Deductive and inductive methods express a fundamentally important feature of the learning process. It consists in the ability to reveal the logic of the content of the material. The application of these models is the choice of a certain line of disclosure of the essence of the topic - from the general to the particular and vice versa. Consider further what the deductive and inductive methods are.
Inductio
The word induction comes from a Latin term. It means the transition from specific, single knowledge about certain objects of the class to a general conclusion about all related objects. The inductive method of cognition is based on data obtained during the experiment and observations.
Meaning
The inductive method takes special place in scientific events. It includes, first of all, the obligatory accumulation of experimental information. This information serves as a basis for further generalizations, presented in the form scientific hypotheses, classifications and so on. However, it should be noted that such methods are often not enough. This is due to the fact that the conclusions obtained in the course of the accumulation of experience often turn out to be false when new facts arise. In this case, the inductive-deductive method is used. The limitation of the study model "from the particular to the general" is also manifested in the fact that the information obtained with the help of it does not in itself act as necessary. In this regard, the inductive method must be supplemented by comparison.
Classification
The inductive method can be complete. In this case, the conclusion is made based on the results of the study of absolutely all subjects presented in a particular class. There is also incomplete induction. In this case general conclusion is the result of considering only some homogeneous phenomena or objects. Due to the fact that in real world it is not possible to study all the facts; an incomplete inductive research method is used. The conclusions drawn from this are plausible. The reliability of inferences increases in the selection process rather a large number cases about which the generalization is built. At the same time, the facts themselves must be different and reflect not random, but essential properties of the object of study. If these conditions are met, one can avoid common mistakes such as jumping to conclusions, confusing a simple sequence of events with causal relationships between them, and so on.
Bacon's inductive method
It is presented in the work "New Organon". Bacon was extremely dissatisfied with the state of the sciences in his period. In this regard, he decided to update the methods of studying nature. Bacon believed that this would not only make reliable existing sciences and art, but will also provide an opportunity to discover new disciplines unknown to man. Many scholars noted the incompleteness and vagueness of the presentation of the concept. There is a common misconception that the inductive method in the New Organon is presented as easy way study from a specific, single experience to universally valid provisions. However, this model was used before the creation of this work. Bacon in his concept argued that no one can find the nature of the object in itself. The study needs to be extended to the "general" scale. He explained this by the fact that the elements hidden in some things may have an ordinary and obvious nature in others.
Model application
The inductive method is widely used in school education. For example, a teacher, explaining what is specific gravity, for comparison takes various substances in one volume and weighs. AT this case there is an incomplete induction, since not all, but only some objects are involved in the explanation. The model is also widely used in experimental (experimental) disciplines; on its basis, the corresponding educational materials. Some clarification of terms should be given here. In the sentence, the word "experimental" is used as a characteristic of the empirical side of science, by analogy with such a concept as "prototype". In this case, the sample did not gain experience, but participated in the experiment. The inductive method is used in lower grades. Children in primary school get to know different natural phenomena. This allows them to enrich their little experience and knowledge about the world around them. In the upper grades, the information obtained in elementary school serves as a base for the assimilation of generalizing data. The inductive method is used when it is necessary to show a pattern that is characteristic of all objects/phenomena of one category, but its proof cannot yet be offered. The use of this model makes it possible to make the generalization obvious and convincing, to present the conclusion as arising from the facts studied. This will be a kind of proof of the pattern.
Specificity
The weakness of induction is that it takes longer to deal with new material. This learning model is lesser degree contributes to the improvement of abstract thinking, since it is based on concrete facts, experience and other data. The inductive method should not become universal in teaching. According to current trends, suggesting an increase in educational programs amount of information theoretical and the introduction of appropriate learning models, the importance of other logistical forms of presentation of the material is also increasing. First of all, the role of deduction, analogy, hypothesis and others increases. The considered model is effective when the information is mainly actual character or is connected with the formation of concepts, the essence of which can become clear only with such reasoning.
Deductio
deductive method implies a transition from a general conclusion about an object of a certain class to a particular, single knowledge about a separate object from this group. It can be used to predict events that have not yet occurred. In this case, the general studied patterns serve as the basis. Deduction is widely used in proving, substantiating, testing assumptions and hypotheses. Thanks to her, the most important scientific discoveries. The deductive method does essential role in the formation of the logical orientation of thinking. It helps develop the ability to use known information while learning new material. Within the framework of deduction, each specific case is studied as a link in the chain, their relationship is considered. This allows you to get data that goes beyond the initial conditions. Using this information, the researcher makes new conclusions. When the original objects are included in newly emerging connections, previously unknown properties of objects are revealed. The deductive method contributes to the application of the acquired knowledge in practice, general theoretical provisions who wear exclusively abstract character, to specific events with which people have to meet in life.
The formal-logical methods of research also include induction and deduction.
The term "induction" is used in three senses:
Inductive form of reasoning: from knowledge about individual subjects to knowledge about all subjects of a given class;
Inductive form of presentation: from the description of single facts to general knowledge;
Inductive research method: from the study of single features, single objects to finding common essential features, knowledge about the entire class of objects.
There are three inductive forms of reasoning:
Full induction;
Popular induction;
Scientific induction.
Complete induction is a form of inference in which the class of an object, connections, phenomena, processes is quantitatively limited and amenable to exhaustive research.
Popular induction is a form of reasoning from the particular to the general based on a simple enumeration of features. On the basis of repeatability and the absence of a contradictory feature, it is concluded that the feature under consideration belongs to all objects of this class. But the fact that contradictory signs are absent does not mean that they are impossible or do not exist. Therefore, the conclusions here are only probable. This is a way of getting a guess, an assumption (“maybe”, “maybe”).
Scientific induction is a form of inference through selection that excludes random generalizations. It is based on knowledge of the laws of development of any classification (nature, technology, social system, etc.), based on which they form a sample population that is representative of the general population. This form of induction is most common in sociological studies of control systems.
The deductive method is a way of mediating knowledge, in which a transition is made from knowledge of a large generality to knowledge of a lesser generality. According to the rule of the deductive method from general knowledge a single (private) knowledge can be obtained due to the causally determined regular connection of phenomena and processes. The deductive form of cognition is realized through syllogisms - an indirect inference in which a third judgment is derived from two categorical judgments connected by a common middle term.
The main rule, or axiom, of the syllogism is next judgment: "Everything that is affirmed (denied) with respect to each subject is also affirmed with respect to any part of the subject."
In order for the syllogism to give this knowledge, the premises must be true. It is possible to obtain a true conclusion from true premises only if a number of local rules of syllogism are unconditionally observed:
There should be only three terms, since inferential knowledge is based on the ratio of the two extreme terms to the middle one;
At least one of the premises must be a general proposition (a conclusion does not necessarily follow from two particular premises);
At least one of the premises must be affirmative (the conclusion does not necessarily follow from two negative premises);
If one of the premises is particular, then the conclusion must be particular;
If one of the premises is negative, then the conclusion must also be negative.
In relation to managerial situations, the deductive method allows one to make reasonable conclusions about the essence of the events, if the real situation can be attributed to some typical situations. This can be used in the learning process to gain managerial experience.
The practical success of using the classification in the study is also determined by its following rules.
1. The rule of proportionality (adequacy). A classification is considered commensurate when the sum of the members of the division is equal to the divisible set. Each object belonging to a divisible set must be included in one of the formed classes. Violation of this rule gives an incomplete division and, therefore, distorts the idea of the subject of research.
2. The rule of externality (volumetric separation) of division members. The classes obtained as a result of division must be represented by external concepts, i.e. there should not be a single object of the divisible set that would simultaneously belong to several members of the division. Errors are due to mixing various bases, division criteria in one classification operation.
3. During a certain classification operation, it is impossible to change the basis of division, its criterion. Often there is a substitution of the criterion within the same classification procedure. This is unacceptable, as well as the vagueness of the criterion.
4. The bases of division or criteria can be not only simple, but also complex, including simultaneously several parameters of the object under study.
Induction is very wide in use scientific term. If we consider directly the term induction in philosophy, then it can be characterized as a kind of reasoning that comes from the particular to the general. Inductive reasoning connects events and their result, using not only the laws of logic, but also some actual representations. The most objective basis for the existence of this method is the universal connection of phenomena in nature.
For the first time, Socrates spoke about induction, and despite the fact that ancient meaning has little resemblance to the modern one, the period of its occurrence is considered 400 years BC.
The method of induction involves finding general definition concepts by comparing particular cases with each other and excluding false or too narrow definitions in their meaning. Another famous thinker of antiquity, Aristotle, defined induction as the ascent from honest understanding to the general.
Bacon's theory of induction
During the Renaissance, views on this method began to change. It began to be recommended as a natural and positive method, as opposed to the syllogistic method popular at that time. Francis Bacon, is traditionally considered to be the ancestor modern theory induction, despite the fact that it would not be superfluous to mention here his predecessor, the famous Leonardo da Vinci. The essence of Bacon's views on induction was that to generalize, it is necessary to adhere to all the rules.
How to develop induction?
It is necessary to make three reviews of the manifestation of any particular properties of various objects.
- Review of positive cases.
- Review of negative cases.
- An overview of those cases in which these properties manifested themselves to varying degrees.
And only then can generalization as such be made.
Psychic induction
This term can be deciphered as - the suggestion by one person to another of his worldview positions, which include value orientations, aspirations, beliefs. Moreover, the imposed worldview can be both quite normal and psychopathological.
The motivational induction method is a method founded by the famous Belgian psychologist Joseph Nutten. It goes through several stages.
- In the first stage, by completing unfinished sentences the main levers of personality motivation are indicated.
- At the second stage, the person is asked to place all the motivational components on the timeline.
Nutten also identified the main categories motivational components, which included:
The problem of induction from a philosophical point of view was developed in mid-eighteenth century. She was associated with famous personalities like David Hume and Thomas Hobbes, it was they who questioned the validity of this method. Their main idea was that - is it possible, based on the results of many previous events, to judge the results of an event that will occur in the future. An example of this is such a statement as - all people are kind, because previously we met only such people. To accept the method of induction as a true way of thinking or not is a personal matter for everyone, but given such a long period its existence, one has to admit that there are grains of truth in it.
Deduction it is a way of reasoning general provisions to private conclusions.
Deductive reasoning only concretizes our knowledge. The deductive conclusion contains only the information that is in the received premises. Deduction allows you to get new truths from existing knowledge with the help of pure reasoning.
Deduction gives a 100% guarantee of the correct conclusion (with reliable premises). Deduction from truth yields truth.
Example 1
All metals are plastic(b about the only valid premise or main argument).
Bismuth is a metal(valid posting).
Therefore, bismuth is plastic(correct conclusion).
Deductive reasoning that provides a true conclusion is called a syllogism.
Example 2
All politicians who allow contradictions are a laughingstock(b about the most reliable premise).
E ltsin B. N. allowed contradictions(valid posting).
Therefore, E.B.N. is a laughingstock(correct conclusion) .
Deduction from a lie gives a lie.
Example.
The help of the International Monetary Fund always and everyone leads to prosperity(false premise).
Russia has long been assisted by the IMF(valid posting).
Therefore, Russia is flourishing(false conclusion).
Induction - a way of reasoning from particular provisions to general conclusions.
The inductive conclusion may contain information that is not present in the received premises. The validity of the premises does not mean the validity of the inductive conclusion. The premises give the conclusion greater or lesser probability.
Induction gives not reliable, but probabilistic knowledge that needs verification.
Example 1
G. M. S. - pea jester, E. B. N. - pea jester, C. A. B. - pea jester(valid postings).
G. M. S., E. B. N., C. A. B. – politicians(valid postings).
Therefore, all politicians are pea jesters(probabilistic conclusion).
The generalization is correct. However, there are politicians who can think.
Example 2
AT last years in area 1, in area 2 and in area 3 military exercises were carried out - the combat capability of units increased(valid postings).
In area 1, in area 2 and in area 3 units took part in the exercises Russian Army (valid postings).
Consequently, in recent years, combat capability has increased in all units of the Russian Army.(inductive unreliable conclusion).
From particular provisions does not follow a logically general conclusion. Display events do not prove that prosperity is everywhere and everywhere:
In fact, the overall combat effectiveness of the Russian Army is declining catastrophically.
A variant of induction is a conclusion by analogy (based on the similarity of two objects in one parameter, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other parameters as well).
Example. The planets Mars and Earth are similar in many ways. There is life on earth. Since Mars is similar to Earth, there is also life on Mars.
This conclusion is, of course, only probabilistic.
Any inductive conclusion needs verification.Dmitry Mezentsev (project coordinator " Russian Society Goodwill") 2011
