Forty years ago, on July 20, 1969, man stepped onto the surface of the moon for the first time. NASA's Apollo 11 spacecraft, with a crew of three astronauts (Commander Neil Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Edwin Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins), became the first to reach the Moon in space race USSR and USA.
Every month, the Moon, moving in orbit, passes approximately between the Sun and the Earth and faces the Earth with its dark side, at this time there is a new moon. One or two days later, a narrow bright crescent of the "young" Moon appears in the western part of the sky.
The rest of the lunar disk is at this time dimly illuminated by the Earth, turned to the Moon by its daytime hemisphere; this faint glow of the moon is the so-called ashen light of the moon. After 7 days, the Moon moves away from the Sun by 90 degrees; the first quarter of the lunar cycle begins, when exactly half of the disk of the moon and the terminator are illuminated, i.e. the dividing line of light and dark side, becomes a straight line - the diameter of the lunar disk. In the following days, the terminator becomes convex, the appearance of the Moon approaches the bright circle, and in 14-15 days the full moon occurs. Then the western edge of the Moon begins to deteriorate; on the 22nd day observed last quarter, when the Moon is again seen in a semicircle, but this time with its bulge facing east. The angular distance of the Moon from the Sun decreases, it again becomes a narrowing crescent, and after 29.5 days a new moon occurs again.
The points of intersection of the orbit with the ecliptic are called ascending and downstream nodes, have uneven backward movement and perform full turn along the ecliptic for 6794 days (about 18.6 years), as a result of which the Moon returns to the same node after a time interval - the so-called draconian month - shorter than the sidereal one and on average equal to 27.21222 days; associated with this month is the periodicity of solar and lunar eclipses.
Visual magnitude (a measure of the amount of light produced by heavenly body) full moon at an average distance is - 12.7; it sends 465,000 times less light to Earth on a full moon than the Sun.
Depending on what phase the Moon is in, the amount of light decreases much faster than the area of the illuminated part of the Moon, so when the Moon is in a quarter and we see half of its disk is bright, it sends to Earth not 50%, but only 8 % light from the full moon.
The color index of moonlight is +1.2, i.e., it is noticeably redder than the sun.
The moon rotates relative to the sun with a period equal to the synodic month, so the day on the moon lasts almost 15 days and the night lasts the same amount.
Not being protected by the atmosphere, the surface of the Moon heats up to + 110 ° C during the day, and cools down to -120 ° C at night, however, as radio observations have shown, these huge temperature fluctuations penetrate only a few dm deep due to the extremely weak thermal conductivity of the surface layers. For the same reason, during total lunar eclipses, the heated surface cools rapidly, although some places retain heat longer, probably due to the large heat capacity (the so-called "hot spots").
relief of the moon
Even with the naked eye, irregular darkish extended spots are visible on the Moon, which were taken for the seas: the name has been preserved, although it has been established that these formations have nothing to do with the earth's seas. Telescopic observations, which began in 1610 year Galileo Galileo (Galileo Galilei), made it possible to discover the mountainous structure of the surface of the moon.
It turned out that the seas are plains of a darker shade than other areas, sometimes called continental (or mainland), teeming with mountains, most of which are ring-shaped (craters).
Based on long-term observations, detailed maps Moon. The first such maps were published in 1647 by Jan Hevelius (German Johannes Hevel, Polish Jan Heweliusz,) in Danzig (modern - Gdansk, Poland). Retaining the term "seas", he also assigned names to the main lunar ridges - according to similar earth formations: Apennines, Caucasus, Alps.
Giovanni Batista Riccioli from Ferrara (Italy) in 1651 gave fantastic names to the vast dark lowlands: Ocean of Storms, Sea of Crises, Sea of Tranquility, Sea of Rains and so on, he called the smaller dark areas adjacent to the seas bays, for example , Rainbow Bay, and small irregular spots are swamps, such as Rot Swamp. Separate mountains, mostly ring-shaped, he named the names of prominent scientists: Copernicus, Kepler, Tycho Brahe and others.
These names have been preserved on lunar maps to this day, and many new names of prominent people, scientists of a later time have been added. On maps of the far side of the moon, compiled from observations made with space probes and artificial satellites of the Moon, the names of Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky, Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin and others appeared. Detailed and accurate maps of the Moon were made from telescopic observations in the 19th century by German astronomers Johann Heinrich Madler, Johann Schmidt and others.
The maps were compiled in an orthographic projection for the middle libration phase, i.e., approximately the same as the Moon is visible from the Earth.
At the end of the 19th century, photographic observations of the moon began. In 1896-1910, a large atlas of the moon was published by French astronomers Morris Loewy and Pierre Henri Puiseux from photographs taken at the Paris Observatory; later, a photographic album of the Moon was published by the Lick Observatory in the USA, and in the middle of the 20th century, the Dutch astronomer Gerard Copier compiled several detailed atlases of photographs of the Moon obtained with large telescopes of various astronomical observatories. With the help of modern telescopes on the Moon, you can see craters about 0.7 kilometers in size and cracks a few hundred meters wide.
Craters on the lunar surface have a different relative age: from ancient, barely distinguishable, heavily reworked formations to very clear-cut young craters, sometimes surrounded by bright "rays". At the same time, young craters overlap older ones. In some cases, the craters are cut into the surface of the lunar seas, and in others, the rocks of the seas overlap the craters. Tectonic ruptures sometimes cut through craters and seas, sometimes they themselves overlap with younger formations. The absolute age of lunar formations is known so far only at a few points.
Scientists have found that the age of the youngest large craters is tens and hundreds of million years, and the bulk of large craters arose in the "pre-Marine" period, i.e. 3-4 billion years ago.
In the formation of lunar landforms took part as internal forces and external influences. Calculations of the thermal history of the Moon show that soon after its formation, the bowels were heated by radioactive heat and largely melted, which led to intense volcanism on the surface. As a result, giant lava fields and a number of volcanic craters were formed, as well as numerous cracks, ledges and more. Along with this, on the surface of the Moon in the early stages great amount meteorites and asteroids - the remnants of a protoplanetary cloud, during the explosions of which craters appeared - from microscopic holes to ring structures with a diameter of several tens of meters to hundreds of kilometers. Due to the lack of atmosphere and hydrosphere, a significant part of these craters has survived to this day.
Now meteorites fall on the Moon much less frequently; volcanism also largely ceased as the Moon used up a lot of thermal energy and radioactive elements were carried into the outer layers of the Moon. Residual volcanism is evidenced by outflows of carbonaceous gases in lunar craters, whose spectrograms were first obtained by the Soviet astronomer Nikolai Aleksandrovich Kozyrev.
The study of the properties of the moon and its environment began in 1966 - the Luna-9 station was launched, transmitting to Earth panoramic shots surface of the moon.
The Luna-10 and Luna-11 stations (1966) were engaged in the studies of the circumlunar space. Luna-10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon.
At this time, the United States was also developing a program to explore the moon, called "Apollo" (The Apollo Program). Exactly american astronauts were the first to set foot on the surface of the planet. On July 21, 1969, as part of the Apollo 11 lunar expedition, Neil Armstrong and his partner Edwin Eugene Aldrin spent 2.5 hours on the moon.
The next step in the exploration of the moon was the sending of radio-controlled self-propelled vehicles to the planet. In November 1970, Lunokhod-1 was delivered to the Moon, which covered a distance of 10,540 m in 11 lunar days (or 10.5 months) and transmitted a large number of panoramas, individual photos surface of the moon and other scientific information. The French reflector mounted on it made it possible to measure the distance to the Moon with the help of a laser beam with an accuracy of fractions of a meter.
In February 1972, the Luna-20 station delivered to Earth samples of lunar soil, taken for the first time in a remote region of the Moon.
In February of the same year, the last manned flight to the Moon was made. The flight was carried out by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft. A total of 12 people have landed on the moon.
In January 1973, Luna 21 delivered Lunokhod 2 to Lemonier Crater (Sea of Clarity) for comprehensive research transitional zone between the sea and the mainland. "Lunokhod-2" worked 5 lunar days (4 months), covered a distance of about 37 kilometers.
In August 1976, the Luna-24 station delivered samples of lunar soil to Earth from a depth of 120 centimeters (the samples were obtained by drilling).
Since that time, the study of the natural satellite of the Earth has practically not been carried out.
Only two decades later, in 1990, Japan sent its artificial satellite Hiten to the Moon, becoming the third "lunar power". Then there were two more American satellites - Clementine (Clementine, 1994) and Lunar Reconnaissance (Lunar Prospector, 1998). At this, flights to the moon were suspended.
On September 27, 2003, the European Space Agency launched the SMART-1 probe from the Kourou launch site (Guiana, Africa). On September 3, 2006, the probe completed its mission and made a manned fall to the lunar surface. For three years of work, the device transmitted to Earth a lot of information about the lunar surface, and also carried out high-resolution cartography of the Moon.
At present, the study of the Moon has received a new start. Development programs earth satellite operate in Russia, USA, Japan, China, India.
According to the head of the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) Anatoly Perminov, the concept for the development of Russian manned cosmonautics provides for a program for the exploration of the moon in 2025-2030.
Legal issues moon exploration
The legal issues of the exploration of the moon are regulated by the “Treaty on Outer Space” (full name “Treaty on the Principles of Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of outer space including the Moon and other celestial bodies"). It was signed on January 27, 1967 in Moscow, Washington and London by the depositary states - the USSR, the USA and Great Britain. On the same day, the accession to the treaty of other states began.
According to it, the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, regardless of the degree of their economic and scientific development, and space and celestial bodies are open to all states without any discrimination on the basis of equality.
The moon, in accordance with the provisions of the "Outer Space Treaty", should be used "exclusively in peaceful purposes”, it excludes any activity of a military nature. The list of activities prohibited on the Moon contained in Article IV of the Treaty includes the placement nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons of mass destruction, the establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications, the testing of any types of weapons and the conduct of military maneuvers.
Private property on the moon
The sale of plots of the territory of the natural satellite of the Earth began in 1980, when the American Denis Hope discovered a California law from 1862, according to which no one's property passed into the possession of the one who first made a claim on it.
The Outer Space Treaty, signed in 1967, stipulated that “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation,” but a clause stating that space object could not be privately privatized, was not, which allowed Hope claim ownership of the moon and all the planets in the solar system, excluding Earth.
Hope opened the Lunar Embassy in the United States and organized wholesale and retail trade in the lunar surface. He successfully runs his "moon" business, selling plots on the moon to those who wish.
To become a citizen of the moon, you need to purchase a plot, get a notarized certificate of ownership, a lunar map with the designation of the site, its description, and even the Lunar Bill of Constitutional Rights. You can apply for lunar citizenship for some money by purchasing a lunar passport.
Ownership is registered at the Lunar Embassy in Rio Vista, California, USA. The process of registration and receipt of documents takes from two to four days.
AT this moment Mr. Hope is engaged in the creation of the Lunar Republic and its promotion in the UN. The failed republic has its own National holiday- Lunar Independence Day, which is celebrated on November 22.
Currently, a standard plot on the Moon has an area of 1 acre (a little more than 40 acres). Since 1980, about 1,300 thousand plots have been sold out of the approximately 5 million that were "cut" on the map of the illuminated side of the moon.
It is known that among the owners of lunar sites - american presidents Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, members of six royal families and about 500 millionaires, mostly Hollywood stars - Tom Hanks, Nicole Kidman, Tom Cruise, John Travolta, Harrison Ford, George Lucas, Mick Jagger, Clint Eastwood, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Dennis Hopper and others.
Lunar representative offices were opened in Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, and more than 10 thousand residents of the CIS became the owners of the lunar lands. Among them are Oleg Basilashvili, Semyon Altov, Alexander Rosenbaum, Yuri Shevchuk, Oleg Garkusha, Yuri Stoyanov, Ilya Oleinikov, Ilya Lagutenko, as well as cosmonaut Viktor Afanasiev and other famous figures.
The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources
FIRST MOON SCOUTS
Edited by: corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, laureate Lenin Prize Boris RAUSCHENBACH;
pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR, twice Hero of the Soviet Union, candidate technical sciences Valeria KUBASOV; candidate of technical sciences, laureate of the Lenin Prize Gleb MAKSIMOV.
Technique of Youth 1979, N2, pp.28-29 With the launch of the first artificial satellites of the Earth, scientists were able to study outer space that was previously inaccessible to them using direct measurements. But these were only the first steps within a very tiny area of the solar system... And above the horizon, the Moon was shining brightly, familiar to everyone from childhood. With the invention of telescopes, she approached people, and they discovered "seas", mountains and craters on her. But people saw only one side of the Moon, always facing the Earth. The invisible side remained a mystery "behind seven seals." What can I say, even the nature of the surface of the moon caused heated debate. Some scientists believed that the Moon was covered with a thick, several meters thick layer of dust. Others are rocks somewhat reminiscent of terrestrial tuffs. During one of the discussions, S.P. Korolev took a sheet of paper, drew the categorical: "The moon is solid", and signed. I gave the paper as a memento to a supporter of "moon dust". Of course, only spacecraft could resolve such speculative disputes. With the creation in the Soviet Union of a powerful launch vehicle capable of launching vehicles into orbits of artificial satellites of the Earth, the specialists headed by S.P. Korolev had a natural desire to reach the Moon. But for this it was necessary to expand the capabilities of the launch vehicle, to give it a new quality. Indeed, to launch an Earth satellite into orbit, it is enough to develop the so-called first cosmic velocity - about 8 km / s. To escape from the fetters of the earth's gravity, this speed is no longer enough. It should increase to 11.2 km/s. So, first of all, it was necessary to increase the power of the launch vehicle. This problem was solved by installing an additional stage on it. Simultaneously in design office S.P. Korolev developed the first spacecraft for lunar exploration. On January 2, 1959, the first ever launch towards the night star took place. "Luna-1", or, as the journalists called it, "Dream", passed near the Moon and became the first artificial satellite of the Sun in history. During the flight, with the help of scientific equipment, measurements were made in outer space (from the Earth to the orbit of the Moon), which, thanks to the radio telemetry system, were transmitted to the Earth. It is interesting that the flight of the station could also be observed visually - a special device installed on the last stage of the launch vehicle (and it raced along almost the same trajectory as the station that separated from it) threw out a sodium cloud at an altitude of about 100 thousand km. This artificial comet was seen by people in many countries. On September 12, 1959, the automatic station "Luna-2" was launched to the satellite of our planet. Two days later, she reached the moon, delivered a pennant with the emblem of the USSR to its surface. For the first time the Earth-Moon route was laid, for the first time the eternal peace of another celestial body. "Luna-1" and "Luna-2" were not very complex in their design. They solved quite specific tasks: testing and testing the accuracy of launching vehicles into interplanetary orbits, testing the possibility of maintaining radio communications with them at considerable distances, and studying the properties of outer space between the Earth and the Moon and near the Moon. So, during their flight, the magnetic fields of the Earth and the Moon, radiation belts, cosmic rays, meteor particles. The automatic interplanetary station "Luna-3" has become fundamentally new. For the first time, an automatic spacecraft received an orientation system, and solar panels were used as current sources to power the equipment. A photo-television device was also installed on the AMS. The new station was to fly around the Moon, "look" at its far side and take pictures, and when returning to the Earth, transmit images from space. That's what the orientation system was set up for. It included optical sensors that "saw" the Sun and the Moon, and orientation micromotors that maintained the station in a strictly defined position when the lens of the photo-television device was directed to the surface of the far side of the Moon. The photo-television device itself was also unusual. This is not just a camera, but also a processing device, and a transmitter (via the onboard radio link) of images obtained after processing. The configuration of the solar panels was also unusual. The fact is that on the entire flight path, except for the photographing area, the station was not oriented to the Sun. At the same time, to complete the entire program of work, her chemical batteries needed constant recharging. And then, after complex calculations, in which it was necessary to take into account the general layout of the AMS, the requirements of the thermal regime, the optimal form of solar batteries was chosen, which makes it possible to receive a current of almost the same value at any position of the station relative to the Sun. The launch of Luna-3 on October 4, 1959 sounded a salute in honor of the second anniversary of the start space age. On October 7, an automatic interplanetary station photographed the far side of the Moon from a distance of 60 thousand km and transmitted a whole series of photographs to Earth, where scientists were eagerly waiting for them. Of course, today these photos leave a lot to be desired. But they were the first. Having deciphered them, experts received a unique scientific material. The images show both parts of the Moon's surface invisible from the Earth, and a small area with already known relief. This made it possible to bind hitherto unknown objects on the lunar surface with those already known and thus determine their coordinates. It turned out that on the far side of the Moon, in contrast to its visible part, there are few "seas", that mountainous regions prevail there. As a result of the first flights to the Moon, it was found that it does not have a magnetic field and radiation belts. Total flow measurements cosmic radiation, carried out on the flight path and near the Moon, gave new information about cosmic rays and particles, about micrometeors in open space. The information obtained made it possible to move on to the creation of even more complex, even more advanced spacecraft.
Automatic interplanetary stations "Luna-1", "Luna-2"
Automatic interplanetary station "Luna-3"
On the diagram - the device of the automatic interplanetary station "Luna-3". Numbers indicate: 1. Porthole for photographic devices. 2. Instruments for scientific research. 3. Thermal screens. 4. Sections of solar panels. 5. Blinds of thermal control system. 6. Antenna. 7. Solar sensor. 8. Orientation system engine.
spacecraft series "Moon"
"Moon" - name Soviet program lunar exploration and a series of spacecraft launched in the USSR to the moon since 1959. Spacecraft of the first generation ("Luna-1" - "Luna-3") made a flight from the Earth to the Moon without first launching an artificial Earth satellite into orbit, making corrections on the Earth-Moon trajectory and braking near the Moon. The devices carried out the flyby of the Moon ("Luna-1"), reaching the Moon ("Luna-2"), flying around it and photographing it ("Luna-3"). Spacecraft of the second generation ("Luna-4" - "Luna-14") were launched using more advanced methods: preliminary launching of an artificial satellite of the Earth into orbit, then launch to the Moon, trajectory corrections and braking in circumlunar space. During the launches, the flight to the Moon and landing on its surface (“Luna-4” - “Luna-8”), soft landing (“Luna-9” and “Luna-13”) and the transfer of an artificial satellite of the Moon into orbit (“Luna -10", "Luna-11", "Luna-12", "Luna-14"). More advanced and heavier spacecraft of the third generation ("Luna-15" - "Luna-24") carried out a flight to the Moon according to the scheme used by the second generation vehicles; at the same time, to increase the accuracy of landing on the moon, it is possible to carry out several corrections on the flight trajectory from the Earth to the Moon and in the orbit of the artificial satellite of the Moon. The Luna spacecraft provided the first scientific data on the Moon, the development of a soft landing on the Moon, the creation of artificial satellites of the Moon, the taking and delivery of soil samples to the Earth, and the transportation of lunar self-propelled vehicles to the surface of the Moon. The creation and launch of various automatic lunar vehicles is a feature of the Soviet lunar exploration program.
"Luna-1" is the first spacecraft in the world, launched to the area of the Moon on January 2, 1959. Having passed near the Moon (5-6 thousand km from its surface) on January 4, 1959, the apparatus left the sphere of influence of the earth's gravity and became the first artificial satellite of the Sun. The final mass of the last stage of the launch vehicle with the Luna-1 spacecraft is 1472 kg (the mass of the container with the equipment is 361.3 kg). The apparatus housed radio equipment, a telemetry system, a complex of scientific instruments and other equipment designed to study the intensity and composition of cosmic rays, gas component interplanetary matter, meteor particles, corpuscular radiation of the Sun, magnetic field. At the last stage of the launch vehicle, equipment was installed to create a sodium cloud - an artificial comet. During the flight of Luna-1, the second space velocity and received information about the radiation belt of the Earth and outer space. In the world press, the Luna-1 spacecraft was called Mechta.
Luna-2 is the first spacecraft in the world to fly from Earth to another celestial body. Launched 12/9/1959. On September 14, 1959, the Luna-2 apparatus and the last stage of the launch vehicle reached the surface of the Moon (the region of the Sea of Clarity, near the craters Aristil, Archimedes and Autolycus) and delivered pennants depicting the State Emblem of the USSR. The final mass of the spacecraft with the last stage of the launch vehicle is 1511 kg (the mass of the container with scientific and measuring equipment is 390.2 kg). Studies conducted with the help of Luna-2 showed that the Moon has practically no magnetic field of its own and no radiation belt.
The Luna-3 spacecraft was launched on 10/4/1959. The final mass of the last stage of the launch vehicle with the spacecraft is 1553 kg (the mass of scientific and measuring equipment with power sources is 435 kg). The mass of the Luna-3 apparatus is 278.5 kg. The device had systems: radio engineering, telemetry, photo-television, orientation (relative to the Sun and the Moon), power supply (with solar batteries), thermal control and a complex of scientific equipment. Launched into a highly elongated elliptical orbit of an artificial satellite of the Earth, the spacecraft circled the Moon and passed at a distance of 6200 km from its surface. On October 7, 1959, during a photographic session (two devices with long- and short-focus lenses), almost half of the surface of the Moon was photographed (one third in the marginal zone, two thirds on the back side, invisible from Earth). After the film was developed on board the spacecraft, the images were transmitted by a phototelevision system to Earth. The maximum distance of Luna-3 from the Earth at its apogee was 480,000 km. Having made 11 revolutions around the Earth, the apparatus entered earth's atmosphere and ceased to exist.
"Luna-4" - "Luna-8" launched in 1963-1965. for further exploration of the Moon and solving the problem of ensuring a soft landing of the spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. During these flights, experimental testing of a complex of systems was completed: astro-orientation, traffic control and on-board radio equipment, power supply, thermal control, a radio engineering complex, and others. The mass of spacecraft is 1422-1552 kg.
"Luna-9" - the spacecraft that made the world's first soft landing on the Moon; launched 1/31/1966. During the flight to the Moon, which lasted 3.5 days, the flight trajectory was corrected. At an altitude of 75 km from the lunar surface (48 s before landing), the propulsion system was turned on, which ensured the damping of the speed from 2600 m/s to several m/s. The Luna-9 descent vehicle landed on February 3, 1966 in the Ocean of Storms, west of the Reiner and Mari craters, at the point with coordinates 64°22′ W. and 7° 08′ s. sh. 7 radio communication sessions with a total duration of more than 8 hours were carried out with the spacecraft to transmit scientific information. Television images of the lunar surface were transmitted over four sessions under various illumination conditions. The duration of the active existence of the apparatus on the surface of the Moon was 46 h 58 min 30 s. Panoramas of the lunar surface obtained at different heights of the Sun above the horizon (7, 14, 27 and 41°) made it possible to study the microrelief of the lunar soil, to determine the size and shape of depressions and stones. The Luna-9 spacecraft consisted of a descent vehicle (mass 100 kg) designed to operate on the surface of the Moon, compartments with equipment for control systems, astro-orientation, radio systems, and a propulsion system for correction and braking before landing. total weight"Luna-9" after separation from the upper stage of the launch vehicle is 1583 kg. The descent vehicle included a sealed instrument compartment, in which TV equipment, radio communication equipment, a program-time device, scientific equipment, power supply and thermal control systems were placed. The instrument compartment is equipped with shock absorbers (inflatable balloons), antennas and others. Images of the lunar surface transmitted by Luna 9 and the successful landing of the spacecraft on the Moon had great importance for further flights to the Moon, including human flights.
"Luna-10" - the first artificial satellite of the Moon; launched 3/31/1966. The mass of the spacecraft after separation from the rocket is 1582 kg, mass lunar satellite, launched on 3/4/1966 into the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon, 240 kg. It had scientific equipment: a gamma spectrometer for studying the intensity and spectral composition gamma radiation of the lunar surface, a device for studying the radiation situation near the moon, equipment for studying solar plasma, devices for recording infrared radiation from the surface of the moon, a meteor particle recorder. AIS "Luna-10" actively existed for 56 days, making 460 revolutions around the Moon. 219 radio communication sessions were conducted, information was obtained on the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Moon, the Earth's magnetic plume, indirect data on the chemical composition and radioactivity of the surface rocks of the Moon.
"Luna-11" - the second ISL; launched 24/8/1966. The mass of the spacecraft is 1640 kg. On August 27, 1966, the spacecraft entered lunar orbit. For 38 days of active existence, 137 communication sessions were carried out and 277 orbits around the Moon were completed. The scientific equipment made it possible to continue the research begun by the Luna-10 spacecraft.
"Luna-12" - the third Soviet ISL; launched 10/22/1966. The mass of the spacecraft is 1620 kg. On October 25, 1966, the Luna-12 spacecraft entered the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon. Actively existed for 85 days, having completed 602 turns. In addition to scientific equipment, there was a photo-television system on board, with the help of which large-scale images of parts of the lunar surface were obtained.
Luna 13 is the second spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon; launched 12/21/1966. Weight 1620 kg. On December 24, 1966, the descent vehicle (mass 112 kg) made a soft landing in the region of the Ocean of Storms at the point with coordinates 62°03′ W. and 18°52′ s. sh. The descent vehicle was equipped with: a mechanical soil gauge-penetrometer to determine the strength of the outer soil layer; radiation densitometer; a dynamograph for recording the duration and value of the overload that occurs during the landing of the station; instruments for measuring heat flow from the lunar surface; counters for registration of corpuscular radiation. 5 panoramas of the lunar surface were transmitted to the Earth, taken at different heights of the Sun above the horizon - from 6 to 38 °.
"Luna-14" - the fourth Soviet ISL; launched 7.4.1968. Systematic long-term observations of changes in orbital parameters made it possible to refine the ratio of the masses of the Earth and the Moon and data on the gravitational field of the Moon and its shape. We studied cosmic rays and fluxes of charged particles coming from the Sun, the conditions for the passage and stability of radio signals transmitted from the Earth to the spacecraft and back when the apparatus was in different points orbits and when entering the lunar disk, ground-based radio communications were adjusted.
"Luna-15" - the fifth Soviet ISL; launched 13/7/1969. The first spacecraft of the third generation. Weight 5700 kg. After entering the selenocentric orbit, 2 orbit corrections were carried out. Scientific research was carried out in circumlunar space, new navigation systems were tested; received information about the operation of the station's new systems. At the end of the program, on the 52nd orbit on July 21, the propulsion system was turned on, the spacecraft deorbited and reached the surface of the Moon.
"Luna-16" - a spacecraft that made an Earth-Moon-Earth flight and delivered samples of lunar soil to Earth; launched 9/12/1970. On September 17, the apparatus entered a circular selenocentric orbit. Weight 5727 kg, landing on the moon 1880 kg. The spacecraft consisted of two main parts - a unified landing stage (common for all third-generation spacecraft, except Luna-19 and Luna-22) and an instrument torus compartment with a take-off stage (return rocket) Luna-Earth. The landing stage consisted of a KTDU-417 with a block of main tanks, two drop compartments, instrument compartments and a landing gear. After the formation of a pre-landing orbit with a low perilune on September 21, 1970, a soft landing was made in the area of the Sea of Plenty at a point with coordinates 56° 18′ E. and 0° 41′ S sh. The soil intake device (the drill had an outer diameter of 26 mm, an inner diameter of 20 mm, a length of 370 mm, a stroke of 320 mm) ensured drilling and soil sampling into the return vehicle. The takeoff stage was launched on command from the Earth on September 21, 1970 (by turning on the KRD-61). On September 24, the return vehicle was separated from the instrument compartment of the rocket and made a soft landing on Earth 80 km southeast of Dzhezkazgan. The mass of soil delivered to Earth is 105 g.
"Luna-17" - the spacecraft that delivered the first automatic self-propelled vehicle "Lunokhod-1" to the Moon; launched 11/10/1970. On November 17, he made a soft landing on the Moon in the Sea of Rains region at a point with coordinates 35 ° W. and 38° 17′ s. sh.
The Luna-18 spacecraft was launched on September 2, 1971. On September 7, it was transferred to a circular lunar orbit, on which maneuvers were carried out to test new methods of navigation and landing on the moon. After 54 orbits on September 11, the braking propulsion system was turned on, the apparatus deorbited and reached the Moon. Landing area - mountainous area near the Sea of Plenty, which is of great scientific interest. Landing on the moon in difficult mountainous conditions turned out to be unfavorable.
"Luna-19" - the sixth Soviet ISL; launched 9/28/1971. On October 3, the spacecraft was transferred to a circumlunar circular orbit. On November 26 and 28, orbit corrections were carried out. The duration of observation of "Luna-19" made it possible to clarify the gravitational field of the Moon. The device measured the magnetic field of the Moon, transmitted photographs of the lunar surface.
The Luna-20 spacecraft was launched on February 14, 1972. February 18 transferred to lunar orbit. On February 21, a soft landing was made on lunar surface in the mountainous continental region between the Sea of Plenty and the Sea of Crises at the point with coordinates 56° 33′ E. and 3° 32′ s. sh. The Luna-20 spacecraft is similar in design to Luna-16. The soil intake device (the parameters of the drilling projectile are the same as those of the Luna-16 apparatus) drilled and collected the soil, which was placed in the container of the return apparatus. On February 23, the take-off stage was launched from the Moon; on February 25, the return vehicle made a soft landing on Earth in the calculated region. The mass of soil delivered to Earth is 55 g.
"Luna-21" - the spacecraft that delivered "Lunokhod-2" to the surface of the Moon; launched 8.1.1973. On January 16, a soft landing was made on the Moon on the eastern edge of the Sea of Clarity, inside Lemonnier Crater at a point with coordinates 30° 27′ E and 25° 51′ N. sh.
"Luna-22" - the seventh Soviet ISL; launched 5/29/1974. On June 2, the spacecraft entered a selenocentric orbit. The mass of the spacecraft is 5700 kg. On June 9 and 13, orbit corrections were carried out. The gravitational field of the Moon was measured, altimetering was carried out individual sections the lunar surface in areas of possible spacecraft landing; images of the lunar surface were received and transmitted to Earth, and scientific research was carried out.
The Luna-23 spacecraft was launched on 10/28/1974. On October 31, the flight trajectory was corrected. On November 2, 1974, the Luna-23 apparatus reached the vicinity of the Moon and was transferred to a selenocentric orbit. To ensure the landing of the spacecraft in the calculated region of the Moon, on November 4 and 5, corrections were made with a decrease in the perilune to 17 km. 11/6/1974 landing was made in the southern part of the Sea of Crisis. The landing of the apparatus occurred on a section of the lunar surface with an unfavorable relief, as a result of which the device intended for taking samples of the lunar soil was damaged.
"Luna-24" is the third spacecraft that made the flight Earth-Moon-Earth; launched 9/8/1976. On August 11, the flight trajectory was corrected. On August 14, 1976, the spacecraft reached the vicinity of the Moon and was transferred to a circular selenocentric orbit with an altitude of 115 km above the surface of the Moon, an inclination of 120o to the lunar equator. On August 16 and 17, corrections were made to form a pre-landing orbit with a low relocation of 12 km and a relocation of 120 km; sh. and 62° 12′ E. e. The soil sampling device (the drill had an outer diameter of 15 mm, an inner diameter of 8 mm, a length of 3157 mm, a stroke of 2575 mm), on command from the Earth, drilled the lunar soil to a depth of ~2 m. The samples taken were placed in the container of the takeoff stage return vehicle , which launched to Earth on August 19. On August 22, 1976, the return vehicle with lunar soil samples reached the Earth and made a soft landing in the calculated area. The mass of soil delivered to Earth is 170.1 g.
The launches of the spacecraft of the Luna series were carried out by the carrier rocket - Vostok (Luna-1 - Luna-3), the Molniya launch vehicle (Luna-4 - Luna-14), rocket -carrier "Proton" with an additional 4th stage ("Luna-15" - Luna-24).
Fig.1
On January 2, 1959, the first ever launch towards a night star took place. Luna-1 ("Dream", as the journalists called it) passed in the vicinity of the Moon and became the first ever artificial satellite of the Sun (Fig. 1). Its mass is 361 kg. It reached the second cosmic velocity for the first time and passed at a distance of six thousand kilometers from the Moon. The station housed scientific instruments for studying the Earth's radiation belts, cosmic rays, and meteor particles.
The American AMS "Pioneer 4", weighing only 6 kg, launched on March 3, 1959, passed much further from the Moon - only 60500 km.
victory Soviet engineers was the launch of September 14, 1959 AMS "Luna 2". She reached the lunar surface, and delivered to the moon a metal disk with the coat of arms of the USSR. Scientific instruments have shown that the Moon has virtually no magnetic field. This flight showed that all calculations were performed correctly.
Fig.2
Already in the next flight, Luna 3 circled our satellite (Fig. 2). Phototelevision equipment was placed on board this station, which for the first time transmitted to Earth images of part of the visible and invisible sides of the Moon. These were the very first photographs taken from space. There was a lot of interference on them, but scientists still revealed many details of the far side of the moon. The SAI, TsNIIGAiK, Pulkovo and Kharkov observatories took part in the processing of these images. Thanks to the method of identifying relief details, developed under the guidance of Yu.N. Lipsky, it was this group of researchers who managed to identify craters and other relief formations. This is how the world's first map of the far side of the moon appeared.
A few years later, photographing of individual sections of the surface of the visible hemisphere was carried out by the American spacecraft Ranger 7,8,9. These devices crashed, but during the fall they transmitted images of various resolutions to Earth.
In 1965 the Soviet space station Zond completed photography of the far side of the moon. It turned out that there are fewer dark areas of the surface, but there were as many craters as on visible side Moons, some of them were named after scientists and astronauts. And, finally, the first complete map of the lunar surface was created. It was compiled under the scientific guidance of Yu.N. Lipsky.
The first soft landing was carried out automatically interplanetary station Luna 9 in 1966 The landing method was proposed by the chief designer S.P. Korolev. The station's television cameras transmitted to Earth panoramas of the surrounding area with a resolution of several millimeters.
In 1966, artificial satellites Luna 10,11,12 were launched into orbit around the Moon. The equipment included instruments for spectral analysis, gamma radiation and infrared radiation.
In 1966, the American Surveyor 1 landed softly on the moon and transmitted images of the surface for six weeks.
In June 1968, the Surveyor made a soft landing and examined samples of lunar soil.
After that, the Americans began preparations for sending a manned spacecraft to the moon. At the same time, they relied on the results of the flights of the Soviet automatic stations "Zond", which in the autumn of 1968 for the first time traveled along the route Earth - Moon - Earth. The problem of returning spacecraft from interplanetary flights was solved. "Surveyor 3, 5, 6, 7" (1966-1967) were launched to study the lunar surface, to select the landing site for the Apollo spacecraft.
Five American artificial satellites "Lunar Orbiter" photographed the lunar surface and studied its gravitational field.
Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed on July 20, 1969. The astronauts installed a laser reflector, a seismometer, took pictures, collected 22 kg of lunar soil samples, having walked about 100 meters from the lander and stayed on the surface for 2 hours and 30 minutes. In the main block in orbit was Michael Collins.
Soviet automatic stations "Luna 16, 20, 24" with the help of a special soil-collecting device automatically collected rock and delivered it to Earth in return vehicles.
Self-propelled vehicles "Lunokhod 1, 2" carried out research along the path of movement of 10.5 and 37 km, transmitting to Earth many images and panoramas of the surrounding area, as well as data on physical and chemical composition lunar soil. With the help of a laser reflector installed on the lunar rover, it was possible to determine the distance from the Earth to the Moon.
In 1958, the United States created National Administration for aeronautics and space exploration - NASA. It was originally planned that the astronauts would fly as early as 1958, but numerous problems pushed back the launch date. The ship that put the astronauts into orbit was called Mercury. The cockpit of the Mercury was very cramped and uncomfortable. In 1965, NASA accepted new program space flights"Gemini". The ships of this series turned out to be much more perfect and more convenient. The last ship of the Gemini 12 series flew in November 1966. But much earlier than this, NASA developed a project called Apollo. The Apollo series turned out to be the most perfect of all that CLIA designers have managed to create so far. The ship could accommodate three astronauts, had a reliable descent module and a docking module. He had the ability to dock simultaneously with several ships. But even such a perfect apparatus had its drawbacks. One of them caused the tragedy at the launch complex. During pre-flight training, a short circuit occurred in the electrical network. In a matter of minutes, the flames engulfed the entire site and astronauts Virgil Grissom, Edward White Roger Chaffee died.
Died almost at the same time Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the Soyuz experimental spacecraft.
Long break from 1977 to 1990 in the exploration of the Moon by spacecraft is apparently explained by the rethinking of programs related to further research and preparation of new generation spacecraft.
Japan in March 1990, with its Nissan rocket, launched into orbit around the moon automatic apparatus"Mycec A", with a view remote research surface of the moon. However, this program failed.
Spectral imaging of the lunar surface in 1990 and 1992 was carried out by the American AMS "Galileo", which, moving along a complex orbit to Jupiter, returned to the Earth twice and photographed its satellite.
The Clementine spacecraft, launched in 1994, in addition to photographing the surface of the Moon using a laser transmitter, measured the heights of the relief, and the model was refined using trajectory data gravitational field and some other options.
Special measurements in the region of the poles have shown that there may be pieces of ice at the bottom of permanently shaded deep craters.
Launched in January 1998, the American spacecraft "Lunar Prospector" was specially designed to clarify the areas occupied by ice in the polar regions. Based on data transmitted by spacecraft from an orbit of 100 km, it is assumed that the Moon has an iron silicate core 300 km in size. Extensive research was carried out by this apparatus from a low orbit of 25 km.
Tags
Soviet automatic station "Luna"
"Luna-1"- the first AMS in the world, launched into the region of the Moon on January 2, 1959. Having passed near the Moon at a distance of 5-6 thousand km from its surface, on January 4, 1959, AMS left the sphere of Earth's gravity and turned into the first artificial planet of the Solar System with parameters: perihelion 146.4 million km and aphelion 197.2 million km. The final mass of the last (3rd) stage of the launch vehicle (LV) with AMS "Luna-1" is 1472 kg. The mass of the container "Luna-1" with equipment is 361.3 kg. The AMS housed radio equipment, a telemetry system, a set of instruments and other equipment. The instruments are designed to study the intensity and composition of cosmic rays, the gaseous component of interplanetary matter, meteor particles, solar corpuscular radiation, and the interplanetary magnetic field. At the last stage of the rocket, equipment was installed for the formation of a sodium cloud - an artificial comet. On January 3, a visually observable golden-orange sodium cloud was formed at a distance of 113,000 km from Earth. During the flight of "Luna-1" the second cosmic velocity was achieved for the first time. For the first time, strong flows of ionized plasma have been registered in interplanetary space. In the world press, AMS "Luna-1" was called "Dream".
"Luna-2" September 12, 1959 made the world's first flight to another celestial body. On September 14, 1959, the Luna-2 AMS and the last stage of the launch vehicle reached the surface of the Moon (west of the Sea of Clarity, near the craters Aristillus, Archimedes and Autolycus) and delivered pennants depicting the State Emblem of the USSR. The final mass of the AMS with the last stage of the launch vehicle is 1511 kg with the mass of the container, as well as scientific and measuring equipment, 390.2 kg. An analysis of the scientific information obtained by Luna-2 showed that the Moon practically does not have its own magnetic field and radiation belt.
Luna-2
"Luna-3" launched on October 4, 1959. The final mass of the last stage of the launch vehicle with AMS "Luna-3" is 1553 kg, while the mass of scientific and measuring equipment with power sources is 435 kg. The equipment included systems: radio engineering, telemetry, photo-television, orientation relative to the Sun and Moon, power supply with solar batteries, thermal control, as well as a complex of scientific equipment. Moving along a trajectory around the Moon, the AMS passed at a distance of 6200 km from its surface. October 7, 1959 photographed from the Luna-3 back side Moon. Cameras with long- and short-focus lenses photographed almost half of the surface of the lunar ball, one third of which was in the marginal zone of the side visible from the Earth, and two thirds - on the invisible side. After processing the film on board, the resulting images were transmitted by a photo-television system to Earth when the station was 40,000 km away from it. The Luna-3 flight was the first experience of studying another celestial body with the transmission of its image from a spacecraft. After flying around the Moon, AMS switched to an elongated, elliptical satellite orbit with an apogee altitude of 480,000 km. Having made 11 revolutions in orbit, it entered the earth's atmosphere and ceased to exist.
Luna-3
"Luna-4" - "Luna-8"- AMS launched in 1963-65 for further research The moon and working out a soft landing on it of a container with scientific equipment. Experimental testing of the entire complex of systems providing a soft landing was completed, including systems for celestial orientation, control of onboard radio equipment, radio monitoring of the flight path and autonomous control devices. The mass of AMS after separation from the upper stage of the launch vehicle is 1422-1552 kg.
Luna-4
"Luna-9"- AMS, for the first time in the world, carried out a soft landing on the Moon and transmission of an image of its surface to Earth. Launched on January 31, 1966 by a 4-stage launch vehicle using a reference satellite orbits. The automatic lunar station landed on February 3, 1966 in the area of the Ocean of Storms, west of the craters Reiner and Mariy, at a point with coordinates 64° 22" W and 7° 08" N. sh. Panoramas of the lunar landscape were transmitted to Earth (with different angles sun above the horizon). 7 radio communication sessions (lasting more than 8 hours) were conducted to transmit scientific information. The AMS operated on the Moon for 75 hours. Luna-9 consists of an AMS designed to operate on the lunar surface, a compartment with control equipment, and a propulsion system for trajectory correction and deceleration before landing. The total mass of "Luna-9" after launching on the flight path to the Moon and separation from the upper stage of the launch vehicle is 1583 kg. The mass of AMS after landing on the moon is 100 kg. In its hermetic case are placed: television equipment, radio communication equipment, program-time device, scientific equipment, thermal control system, power supplies. Images of the lunar surface transmitted by Luna 9 and a successful landing were crucial for further flights to the Moon.
Luna-9
"Luna-10"- the first artificial satellite of the moon (ASL). Launched on March 31, 1966. The mass of the AMS on the flight route to the Moon is 1582 kg, the mass of the ASL, separated on April 3 after the transition to a selenocentric orbit, is 240 kg. Orbital parameters: periselenium 350 km, apopulation 1017 km, orbital period 2 h 58 min 15 sec, inclination of the plane of the lunar equator 71° 54". active work equipment 56 days. During this time, the ASL made 460 orbits around the Moon, 219 radio communication sessions were conducted, information was obtained on the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Moon, the Earth's magnetic plume, into which the Moon and ASL fell more than once, as well as indirect data on the chemical composition and radioactivity of the surface lunar rocks. From the ISL, the melody of the "Internationale" was transmitted to Earth by radio, for the first time - during the work of the 23rd Congress of the CPSU. For the creation and launch of the Luna-9 and Luna-10 AMS, the International Aviation Federation (FAI) awarded Soviet scientists, designers and workers with an honorary diploma.
Luna-10
"Luna-11"- second ISL; launched on August 24, 1966. Mass of AMS 1640 kg. On August 27, Luna-11 was transferred to a circumlunar orbit with the following parameters: periselenium 160 km, apopulation 1200 km, inclination 27°, orbital period 2 h 58 min. The ISL made 277 turns, having worked for 38 days. Scientific instruments continued the study of the Moon and circumlunar space, begun by the Luna-10 ISL. 137 radio communication sessions were carried out.
Luna-11
"Luna-12"- the third Soviet ISL; launched on October 22, 1966. Orbital parameters: migrations about 100 km, migrations 1740 km. AMS mass in ISL orbit is 1148 kg. Luna-12 was active for 85 days. On board the ISL, in addition to scientific equipment, there was a high-resolution photo-television system (1100 lines); with its help, large-scale images of sections of the lunar surface in the region of the Sea of Rains, the crater Aristarkh and others (craters up to 15-20 m in size, and individual objects up to 5 m in size) were obtained and transmitted to Earth. The station operated until January 19, 1967. 302 radio sessions were conducted. On the 602nd orbit, after the flight program was completed, radio contact with the station was interrupted.
Luna-12
"Luna-13"- the second AMS to make a soft landing on the moon. It was launched on December 21, 1966. On December 24, it landed in the area of the Ocean of Storms at a point with selenographic coordinates 62° 03" W and 18° 52" N. sh. The mass of AMS after landing on the moon is 112 kg. With the help of a mechanical soil meter, a dynamograph, and a radiation densitometer, data were obtained on the physical and mechanical properties of the surface layer of the lunar soil. Gas-discharge counters that registered cosmic corpuscular radiation made it possible to determine the reflectivity of the lunar surface for cosmic rays. 5 large panoramas of the lunar landscape were transmitted to Earth at different heights of the Sun above the horizon.
Luna-13
"Luna-14"- the fourth Soviet ISL. Launched on April 7, 1968. Orbital parameters: 160 km pervillage, 870 km pervillage. The ratio of the masses of the Earth and the Moon was refined; the gravitational field of the Moon and its shape were studied by the method of systematic long-term observations of changes in the parameters of the orbit; the conditions for the transmission and stability of radio signals transmitted from the Earth to the ASL and back at various positions relative to the Moon, in particular, when passing over the lunar disk, were studied; cosmic rays and fluxes of charged particles coming from the Sun were measured. Received Additional Information to build an accurate theory of the motion of the moon.
"Luna-15" launched July 13, 1969, three days before the launch of Apollo 11. The purpose of this station was to take samples of the lunar soil. Entered lunar orbit at the same time as Apollo 11. If successful, our stations could take soil samples and for the first time make a start from the Moon and return to Earth before the Americans. Yu.I. Mukhin’s book “Anti-Apollo: the US lunar scam” says: “although the probability of a collision was much lower than in the sky over Lake Constance, the Americans asked the USSR Academy of Sciences about the parameters of the orbit of our AMS, they were informed. For some reason, the AMS hung in orbit for a long time. Then it made a hard landing on the regolith. The Americans won the match. How? What do these days of Luna-15 circling around the Moon mean: problems that arose on board or ... negotiations of some authorities? Did our AMC collapse on its own, or was it helped to do it? Only Luna-16 was able to take soil samples.
Luna-15
"Luna-16"- AMS, which made the Earth-Moon-Earth flight for the first time and delivered samples of lunar soil. Launched on September 12, 1970. On September 17, it entered a selenocentric circular orbit with a distance of 110 km from the lunar surface, an inclination of 70 °, an orbital period of 1 hour 59 minutes. Subsequently, the complex problem of forming a pre-landing orbit with a low perilune was solved. A soft landing was made on September 20, 1970 in the area of the Sea of Plenty at a point with coordinates 56 ° 18 "E and 0 ° 41" S. sh. The soil intake device provided drilling and soil sampling. The Luna-Earth rocket was launched from the Moon on September 21, 1970, on command from the Earth. On September 24, the return vehicle was separated from the instrument compartment and landed in the calculated area. Luna-16 consists of a landing stage with a soil intake device and a Luna-Earth space rocket with a return vehicle. The mass of the AMS during landing on the surface of the moon is 1880 kg. The landing stage is an independent multi-purpose rocket block with a liquid-propellant rocket engine, a system of tanks with propellant components, instrument compartments and shock-absorbing supports for landing on the lunar surface.
Luna-16
"Luna-17"- AMS, which delivered the first automatic mobile scientific laboratory"Lunokhod-1". Launch of "Luna-17" - November 10, 1970, November 17 - soft landing on the Moon in the area of the Sea of Rains, at a point with coordinates 35 ° W. and 38°17" N. w.
During the development and creation of the lunar rover, Soviet scientists and designers faced the need to solve the complex difficult problems. It had to be created perfectly. new type machines capable of long time function in unusual conditions open space on the surface of another celestial body. Main tasks: creation of an optimal propulsion unit with high cross-country ability at low weight and power consumption, ensuring reliable operation and traffic safety; systems remote control the movement of the lunar rover; providing the necessary thermal regime with the help of a thermal control system that maintains the temperature of the gas in the instrument compartments, structural elements and equipment located inside and outside the sealed compartments (in open space during periods of lunar days and nights) within specified limits; selection of power sources, materials for structural elements; development of lubricants and lubrication systems for vacuum conditions and more.
Scientific equipment L. s. a. was supposed to ensure the study of topographic and selenium-morphological features of the area; determination of the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the soil; study of the radiation situation on the route of the flight to the Moon, in the circumlunar space and on the surface of the Moon; x-ray space radiation; experiments on laser location of the moon. First L. s. a. - the Soviet "Lunokhod-1" (Fig. 1), designed to conduct a large complex of scientific research on the surface of the Moon, was delivered to the Moon by the automatic interplanetary station "Luna-17" (see Error! Reference source not found.), worked on it surface from November 17, 1970 to October 4, 1971 and passed 10540 m. Lunokhod-1 consists of 2 parts: an instrument compartment and a wheeled chassis. The mass of "Lunokhod-1" is 756 kg. The sealed instrument compartment is shaped truncated cone. Its body is made of magnesium alloys, providing sufficient strength and lightness. The upper part of the compartment body is used as a radiator-cooler in the thermal control system and is closed with a lid. During the moonlit night, the cover closes the radiator and prevents heat from radiating from the compartment. During the lunar day, the lid is open, and the solar battery elements located on its inner side provide recharging of the batteries that supply the onboard equipment with electricity.
The instrument compartment contains thermal control systems, power supply, receiving and transmitting devices of the radio complex, remote control system devices and electronic converters of scientific equipment. In the front part there are: windows of television cameras, an electric drive of a mobile highly directional antenna, which serves to transmit television images of the lunar surface to Earth; a low-directional antenna that provides reception of radio commands and transmission of telemetry information, scientific instruments and an optical corner reflector made in France. On the left and right sides are installed: 2 panoramic telephoto cameras (in each pair one of the cameras is structurally combined with a local vertical determinant), 4 whip antennas for receiving radio commands from the Earth in a different frequency range. An isotopic source of thermal energy is used to heat the gas circulating inside the apparatus. Next to it is a device for determining the physical and mechanical properties of the lunar soil.
Sharp temperature changes during the change of day and night on the surface of the moon, as well as big difference temperatures between the parts of the apparatus, located in the sun and in the shade, necessitated the development of a special thermal control system. At low temperatures during the moonlit night, to heat the instrument compartment, the circulation of the heat-carrier gas through the cooling circuit is automatically stopped and the gas is directed to the heating circuit.
The lunar rover's power supply system consists of solar and chemical buffer batteries, as well as automatic control devices. The solar battery drive is controlled from the Earth; while the cover can be installed at any angle between zero and 180°, necessary for maximum use of solar energy.
The onboard radio complex ensures the reception of commands from the Control Center and the transmission of information from the spacecraft to the Earth. A number of systems of the radio complex are used not only when working on the surface of the Moon, but also during the flight from the Earth. Two television systems L. s. a. serve to solve independent tasks. The low-frame television system is designed to transmit to Earth television images of the terrain necessary for the crew controlling the movement of the lunar rover from Earth. The possibility and expediency of using such a system, which is characterized by a lower television standard image transmission rate was dictated by specific lunar conditions. The main one is the slow change of the landscape during the movement of the lunar rover. The second television system is used to obtain a panoramic image of the surrounding area and to shoot sections of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth for the purpose of astroorientation. The system consists of 4 panoramic telephoto cameras.
The self-propelled chassis provides a solution to a fundamentally new task of astronautics - the movement of an automatic laboratory on the surface of the moon. It is designed in such a way that the lunar rover has a high cross-country ability and reliable operation for a long time with a minimum own weight and power consumption. The landing gear provides the movement of the lunar rover forward (with 2 speeds) and backward, turns on the spot and in motion. It consists of a running gear, an automation unit, a traffic safety system, a device and a set of sensors for determining the mechanical properties of the soil and evaluating the passability of the chassis. The turn is achieved due to different speeds of rotation of the wheels of the right and left sides and a change in the direction of their rotation. Braking is carried out by switching the chassis traction motors into the electrodynamic braking mode. To keep the lunar rover on slopes and to stop it completely, disc brakes with electromagnetic control are activated. The automation unit controls the movement of the lunar rover by radio commands from the Earth, measures and controls the main parameters of the self-propelled chassis and the automatic operation of instruments for studying the mechanical properties of the lunar soil. The traffic safety system provides automatic stop when limit angles roll and trim and overloads of the electric motors of the wheels.
The device for determining the mechanical properties of the lunar soil allows you to quickly obtain information about the ground conditions of motion. The distance traveled is determined by the number of revolutions of the drive wheels. To take into account their slippage, an amendment is made, determined with the help of a freely rolling ninth wheel, which is lowered to the ground by a special drive and rises to its original position. The apparatus is controlled from the Center for Far space communications crew consisting of commander, driver, navigator, operator, flight engineer.
The driving mode is selected as a result of the evaluation of television information and on-line telemetry data on the magnitude of the roll, the trim of the distance traveled, the state and modes of operation of the wheel drives. Under the conditions of space vacuum, radiation, significant temperature fluctuations and difficult terrain along the route, all systems and scientific instruments of the lunar rover functioned normally, ensuring the implementation of both the main and additional programs of scientific research on the Moon and outer space, as well as engineering and design tests.
Luna-17
"Lunokhod-1" examined the lunar surface in detail over an area of 80,000 m2. For this, more than 200 panoramas and over 20,000 surface images were obtained using television systems. At more than 500 points along the route, the physical and mechanical properties of the surface layer of the soil were studied, and at 25 points, an analysis of its chemical composition was carried out. The cessation of the active operation of Lunokhod-1 was caused by the depletion of the resources of its isotopic heat source. At the end of the work, it was placed on an almost horizontal platform in a position in which the corner reflector ensured many years of laser ranging from the Earth.
"Lunokhod-1"
"Luna-18" It was launched on September 2, 1971. In orbit, the station carried out maneuvers in order to work out methods of automatic circumlunar navigation and landing on the Moon. Luna 18 completed 54 orbits. 85 radio communication sessions were carried out (checking the operation of systems, measuring the parameters of the trajectory of movement). On September 11, the braking propulsion system was turned on, the station deorbited and reached the Moon in the mainland surrounding the Sea of Plenty. The landing area was chosen in a mountainous area of great scientific interest. As the measurements showed, the landing of the station in these difficult topographic conditions turned out to be unfavorable.
"Luna-19"- the sixth Soviet ISL; was launched on September 28, 1971. On October 3, the station entered a selenocentric circular orbit with the following parameters: height above the surface of the Moon 140 km, inclination 40° 35", orbital period 2 h 01 min 45 sec. On November 26 and 28, the station was transferred to a new orbit. systematic long-term observations of the evolution of its orbit in order to obtain necessary information to refine the gravitational field of the Moon. The characteristics of the interplanetary magnetic field in the vicinity of the Moon were continuously measured. Photographs of the lunar surface were sent to Earth.
"Luna-19"
"Luna-20" launched on February 14, 1972. On February 18, as a result of deceleration, it was transferred to a circular selenocentric orbit with parameters: altitude 100 km, inclination 65°, orbital period 1 h 58 min. On February 21, it made a soft landing on the surface of the Moon for the first time in the mountainous continental region between the Sea of Plenty and the Sea of Crises, at a point with selenographic coordinates 56 ° 33 "E and 3 ° 32" N. sh. Luna-20 is similar in design to Luna-16. The soil sampling mechanism drilled the lunar soil and took samples, which were placed in the container of the return vehicle and sealed. February 23 launched from the moon space rocket with the returned device. On February 25, the Luna-20 AMS reentry vehicle landed in the estimated area of the USSR territory. Samples of lunar soil were delivered to Earth, taken for the first time in the inaccessible continental region of the Moon.
"Luna-21" delivered to the surface of the moon "Lunokhod-2". The launch was carried out on January 8, 1973. Luna 21 made a soft landing on the Moon on the eastern edge of the Sea of Clarity, inside the Lemonnier crater, at a point with coordinates 30 ° 27 "E and 25 ° 51" N. sh. January 16 from the landing stage "Luna-21" went down the ladder "Lunokhod-2".
"Luna-21"
On January 16, 1973, Lunokhod-2 was delivered to the region of the eastern outskirts of the Sea of Clarity (the ancient crater Lemonnier) with the help of the Luna-21 automatic station. The choice of the indicated landing area was dictated by the expediency of obtaining new data from the complex junction zone of the sea and the mainland (and also, according to some researchers, in order to verify the authenticity of the American landing on the moon). Improvement in the design of on-board systems, as well as the installation of additional instruments and the expansion of the capabilities of the equipment, made it possible to significantly increase maneuverability and carry out a large amount of scientific research. For 5 lunar days in conditions of difficult terrain, Lunokhod-2 covered a distance of 37 km.
"Lunokhod-2"
"Luna-22" It was launched on May 29, 1974 and entered lunar orbit on June 9. It performed the functions of an artificial satellite of the Moon, research of the circumlunar space (including the meteorite environment).
"Luna-23" It was launched on October 28, 1974 and made a soft landing on the Moon on November 6. Probably, its launch was timed to the next anniversary of the Great October Revolution. The tasks of the station included the capture and study of lunar soil, however, the landing took place in an area with unfavorable terrain, due to which the soil sampling device broke down. On November 6-9, the studies were carried out according to a reduced program.
"Luna-24" was launched on August 9, 1976 and landed on August 18 in the area of the Sea of Crisis. The task of the station was to take "marine" lunar soil (despite the fact that "Luna-16" took soil on the border of the sea and the mainland, and "Luna-20" - on the mainland region). The take-off module with lunar soil was launched from the Moon on August 19, and on August 22 the capsule with soil reached the Earth.
"Luna-24"
