a layer of several centimeters.

Gunpowder Ingredients:

Peaceful use of gunpowder in China

At the first time of the invention of gunpowder, it was mainly used in the form of various noise effects or for colorful "fireworks" during entertainment events. However, local sages understood that it was possible and combat use gunpowder.

China in those distant times was constantly at war with the nomads surrounding it, and the invention of gunpowder was in the hands of military commanders.

Gunpowder: the first use by the Chinese for military purposes

There are manuscripts of Chinese monks, which allege the use of "fire potion" for military purposes. The Chinese military surrounded the nomads and lured them into highlands, where powder charges were pre-installed and set on fire after the enemy’s campaign.

Strong explosions paralyzed the nomads, who fled in disgrace.

Understanding what gunpowder is and realizing its capabilities, the emperors of China supported the manufacture of weapons using a fiery mixture, these are catapults, powder balls, and various shells. Thanks to the use of gunpowder, the troops of Chinese commanders did not know defeat and everywhere put the enemy to flight.

Gunpowder leaves China: Arabs and Mongols start making gunpowder

According to reports, around the 13th century, information about the composition and proportions for the manufacture of gunpowder was obtained by the Arabs, as it was done, there is no exact information. According to one of the legends, the Arabs massacred all the monks of the monastery and received a treatise. In the same century, the Arabs were able to build a cannon that could shoot gunpowder projectiles.

"Greek fire": Byzantine gunpowder

Further from the Arabs information about gunpowder, its composition to Byzantium. Slightly changing the composition qualitatively and quantitatively, a recipe was obtained, which was called "Greek fire". The first tests of this mixture were not long in coming.

During the defense of the city, cannons loaded with Greek fire were used. As a result, all ships were destroyed by fire. Have not reached our times accurate information about the composition of the "Greek fire", but presumably were used - sulfur, oil, saltpeter, resin and oils.

Gunpowder in Europe: who invented it?

For a long time, Roger Bacon was considered the culprit for the appearance of gunpowder in Europe. In the middle of the thirteenth century, he became the first European to describe in a book all the recipes for making gunpowder. But the book was encrypted, and it was not possible to use it.

If you want to know who invented gunpowder in Europe, then the answer to your question is the story of Berthold Schwartz. He was a monk and practiced alchemy for the benefit of his Franciscan Order. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, he worked on determining the proportions of a substance from coal, sulfur and saltpeter. After long experiments, he managed to grind the necessary components in a mortar in a proportion sufficient for an explosion.

The blast wave almost sent the monk to the next world.

The invention marked the beginning of the era of firearms.

The first model of the “shooting mortar” was developed by the same Schwartz, for which he was sent to prison in order not to disclose the secret. But the monk was kidnapped and secretly transported to Germany, where he continued his experiments to improve firearms.

How the inquisitive monk ended his life is still unknown. According to one version, he was blown up on a barrel of gunpowder, according to another, he died safely at a very advanced age. Be that as it may, but gunpowder gave the Europeans great opportunities, which they did not fail to take advantage of.

The appearance of gunpowder in Russia

There is no exact answer about the origin of gunpowder in Russia. There are many stories, but the most plausible is that the composition of gunpowder was provided by the Byzantines. For the first time, gunpowder was used in a firearm in the defense of Moscow from the raid of the Golden Horde troops. Such a gun did not incapacitate the enemy's manpower, but made it possible to frighten horses and sow panic in the ranks of the Golden Horde.

Smokeless powder recipe: who invented it?

Approaching more modern centuries, let's say that the 19th century is the time of the improvement of gunpowder. One of the interesting improvements is the invention by the Frenchman Viel of pyroxylin gunpowder, which has a solid structure. Its first use was appreciated by representatives of the defense department.

The bottom line is that gunpowder burned without smoke, leaving no traces.

A little later, the inventor Alfred Nobel announced the possibility of using nitroglycerin gunpowder in the manufacture of shells. After these inventions, gunpowder only improved and its characteristics improved.

Types of gunpowder

The following types of gunpowder are used in the classification:

• mixed(the so-called smoky gunpowder (black gunpowder));
• nitrocellulose(respectively, smokeless).

For many, it may be a discovery, but the solid rocket fuel used in spacecraft and rocket engines, there is nothing but the most powerful gunpowder. Nitrocellulose powders are made up of nitrocellulose and a plasticizer. In addition to these parts, various additives are stirred into the mixture.

Gunpowder storage conditions are of great importance. If the powder is found longer than the possible storage period or if the technological storage conditions are not observed, irreversible chemical decomposition and deterioration of its properties are possible. Therefore, storage is of great importance in the life of gunpowder, otherwise an explosion is possible.

Gunpowder smoky (black)

Smoke powder is produced on the territory of the Russian Federation in accordance with the requirements of GOST-1028-79.

At present, the manufacture of smoky or black powder is regulated and complies with regulatory requirements and rules.

Brands, which is gunpowder, are divided into:

• grainy;
• powder powder.

Black powder consists of potassium nitrate, sulfur and charcoal.

• potassium nitrate oxidizes, allows you to burn at a fast rate.
• charcoal is a fuel (which is oxidized by potassium nitrate).
• sulfur- a component that is necessary to ensure ignition. Requirements for the proportions of brands of black powder in different countries different, but the differences are not big.

The shape of granular grades of gunpowder after manufacturing resembles grain. Production consists of five stages:

1. Grinding to the state of powder;
2. Mixing;
3. Pressed on disks;
4. There is a crushing of grains;
5. Polished grain.

Most the best varieties gunpowder burns better if all components are completely crushed and thoroughly mixed, even the output form of the granules is important. The combustion efficiency of black powder is largely related to the fineness of the grinding of the components, the completeness of mixing and the shape of the grains in the finished form.

Varieties of smoke powders (% composition of KNO 3, S, C.):

• cord (for igniter cords) (77%, 12%, 11%);
• rifle (for igniters for charges of nitrocellulose powders and mixed solid fuels, as well as for expelling charges in incendiary and lighting projectiles);
• coarse-grained (for igniters);
• slow-burning (for amplifiers and moderators in tubes and fuses);
• mine (for blasting) (75%, 10%, 15%);
• hunting (76%, 9%, 15%);
• sports.

When handling black powder, you must take precautions and keep the powder away from an open source of fire, as it ignites easily, a flash at a temperature of 290-300 ° C is enough for this.

There are high requirements for packaging. It must be airtight and black powder must be stored separately from the rest. Very sensitive to moisture content. In the presence of moisture more than 2.2%, this gunpowder is very difficult to ignite.

Until the beginning of the 20th century, black powder was invented for use in shooting weapons and in various throwing grenades. Now used in the manufacture of fireworks.

Types of gunpowder

Aluminum grades of gunpowder have found their use in the pyrotechnic industry. The basis is, brought to the state of powder and mixed with each other, potassium / sodium nitrate (needed as an oxidizing agent), aluminum powder (this is fuel) and sulfur. Due to the high emission of light during combustion and the speed of burning, it is used in discontinuous elements and flash compositions (producing a flash).

Proportions (saltpeter: aluminum: sulfur):

• bright flash - 57:28:15;
• explosion - 50:25:25.

Gunpowder is not afraid of moisture, does not change its flowability, but it can get very dirty.

Gunpowder classification

This is a smokeless powder that has been developed already in modern times. Unlike black powder, nitrocellulose has a high useful action. And there is no smoke that the arrow can give out.

In turn, nitrocellulose powders, due to the complexity of the composition and wide application, can be divided into:

1. pyroxylin;
2. ballistic;
3. cordite.

Smokeless powder is a powder that is used in modern types weapons, various products for undermining. It is used as a detonator.

pyroxylin

Part pyroxylin powders usually includes 91-96% pyroxylin, 1.2-5% volatile substances (alcohol, ether and water), 1.0-1.5% stabilizer (diphenylamine, centralite) to increase storage stability, 2-6% phlegmatizer for slowing down the burning of the outer layers of powder grains and 0.2-0.3% graphite as additives.

Pyroxylin powders are produced in the form of plates, ribbons, rings, tubes and grains with one or more channels; the main use is pistols, machine guns, cannons, mortars.

The manufacture of such gunpowder consists of the following steps:

• Dissolution (plasticization) of pyroxylin;
• Composition pressing;
• Cut out from the mass various forms gunpowder elements;
• Solvent removal.

ballistic

Ballistic gunpowder is gunpowder artificial origin. The largest percentage have such components as:

• nitrocellulose;
• non-removable plasticizer.

Due to the presence of precisely 2 components, experts call this type of gunpowder 2-basic.

If there are percentage changes in the content of plasticizer gunpowder, they are divided into:

1. nitroglycerin;
2. diglycol.

The structure of the composition of ballistic powders is as follows:

• 40-60% colloxylin (nitrocellulose with a nitrogen content of less than 12.2%);
• 30-55% nitroglycerin (nitroglycerin powder) or diethylene glycol dinitrate (diglycol powder) or mixtures thereof;

It also includes various components that have a small percentage of content, but they are extremely important:

• dinitrotoluene- necessary to be able to control the combustion temperature;
• stabilizers(diphenylamine, centralite);
• vaseline oil, camphor and other additives;
• also finely dispersed metal can be introduced into ballistic powders(an alloy of aluminum with magnesium) to increase the temperature and energy of the combustion products, such gunpowder is called metallized.

continuous technology system production of powder mass of high-energy ballistic powders

1 - agitator; 2 - mass pump; 3 - volume-pulse dispenser; 4 - dispenser of bulk components; 5 - consumable capacity; 6 - supply tank; 7 - gear pump; 8 - APR; 9 - injector;
10 - container; 11 - passivator; 12 - water repellent; 13 - solvent; 14 - mixer; 15 - intermediate mixer; 16 - mixer of general batches

The appearance of the manufactured gunpowder has the form of tubes, checkers, plates, rings and ribbons. Gunpowder is used for military purposes, and according to their direction of application, they are divided:

• missile(for charges to rocket engines and gas generators);
• artillery(for propelling charges to artillery pieces);
• mortar(for propellant charges for mortars).

Compared to pyroxylin ballistic powders, they are less hygroscopic, faster to manufacture, capable of producing large charges (up to 0.8 meters in diameter), high mechanical strength and flexibility due to the use of a plasticizer.

The disadvantages of ballistic powders compared to pyroxylin powders include:

1. Great danger in production, due to the presence in their composition of a powerful explosive - nitroglycerin, which is very sensitive to external influences, as well as the inability to obtain charges with a diameter of more than 0.8 m, in contrast to mixed powders based on synthetic polymers;
2. The complexity of the technological process of production ballistic powders, which involves mixing the components in warm water in order to uniform distribution, squeezing water and repeated rolling on hot rollers. This removes water and plasticizes cellulose nitrate, which takes the form of a horn-shaped web. Next, the gunpowder is pressed out through dies or rolled into thin sheets and cut.

Cordite

Cordite powders contain high-nitrogen pyroxylin, a removable (alcohol-ether mixture, acetone) and a non-removable (nitroglycerin) plasticizer. This brings the production technology of these powders closer to the production of pyroxylin powders.

The advantage of cordites is greater power, however, they cause an increased fire of the barrels due to the higher temperature of the combustion products.

solid propellant

Mixed powder based on synthetic polymers (solid propellant) contains approximately:

• 50-60% oxidizing agent, usually ammonium perchlorate;
• 10-20% plasticized polymer binder;
• 10-20% fine aluminum powder and other additives.

This direction of fuel production first appeared in Germany in the 30s-40s of the 20th century, after the end of the war, active development of such fuels was taken up in the USA, and in the early 50s in the USSR. The main advantages over ballistic gunpowder that attracted them great attention, were:

• high specific thrust of rocket engines on such fuel;
• the ability to create charges of any shape and size;
• high deformation and mechanical properties compositions;
• the ability to regulate the burning rate over a wide range.

These properties of gunpowder made it possible to create strategic missiles with a range of more than 10,000 km. On ballistic powders, S.P. Korolev, together with powder makers, managed to create a rocket with a maximum range of 2,000 km.

But mixed solid fuels have significant drawbacks compared to nitrocellulose powders: the very high cost of their manufacture, the duration of the charge production cycle (up to several months), the complexity of disposal, the release of hydrochloric acid into the atmosphere during the combustion of ammonium perchlorate.

The new gunpowder is solid propellant.

Gunpowder combustion and its regulation

Combustion in parallel layers, which does not turn into an explosion, is determined by the transfer of heat from layer to layer and is achieved by manufacturing sufficiently monolithic powder elements devoid of cracks.

The burning rate of gunpowder depends on the pressure according to a power law, increasing with increasing pressure, so you should not focus on the burning rate of gunpowder at atmospheric pressure evaluating its characteristics.

Regulation of the burning rate of gunpowder is very difficult task and is solved by using various combustion catalysts in the composition of gunpowder. Combustion in parallel layers allows you to control the rate of gas formation.

The gas formation of gunpowder depends on the size of the surface of the charge and the rate of its combustion.

The size of the surface of the powder elements is determined by their shape, geometric dimensions and may increase or decrease during the combustion process. Such combustion is called progressive or digressive, respectively.

For getting constant speed gas formation or its changes according to a certain law separate sections charges (for example, rocket) are covered with a layer of non-combustible materials (armour).

The burning rate of gunpowders depends on their composition, initial temperature and pressure.

Gunpowder Characteristics

The characteristics of gunpowder are based on parameters such as:

• heat of combustion Q- the amount of heat released during the complete combustion of 1 kilogram of gunpowder;
• volume of gaseous products V released during the combustion of 1 kilogram of gunpowder (determined after the gases are brought to normal conditions);
• gas temperature T, determined during the combustion of gunpowder under conditions of constant volume and the absence of heat losses;
• gunpowder density ρ;
• gunpowder force f- the work that 1 kilogram of powder gases could do, expanding when heated by T degrees at normal atmospheric pressure.

Characteristics of nitro powders

Non-military application

The final main purpose of gunpowder is military purposes and use to destroy enemy objects. However, the composition of the Sokol gunpowder allows its use in peaceful purposes, these are fireworks, in construction tools (construction pistols, punches), and in the field of pyrotechnics - squibs. The characteristics of gunpowder Bars are more suitable for use in sports shooting.

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Pyroxylin gunpowder made it possible to successfully solve the problems of firing from all artillery systems, right up to the end of the First World War. The further development of domestic artillery urgently required the development and use of ballietite powders.

The main components of ballistic powders are low-nitrogen cellulose nitrates (colloxilins), a low-volatility solvent - a plasticizer, a chemical resistance stabilizer and various additives. In the United States, ballistic powders use pyroxplines with a content of 13.15% and 13.25% nitrogen.

Nitroglycerin and nitrodiglycol have been widely used as a non-volatile solvent in the production of ballistic powders.

Nitroglycerin is a product of the treatment of glycerin with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids and is a powerful explosive that is highly sensitive to external influences. Nitroglycerin is a liquid under normal conditions and serves as a good plasticizer for low-nitrogen cellulose nitrates. In the process of making gunpowder, nitroglycerin is not removed from the powder mass and is one of the main components of the finished gunpowder, which largely determines its physicochemical and ballistic properties.

Nitrodiglycol is a product of processing diethylene glycol with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. Diethylene glycol is obtained synthetically from ethylene. Like nitroglycerin, nitrodiglycol is a liquid with good plasticizing properties.

During World War II, Germany began to use gunpowder based on nitrodiglycol, which included up to 30% nitroguanidine, which is a white crystalline substance with explosive properties. Such gunpowders are called guanidine or gudol.

Powders containing nitroguanidine are used in the USA and are called tribasic powders, in contrast to pyroxylin powders, called monobasic, and nitroglycerin powders, called dibasic. As a stabilizer for the chemical resistance of ballistic powders, centralites, white crystalline substances, have received the greatest use. The finished powder contains from 1 to 5% centralite. The moisture content in ballistic powders is usually not more than 1%.

Depending on the purpose of the powders, various additives are introduced into their composition. To reduce the combustion temperature in order to reduce the incendiary action of gunpowder, so-called cooling additives are introduced into its composition, which are used as dinitrotoluene, dibutyl phthalate and some other substances. Dinitrotoluene and dibutyl phthalate are also additional plasticizers of colloxylin. Their content in the finished powder can be from 4 to 11%.

The so-called technological additive can be introduced into the composition of the powders, which facilitates the process of manufacturing the powder mass. Wide application received vaseline as a technological additive, its content in gunpowder is up to 2%.

To exclude the phenomena of intermittent and unstable combustion in jet engines, catalytic and stabilizing additives are introduced into the composition of gunpowder. Their content in gunpowder is low: from 0.2 to 2-3%. Lead compounds are used as combustion catalysts, and chalk, magnesium oxide and other refractory substances are used as stabilizing additives.

The compositions of some domestic and foreign ballistic powders are given in table. ten.

Table10

Name of powder components
	gunpowder		mortar powder	jet powder
	nitroglycerin	nitro deagle left
Colloxilin
Nitroglycerine
Nitrodiglycol
Centralite
Dinitrotoluene
dibutyl phthalate
Petrolatum
Water, (over100 % )
Graphite
magnesium oxide
Other substances

Ballistic-type gunpowder is used for firing guns, mortars and rocket launchers.

Gunpowder are made mainly in the form of tubes 1 (Fig. 12) various lengths and with different thicknesses of the burning vault.

mortar gunpowder prepared in the form of plates, ribbons 2, spirals and rings 3.

Rice. 12. Form of ballistic powders:

1-tube (tubular gunpowder); g-tape (tape-

rox); 3- ring; 4 - checker

Reactive gunpowder are made in the form of thick single-channel checkers of 4 cylindrical and more complex geometric shapes.

Modern technology makes it possible to manufacture powder cartridges with a burning roof thickness of up to 300 mm or more.

The manufacturing process of ballistic powders is carried out as follows.

Gunpowder components are mixed in warm water. With this mixing, colloxylin swells in solvents.

After preliminary removal of moisture, the mass is repeatedly passed through hot rollers. On the rollers there is a further removal of moisture, compaction and plasticization of the powder mass. Powder elements of the required shape and size are obtained from the powder mass.

To obtain tubes, the powder web after the rollers is rolled into rolls and pressed through the appropriate dies. The tubes are cut into powder elements of a certain length. To obtain powder of lamellar, tape and ring shape, the powder mass is passed through rollers with a precisely adjustable gap. The resulting canvas is cut into plates or tapes of specified sizes or rings are cut out of it.

The technological process for the manufacture of ballistic powders is less lengthy and more economical than pyroxylin powders, it allows extensive use of automation, but is more explosive.

Depending on the purpose, chemical composition, shape and size of the powder elements, there are grades of ballistic-type gunpowder. Symbols for brands of gunpowder are very diverse. Gunpowder for jet engines have designations indicating only the purpose of the gunpowder and its approximate composition. There is no indication of the shape and size of the elements in the designation of reactive powders. For example, H, HM 2 means reactive gunpowder, in which nitroglycerin is used as a plasticizer, the second gunpowder contains the addition of magnesium oxide (2%).

Gun ballistic gunpowder is designated as follows: behind the letters indicating the approximate composition of the gunpowder, a number indicating the caloric content of the gunpowder is put through the dash, and then the size of the tube is indicated by a fraction, similar to pyroxylin gunpowder. Unlike pyroxylin powders, when designating tubular ballistic powders, the letters TP are not affixed, since ballistic powders are not made in the form of cylindrical grains. For example, the NDT-3 18/1 brand means that nitroglycerin gunpowder containing dinitrotoluene as a cooling additive, which belongs to the third group in terms of caloric content, has the form of a single-channel tube with a burning arch thickness of 1.8 mm. Lamellar powders are indicated by letters and numbers: NBPl 12-10 - nitroglycerin ballistic mortar lamellar powder with a vault thickness of 0.12 mm and a plate width of 1 mm.

Tape gunpowder is designated by the letter L and a number corresponding to the thickness of the burning vault in hundredths of a millimeter, for example, NBL-33. Ring powders are denoted by the letter K, followed by a fractional number: the numerator indicates the inner diameter of the ring in millimeters, the denominator is the outer diameter. After the fraction, a number is put through the dash, indicating the thickness of the burning vault in hundredths of a millimeter, for example, NBK 32/64-14.

Ballistic powders are distinguished by a variety of chemical composition and geometric shapes, and therefore they are different in their physicochemical and ballistic properties.

Ballistic powders are less hygroscopic than pyroxylin powders.

A positive property of ballistic powders, widely used in practice, is the ability to significantly change their energy characteristics by changing the content of a low-volatile explosive solvent in a fairly wide range and introducing various additives into their composition. This allows you to significantly expand the scope of practical application of this group of nitrocellulose gunpowders. The heat of combustion of ballistic powders, depending on their composition, can vary from 650 to 1500 kcal / kg. According to the heat of combustion, ballistic powders are divided into high-calorie (1000-1500 kcal / kg), medium-calorie (800-1000 kcal / kg) and low-calorie (650-800 kcal / kg). Low-calorie powders are often referred to as cold or low-erosion powders.

For ballistic powders, the burning rate, the strength of the powder, and other characteristics can vary over a wide range.