NEGATION
HOW REQUIRED ELEMENT
SUGGESTIONS

Actually negative sentences of this type in the forms of past. and bud. & nbsp. enter into relationships with sentences like There is where go, There is With by whom consult(see § ), which do not take negations in their original form, but take optional negations in other forms: It was (not It was) where go; Will be (not will be) With by whom consult. Compared with proper negative sentences, such forms are less common: Maybe, on this or more on which reason in German start grow annoyance, even anger, although get angry like and not It was on the whom(Bull.;/ get angry It was not on the whom); ghibli from hunger and from frost, from Togo, what not It was where get warm, translate spirit(M. Aleksandrov;/ nowhere It was get warm); Stayed those, at whom not It was on the how drive(I. Shamyakin; / at whom not on the how It was drive).

§  . Particle neither is included in the structure of proper negative sentences: Neither souls; Neither one human; Neither unified clouds; Neither slightest hope(See § ). These sentences often include nouns with diminutive suffixes that have the meaning of singularity ( Neither twinkle; Neither cloudlet; Neither asterisks), and with suf. - inca(a) denoting a small particle: Neither gray hairs; Neither blood; Neither specks of dust; Neither motes. It denies the existence of even one of the elements of this or that set, or even the smallest part of something whole. At the same time, the presence of not a specific single object, but similar objects in general is denied: in sentences On the sky neither asterisks, Today neither cloudlet the absence (at the moment) of stars or clouds is reported; similarly: Neither pennies(about the complete absence of money); Neither minutes(about the complete absence of time); Neither gray hairs(about the complete absence of gray hair); Neither slightest hope(about the complete lack of hope).

Such sentences enter into relations with proper negative sentences with No: Neither minutes - Not neither minutes; Neither cloudlet - Not neither cloudlet; Neither slightest hope - Not neither slightest hope. Semantic structures such proposals match.

§  . Pronouns nobody, nothing and pronoun adjective no in the form of a genus. . are included in the elementary grammatical basis of such strictly negative sentences as Nothing new; Relatives - nobody; None problems(see § ); pronouns here carry the meaning of complete negation.

These sentences, like sentences with the particle neither, enter into relations with proper negative sentences with the word No: Nothing interesting - Not nothing interesting; None problems - Not none problems.

WORD No
HOW EQUIVALENT SUGGESTIONS

§ 2650. negative word No as an equivalent of a sentence or its main member, it functions in a dialogue or as part of an adversative construction.

In dialogical speech No used in replies; the question can then either contain a negation or not. If the question does not contain a negative, then the word No in the answer is in the negative:- Do you have whether you With by whom from their correspondence? - Not(Sholoh.). In this case, the answer often repeats as a negation the corresponding part of the question: Knew whether Philip Petrovich, what the threat death already hung above him? Not, he not knew and not could know this(Fad.); - You scientist historian? - Not, - said... his companion, - No, I not scientist historian(quiet); Is Irochka suffered because, what lived in for a long time not painted, not very light room? Not, not suffered(Weather.). The answer may also include what is opposed to the denied:- You yesterday - was in theater? - Not, in circus; - Married you? Not, single; Should whether print out box With books? Not, his necessary send directly in Rome(A. Vinogradov); [Panova:] Scary under shells? [Love :] Not, fun(Tren.).

If the first replica contains a negative, then two types of answers are possible with No. a) Word No serves to confirm a negative (negative) answer: - You not read this book? - Not, not was reading; - Commanding not gave away orders about failure trophy weapons? - Not, - said Klimovich(Simon.); - Lyubushka, you me not fell out of love per these three months? - Not(Ketl.). It's also possible to repeat the relevant part of the question here:- BUT in possession estates not entered? - asked Baburin. - Not, not entered, - answered I(Turg.); - What, you not it's a pity what whether, what I food? - Not, not it's a pity(Simon.). b) Word No serves to negate a negative answer; to express disagreement, objections: - You not read this book? - Not, was reading. In this case, after No must be followed by the statement:- So how same, you more and not have seen grandfather? - asked Anna Andreevna. - Not, when mother became recover, then I met again grandfather(Dost.); You can reply, what dead envy myself you destiny, What dead shame not have, - Not, have, I will say I you(Simon.); - Natasha, you not understand... - Not, I all Understand, all! (Tendr.).

§  . As part of an adversative construction, the word No concentrates in itself the entire content of the negation, opposed to the affirmation: On the street noise, a here No; You fun, a to me No; Father at home, a mother No; many all generally epitaphs seem funny, but to me No, especially when remember about volume, what under them rests(Lerm.); I human free, wanderer from cities Tifliz, He speaks Ashik-Kerib; want I'll go, want No(Lerm.); You do you think Vronsky aristocrat, but I No(L. Thick.); - What same, Mitya, girls you love? - What kind love, a what kind and No(Sholoh.); On the work co everyone keep up, a at home - No(Ketl.).

In constructions with a separating union, the word No can act as an equivalent of the second part of the construction: Alive whether, No whether, God her knows(Pushk.); Right or No I I argue, Nastasya Efimovna? (Yu. Laptev).

OPTIONAL NEGATION

§  . Most sentences can be used with or without negation. Yes, in the proposal Brother not works in Sunday negation is included in the sentence, but its comparison with the sentence Brother works in Sunday shows that the minimum structural basis they have one and the same and that negation is not an element of this basis; similarly: Father teacher - Father not teacher; Here cold - Here not cold; Brother at home - Brother not at home. The function of optional negation is performed by the particle not, acting in preposition to those members of the sentence that are denied.

In two-part sentences negation is possible for any of the principal terms. However, it is usually used before the predicate, and in non-subject-predicate sentences - before the verb or predicate. In contrast to proper negative sentences, only the predicative sign is denied: Father already not works; Her brother not doctor; His the best painting more not written; Letter not from Moscow; Director not at myself; The main thing - not make a mistake; Lie - this is not new; call - not problem; Teach capable children not difficult; Not necessary sadden; Not I want to speak; time not enough; Seriousness not added.

Negation is also possible before the infinitive or before the nominal component (which in this case is often a rheme in the sentence): Hello, tribe young, unfamiliar! Not I I will see your mighty late age(Pushk.); One day It happened to me whole month not take pistol(Pushk.); However, I With you talk not will: in this stage not you main current face(Turg.); Us, Zhenya, necessary not lose friend friend from mind(Sholoh.); But drive there better With nights, afternoon can and not pass(Simon.); Need not convert attention on the her girlish craftiness(Ant.); What and talk, per table examination audience sat not angel(gas.).

Among one-component proposals freely accept the negation of the sentence of the conjugated-verbal and adverbial classes: Litvinov took per book, but to him not read(Turg.); Pigasov in life not lucky(Turg.); Them not persecuted. By him not shot after(Sholoh.); Maybe to be, we perish, to me not scary. Yes, to me at all not scary(Fad.); To him not slept. Not lived. Not read(Simon.); BUT he walked and cried. And to him It was not ashamed(Shuksh.).

In infinitive sentences, negation can introduce the meaning of prohibition: Not included!; Not speak!; tired trot runs through Officer, shouts: - Not fall behind! (Tendr.); Before graduation snowstorm With towers nowhere not go out, you you answer per of people(gas.).

In nominal class sentences, negation is associated with an expression of fear, undesirability (see § ): Only would not telegram!; Only would not he!; Though would not flu!; I remember about war: If a b not war! (Yashin); Here if would only not this second escort(Yu. Slepuhin).

Determination is typical for nominal sentences with negation: I live want, and drink, and there is, Want heat and Sveta, And affairs no to me, what here at you winter, not summer(Tward.); - On the war he would under tribunal went - here where, said Tsaplin. - Now not war, - answered Fedya(I. Zverev); - resign, Voronikhin, here not library, - angrily said Shepherds(Chuck.); And not run So. to me already not twenty years(Chuck.). Without determinants, the use of such sentences is usually determined by the context: BUT you not joke. Tell jokes not time. Not the first May(Ant.); What she is dressed up So? Not holiday!; Why you without coat going? Not summer!; Well, what she is crying? Will serve two year old and will return. Not war(colloquial speech).

§  . In an extended sentence, an optional negation can be found with any extending member (which often serves as a rheme): He was reading not newspaper; They are went not in theatre; They are are engaged in library not our district; Not from-per them noise; Not at her flu; Not often meet such people; Hope not catch his at home applied in dust(Czech.); Resentment only strengthened Sintsova in decision not come back in editorial without good combat material(Simon.); I'm starting read not textbooks(Shkl.); Much depends not from me(A. Vinogradov); But Michelangelo wrote not books(G. Boyadzhiev); I not entirely them believed(N. Mikhailov); Not once residents farms Southern evicted in rear(Sheep.); Not always guilt per bad projects lies on the some only designers(gas.).

The negation before a group of word forms can refer to this group as a whole. Such a relation is indicated by the context or opposition: Watched she is on the us boldly, in emphasis, like we were not new for her people, a animals zoological garden(Czech.); Near sofa stood girl With pigtails and joyful eyes watched on the Potapova, but not on the his face, a on the golden patches on the sleeve(Paust.); We not remember in this minute all books, which we read, all truths, which us said, we remember not all earth, a only scrap land, not all of people, a woman on the station(Simon.). In these sentences, negation refers to the entire group of word forms: not - new for her people, not - on the his face, not - all earth, not - all of people.

The reference of negation to one separate word form is indicated by the opposition to this particular word form: Boss Borisovsky garrison, on rumors, was where-then on the Minsk highway, but not on this side Borisova, a on that(Simon.); Judging on everything, war walked today on the Russian, a not on the German earth(Chuck.); AT Italy not one political the consignment and not two, a near ten(gas.).

To emphasize that negation refers only to a particular word form (or group of word forms), the particle not is placed between the preposition and the form following it. Yes, in the proposal Let's, Kostya, let's drink. Per our youth. And more per not our youth(D. Pavlova) word forms with and without negation are contrasted: per our youth and per not our youth. There may not be any opposition in such a sentence, but the placement of a negation between the preposition and the name attached to it already indicates that the negation is related only to the word or words that define this name: Through years and the mountains go people to not always apparently future(Shkl.); The words about not delayed in battalions battalion commanders not messed up to him sentiments(Simon.); But not So-then easily wave away from not giving rest thoughts(N. Pochivalin).

§  . A negation at the beginning of a sentence can refer either only to the word form that immediately follows it, or to the sentence as a whole. Yes, proposal Not train buzzing could mean like Not train - buzzing, and Not - train buzzing. In the first case, it is not the action that is denied, but the fact that this action is produced by the train ((it is not the train that is buzzing, but something else)); similarly: Not telephone calling, a alarm. In these cases, the position of the negative particle in any word order is always before the negated word form: Not train buzzing; buzzing not train; Not telephone calling; calling not telephone. In the second case ( Not - train buzzing) negation refers to the whole sentence, which can be opposed by another sentence: Not train buzzing, a thunder thunders; Not wind rages above boron, Not With mountains ran streams, Freezing-governor watch bypasses possessions their(Nekr.); Not Port-Arthur not needed, a all war this people our not need(Sart.). The position of the negation referring to the entire sentence, in any word order, is always at the absolute beginning of the sentence: Not train buzzing, a...; Not Port-Arthur not needed, a...

Negation in a sentence as a whole is characterized by special constructions of negative comparison with a demonstrative word then widely used in poetry and folklore. In these constructions, the compared situations are contrasted and, by negating one, the other is strengthened, the other is emphasized: That not wind branch tends, Not oak forest making noise - That my heart groans, How autumn sheet trembles(F. Stromilov); That not martin chirping, not playful killer whale thin strong beak yourself in solid rock nest hollowed out... That With stranger cruel family you little by little got used to Yes got used to, my patient smart girl! (Turg.). Position then may not be busy: Not ice cracking, Not mosquito squeaks, That godfather before godfathers zander drags(folk song); Not winds blow violent, Not mother-Earth swaying - Noisy, sings, swears, swinging, lying around, fights and kissing at holiday people(Nekr.); Not wind buzzing on feather grass, Not wedding train thunders, - Native on Proclus howled, By Proclus a family wails(Nekr.); That not dawns in jets lakes mine weaved pattern, Your handkerchief, sewing decorated, flashed per slope(Esen.).

NEGATION GENERAL And PRIVATE

§  . Matching sentences such as: 1)  Brother not went yesterday in library, 2) Not brother went yesterday in library, 3) Brother went not yesterday in library and 4) Brother went yesterday not in library shows that negation has a different character. In the first sentence, the predicative sign is denied, and through it the whole situation that is being reported. Negation with a predicate or main member expressing a predicative attribute gives a negative meaning to the entire sentence. Such a negation is called general, and sentences with such a negation - generally negative. In the second sentence, the negation refers to the bearer of the sign, but the action itself is not negated ((not a brother, but someone else went to the library)); in the third and fourth sentences, respectively, the time or place of the action is denied, but the action itself is not denied ((brother did not go to the library yesterday, but at some other time) and (brother did not go to the library yesterday, but somewhere else)) . The negation in the second, third and fourth sentences does not refer to the situation as a whole, but only to some part of it, i.e.  е. is of a private nature. Such proposals are called privately negative. Partial negation is connected with the actual division of the sentence: the part of the sentence with private negation, as a rule, is a rheme.

A private character can also be negated with the predicate: He not went in library, a traveled. Here, not the whole situation is denied, but only the nature of the action that took place. verb predicate in this case, it performs the function of a rheme: Not is reading he, a writes; Not walked he, a flew.

Different possibilities of opposition are connected with the general and particular character of negation.

In private negative sentences, a negated member can always be opposed to some other - affirmed: Not brother went in library, a father; Brother went not yesterday in library, a today in the morning; Brother went yesterday not in library, a in movie. In the text, private negation is often accompanied by such a contrast: act, but only neither in who case not near Gremyachy and not in farm, a where-someday in steppes(Sholoh.); From second travel on the Arbatskaya arrow we With Nikolaev arrived back in Simferopol not at night 23 September, how this is said in diary, a in night on the 23 September(Simon.); We not forgot about danger, but lived thoughts not about war, a about world(N. Mikhailov); Golubov was dressed So, like rode not on the work, a in movie(Ant.); But on the this once exam handed over not musician, a tool - first violin, manufactured in Mongolia(gas.).

In general negative sentences, there is no need for opposition: Brother not went in library; I not requested at you this book; He for a long time not was getting letters. Here only proposals can be contrasted: I not requested at you this book, a you themselves to me her have brought.

Note. Only the opposition of sentences is also possible in those cases when actually negative and non-negative sentences of different grammatical structure are opposed: Mermaids not exists - Mermaids exist; Yesterday not received letters - Yesterday received letters; At him No time - At him there is time; Them not about how tell - Them there is about how tell; nowhere go - There is where go; His not understand - His can understand; There not pass - There can pass.

§  . All properly negative sentences are generally negative. Sentences with a conjugated form of the verb and optional negation are generally negative when the particle not stands before the verb-predicate or before the main member, and private negatives when the particle not stands with the subject or with the extending member of the sentence. In sentences with the main member - the conjugated form of the verb and members dependent on it, as well as in sentences without the conjugated form of the verb, the general or particular nature of the negation is determined by the position of the particle not.

1) In sentences with a conjugated form of the verb and word forms (or word form) dependent on it, negation is common if the particle not comes directly before the conjugated form, and private if the particle comes before the verb-dependent word form: He not thinks drive on the south - He thinks not drive on the south; He not maybe rest - He maybe not rest; it message not maybe turn out to be true - it message maybe not turn out to be true; He not listed in leading workers - He listed not in leading workers; To him not managed to fall asleep - To him managed not to fall asleep.

2) In sentences without a conjugated form of the verb, the general or particular nature of the negation can only be determined by non-original forms, i.e.  е. where there is a special indicator of syntactic tense or mood. Yes, suggestions Father not teacher, Brother not at home can be understood both as general negative and as particular negative: Father not teacher- (is not a teacher) or (is not a teacher) (but an inspector); Brother not at home- (not at home) or (not at home) . In the form of present vr. the particular nature of the negation in such sentences can be indicated by opposition in the immediate context: Kirovsk not stone, a chopped(N. Mikhailov); I not doctor, a paramedic royal time(Lipatov); So, maybe not in reform a business, a in man(gas.). In non-original forms, the position of the particle indicates the general or particular nature of the negation not: Brother not was at home - Brother was not at home(and somewhere else); Father not was teacher - Father was not teacher(and an inspector).

Negative before service verb is of a general nature: Appearance his not was deceptive(Pushk.); Lavretsky not was young human(Turg.); On the this once she is not was dressed in red (Czech.); BUT architect not was Italian(Mandelsht.); From Total crew only one driver not was injured(Fad.); Not, he not was in oblivion(Simon.); He not was healthy nearly all my life(Zalyg.).

The negation before the name in such cases is private: Dress on the German It was not new and narrowly, like he from him increased(Turg.); She is not went predominantly because, what dress, on the which she is expected, It was not ready(L. Thick.); Purity was here not in fashion(Gilyar.); He was not coward, how it is seen(Simon.); Then will go talk, certainly, talk will be not light(Bull.).

The possibility of opposition also testifies to the private nature of the negation in such sentences: He was not businessman, a political figure(Erenb.); Not, this is was not Rodion, a another, unfamiliar, Volodya Ankudinov, liaison partisan detachment(Leon.); She is kissed lips to his temple, but temple was not hot, a wet, in droplets sweat(Simon.).

The particular nature of the negation in these sentences is also confirmed by the peculiarities of the use of pronominal words with pref. neither, particles neither and union neither... neither. In general negative sentences, these words can take any position: Nobody not was in school; Never brother not was in this school; Brother not was neither in toy, neither in this school; Neither yesterday, neither today brother not was in school; Never he not was engineer. In sentences of private negative words with pref. neither- and word forms with a particle neither and union neither... neither can only occupy the position of word forms that directly distribute the member of the sentence that carries the negation: He was no not engineer(colloquial speech); He was more not at all not old(gas.); it were simply confused people, none not criminals(Simon.) (see § ). So you can't say Nobody was not in school; *Never he was not engineer; *Neither yesterday, neither today brother was not in school.

A special case is adverbial sentences, in which the opposition between general and particular negation is weakened. In such sentences, it is possible to set the particle not both before the service verb and before the predicate, and both forms tend to express a general negation: Them not It was destined meet - Them not destined It was meet; Not, us not It was sad, us not It was it's a pity(Block); And, to to him in himself deed not It was ashamed, hastened lie, what her too I want to sleep(Simon.); Aniskin... was able define on stars time and weather, So what to him not boring It was alone With so open space and such majesty, from which spinning head(Lipatov); feuilletonist the senses humor too not occupy, but to him not It was funny, when he listened this history(gas.). The general nature of negation in such sentences is confirmed by the possibility of using pronominal words in them with pref. neither- not directly dependent on the word form with negation: nowhere them not It was boring - nowhere them not boring It was; Never them not It was destined meet - Never them not destined It was meet; They are built plans, which never not It was given come true - They are built plans, which never not given It was come true. The general nature of negation in sentences where the particle not placed immediately before the predicative, supported by the postposition of the verb form to be.

Note. With preposition verb form the private nature of negation is preserved: BUT he walked and cried. And to him It was not ashamed(Shuksh.). Not properly: * Never to him It was not ashamed; *nowhere them It was not boring. The particular nature of the negation in the preposition of the verb in such sentences is confirmed by the tendency to merge the negation with the predicate: Them It was is not boring.

Negation is also general in sentences with predicatives necessary, need, where in the non-initial forms the statement of the particle is normal not before the predicate in the postposition of the verb to be: Her not necessary It was worry; To him not need will be more study this deed; Them not need will be neither about how take care; no one not necessary It was to ask; Neither about how, absolutely neither about how not necessary It was think, Besides how about story, which the I wrote(Paust.).

SEVERAL denials
AT ONE OFFERS

§  . Several negatives can be used in a sentence at the same time. This is due to the possibility of using in one sentence both general and particular negatives, as well as several private negatives.

In general negative sentences, it is possible to use one or more negatives, the action of which is not associated with a general negative and is of a particular nature. Such a negation can appear with any member of the sentence, except for the one that already carries the meaning of general negation: On the this once not wanted she is not restrain given the words(Pushk.); Already not one night not sleeping I(Gonch.); Although I again acquired family, but this is not at all not hinders to me not forget old comrades(Gilyar.); Already dead you not offend AT letter for a long time not necessary word(Simon.); Not should at all neither in what not believe(Hermann); Myself was reading arshin letters on the pink wall Passionate monastery: "Not laborer Yes not eating"(N. Mikhailov); Not from-per remorse conscience Glukharev not answered on the offensive reproach(Tendr.); Not my squadron not went in attack(I. Shamyakin); Lazarus Baukin to me not relatives, and none promises not run away he nobody not gave(Nilin); He not came in at all not from-per time(V. Orlov).

Note. In proper negative sentences, along with the obligatory one, it is also possible to use an optional negation, which in this case has a particular character: Not fall in love his not It was capabilities(Turg.); BUT if So, So and meddle not necessary It was; there is nothing not per his a business take(Dost.); Now in back was already so many "civil", what not It was grounds not take more(N. Chuk.); Her need send, need for affairs, need for her most, No none reasons not send(Simon.); His not per what not be in love(Zalyg.).

It is possible to use several negatives in sentences with separate turns: one - with the predicate, the other - as part of a separate turn with participle or gerund. The negations in these cases are independent: they do not depend on each other: Young women... nobody not will miss, not hooked Yes not laughing(Lesk.); Bakhirev not could understand this softness, not inherent Volgan(Nikol.); Basil not understood of people, not loving demonstration(D. Pavlova); Dispatches, not visited in his hands, not may reckon credible(A. Vinogradov).

§  . In one particular negative sentence there can be several negatives of a particular nature. So, if there are homogeneous members in the sentence, negation is possible before each of them: I came here not cry and not to complain(Turg.); On the any happening gave mutual an oath not run away, not roar at form most horned danger(Leon.); Around center... wide ring located not central, not front door, not industrial and non-commercial Ensk(Panova); Klimovich spoke not about drama, not about divorce and not about treason, a about of death (Simon.); Tem not less enemy not in Moscow and not in Leningrad(Chuck.).

Note. It is also possible to put one negation in front of the whole series of word forms: I first saw this night not above Neva and palaces Leningrad, a among northern wooded spaces and lakes(Paust.); Us made friends fraternal power not compote and pies - Our passions and addictions, our eternal enemies(Dare.); A business It was not in courage one or cowardice another(Simon.).

Negations that are particular in nature can also be used with several different extending members; each negation acts independently: Not from desires obey, a simply from excess astonishment Sanin not immediately followed per girl(Turg.); He thought Baranova not deprived capabilities careerist, interested not benefit armies, a only own promotion on service(Simon.); They are not all and not always were driving in one and that same side(Shkl.).

§  . In some cases, it is possible to set two negatives with the same member of the sentence. This denies what has already been denied: it do not impossible; He, maybe to be, be late, but not not will come. The negation of the negation is created by setting the particle not before a negative pronominal word or adverb, before a negative predicative it is forbidden, impossible or before a word form that already has a negative particle not. In such cases, one negation refers to the word form in front of which it immediately stands, and the second to the word form that already has a negation: New familiar to him not - not liked. it not - impossible. The negation of negation is closely related to the context and is usually used to express objection and opposition: General, how it is seen, not not liked such attack(Gogol); to me more there is nothing do. - There is nothing do, there is nothing do... - spoke she is co with tears on the eyes. - Not, not there is nothing do! (L. Thick.); At lilac not not enough what-then on the face, a, vice versa, quicker It was superfluous - hanging cheeks and running around eyes(Bulg.); Write, not seeing written, difficult, but not impossible(N. Ostr.); - I on the front asked, a you me in cleaners. - Not want to? - I not not want, but funny: war, a I cleaning woman! (V. Kozhevnikov); But bye initiative at champion, tiger jumps he commit not loves. Not not maybe, a not loves(gas.).

§  . Two negatives can be present in the predicate or with both main members of the general negative sentence. As a result, the negation is removed and a categorical statement arises with shades of obligation, inevitability, necessity, obligation. Such a phenomenon called a double negative. The cases of double negation formation are as follows.

1) In sentences with negative predicates it is forbidden, impossible and negation before the infinitive: It is forbidden not to tell- (must, must be said) Impossible not do- (must be done). Understand impossible her, But not be in love impossible(Lerm.); young man, in love, impossible not spill the beans(Turg.); I think, what it is forbidden will be not drive(L. Thick.); It is forbidden not be in love such human(Czech.); After all they say same, what to be in Rome and not see cathedral Petra impossible(Dost.); admired them rarely, but not respect his It was impossible(Simon.).

2) When using negation before the conjugated form of the verb be able and before the infinitive adjoining this verb: And heart again lit and loves because, What not be in love it not maybe(Pushk.); He not could not miss in village(Turg.); They are not could not explain myself(Fad.); He, you know, everywhere, always will be write, on toy simple reason, what not write he not maybe(Hermann); Not think about this Zvyagintsev not could. (Chuck.); He labored and not could not work, how not could not there is, not breathe, not drink, not sleep(Alex.); Not each pilot maybe become astronaut, but astronaut not maybe not fly(gas.).

3) With combinations not It has rights, not It has grounds, not in forces(cannot) occupying the position of the conjugated form, and the infinitive following it: He not had rights not to tell((should have said)). Nobody not It has rights not know life(Gonch.); I not I have rights not restrain given the words(Turg.); Malinin not had grounds to him not believe(Simon.); touched Nicholas Grigorievich promised stay - he not in forces not stay(A. Altaev); We must win and not we have rights not win(V. Kozhevnikov).

sentence meaning element, which indicates that the connection established between the components of the sentence, according to the speaker, does not really exist (A. M. Peshkovsky) or that the corresponding affirmative sentence rejected by the speaker as false (Sh. Bally). Most often, a negative statement is made in a situation where the corresponding affirmative statement was made earlier or is included in the general presumption of the speakers. Negation is one of the original, semantically indecomposable semantic categories inherent in all languages ​​of the world, which cannot be defined through simpler semantic elements.

Negation can be expressed in negative words (they are sometimes also called negation), a negative prefix (cf. Russian "incomplete", German unbekannt, French impossible), a negative form of the verb (tur. okur 'he reads', okumaz 'he does not read '; English I don't want - analytical negative form), and may not have a separate expression, i.e. be a component of the meaning of the word, as in Russian. "refuse" = "disagree", eng. fail intralexemic negation), or a whole sentence, cf. “You understand a lot”, “So that I can still contact him!” ( implied negation).

A sentence containing a negative word or a negative form of a verb is called negative (or grammatically negative). In a negative sentence, some statement (predication) is always denied, which is called scope denial. The scope of the negation can be the entire sentence (“He didn’t come to work”) or only part of it (for example, in the phrase “The children are not sleeping because of the noise”, the circumstance of the cause is not included in the scope of the negation). A sentence can be ambiguous due to the ambiguous scope of the negation, e.g. "She doesn't want to change the original plan because of you" = 1) 'You are the reason she doesn't want to change the plan' and 2) 'She doesn't want to only because of you to change the plan '. In oral speech, ambiguity is partially eliminated by intonation. A sentence that is wholly within the scope of the negation is called a sentence with complete negation (otherwise - semantically generally negative); in a sentence with incomplete negation (or semantically private negative) only one of the semantic components of the sentence is denied. In any sentence, there may be semantic components that are not subject to negation - presuppositions; for example, in the general negative sentence "I am not upset that he left", the component "he left" is included in the scope of negation, but is not negated.

Negation from the point of view of the role of the elements expressing it in the syntactic structure of the sentence is phrasal(expressed by a negative word in the predicate or by the negative form of the predicate) and conditional- not with the predicate. Most often phrasal negation it can be complete, and the verbal - incomplete (O. Jespersen, Peshkovsky). However, the opposite relationship is also possible: in the sentence "A few have sat to the end" the conditional negation is complete ('It is not true that many ...'), and in the sentence "We won't see you for a long time" the phrasal negation is incomplete ('For a long time time our meeting will not take place').

Denial is called displaced, if it is attached not to the word to which it refers in meaning, but to another word that syntactically subordinates the first (cf. English. My observations didn't help me much‘My observations did not help me much’). Usually a displaced negation is a negation with a predicate. It is also possible to shift the negation to a preposition, for example, “not to your sleigh” = “to not your sleigh”: negation in meaning refers to the pronoun, but is syntactically connected with the preposition subordinating (through a noun) this pronoun.

One of the types of bias is climb negations, when the negation is transferred from the subordinate clause to the main one (or from the subordinate infinitive to the subordinating verb or modal word); cf. English I don't believe it is true Jeg haber ikke at De blev bange‘I hope you are not afraid’ (lit. I don’t hope you are afraid). Among those that allow the rise of negation are such predicates as rus. “I think”, “I think”, “expected”, “it seems to me”, “I want”, “advise”, “intend”, “should”; English suppose, imagine, reckon, guess, anticipate; it appears, sounds like etc. The ability of a predicate to "pull" negation is not fully predicted by its semantics: words that are close in meaning in different languages ​​often behave differently; for example, English. suppose is able to drag negation, and Rus. "assume" - no. If the negation in the main clause is displaced, then the subordinate clause turns out to be a valid context for words with negative polarization (see Negative words), as if it itself contained a negation.

Many languages, in particular Slavic, French, Spanish, Greek, Hungarian, Bantu, are characterized by plural(or cumulative) negation. In languages ​​with multiple negation, if there is a negative pronoun, adverb or conjunction in the sentence, negative agreement occurs - an “excessive” negation is acceptable or even required for the predicate; cf. not allowed by the rules of Russian grammar "No one saw him" and the correct "No one saw him." In other languages, multiple negation is prohibited by the language norm, cf. English Nobody ever saw him

Another manifestation of negative agreement is pleonastic negation in the subordinate clause subordinate to verbs with the meanings ‘deny’, ‘forbid’, ‘doubt’, ‘hold back’, ‘be afraid’, etc.; cf. Russian "I could hardly resist not to hit him," French. J'ai peur qu'il ne vienne 'I'm afraid he will come'.

The formal features of the structure of negative sentences include a special morphological design of some syntactic units that are within the scope of phrasal negation - ordinary, displaced or even redundant. So, in Russian, a direct object with a negative verb can be made out not in the accusative case, but in the genitive (cf. "He has no right to do this"). In the context of verbs with a quantitative meaning, where Jespersen saw a special phraseologically related meaning in negation, in reality the verb has a special meaning. So, the phrase “A bag does not weigh fifty kilograms” means “weighs less” (and not “either less, or more”). The point, however, is that "weighs" here means "reaches in weight": "not" has its usual meaning of "wrong."

The logical rule that the negation of a negation is equivalent to an affirmation is also valid in natural language: when two negations are combined with the same word, the meaning will turn out to be affirmative. However, two negations usually do not cancel each other out exactly: a complex expression is usually weaker than a simple one, cf. “frequent” (≈ ‘quite frequent’) and ‘frequent’; “not without fear” (≈ ‘with some fear’) and “with fear”; English not uncommon and common.

Strict semantic equalities link the so-called dual words, for example, “I allow” - “I demand”: “I do not allow ...” = “I demand not ...”; "I allow" = "I do not demand not"; “I don’t require” = “I allow not”; "require" = "I do not allow not". Other examples of pairs of words that are dual to each other: “maybe” - “necessarily”, “can” (in the meaning of 'I have permission') - “must” (“should”), “all” - “some” (in the sense of 'although some'), etc. Hence the equality that Peshkovsky cites: "I cannot but confess" = "I must confess."

• Peshkovsky A. M., Russian syntax in scientific coverage, M., 1956;
• Jespersen O., Philosophy of Grammar, trans. from English, M., 1958;
• Paducheva E. V., On the semantics of syntax, M., 1974;
• Bondarenko V.N., Negation as a logical-grammatical category, M., 1983;
• Boguslavsky I. M., Research on syntactic semantics: spheres of action of logical words, M., 1985;
• Jespersen O., Negation in English and other languages, Kbh., 1917;
• Klima E. S. Negation in English, in book: The structure of language. Readings in the philosophy of language, Englewood Cliffs, 1964;
• Smith S., Meaning and negation, The Hague, 1975;
• Horn L.R., Some aspects of negation, in book: Universals of Human Language, v. 4 - Syntax, Stanford, 1978.

Propositions affirmative and negative

The division of sentences into affirmative and negative is connected with the content of the relations of reality expressed in them.

The affirmative or negative nature of the sentences is a reflection of the relationship between the phenomena of reality.

Thus the sentences are called affirmative, if they contain connection between objects and their attributes in reality, and negative if they have this connection denied. Opposition according to the principle of affirmativeness - negativity purely semantic. It is not a reflection of the opposition according to the principle of real and unreal modality, but only superimposed on the meaning of objective modality expressed in the sentence. Both affirmative and negative sentences can have both real and unreal modality.

category of negation related to sentence structure, it can be structurally significant. O structural role of negation The opposition of some types of sentences testifies: when translating an affirmative sentence into a negative one, its structural type may change. In other cases, the category of negation does not affect the structure of the sentence.

Grammatically, negation is usually expressed by the particle not, and the assertion is its absence.

Denial can be full and partial.Complete negation is achieved by setting particlesnot before the predicate, such a proposal is called generally negative.

Particlenot in front of other members of the sentence expresses partial negation. Such proposals are called private negative, since as a whole they conclude the assertion.

Does not deprive the sentence of the general affirmative meaning and the negation worth before the subject, for example: I will not see your mighty late age ... (P.).

In this way, the category of negation is directly related to the category of predicability:“It is only the negation that stands with the predicate that makes the whole statement negative, while the negation that stands with any other member does not shake the general affirmative meaning of the statement”.

However, the particle not even with a predicate, it does not always serve as a sign of a negative sentence.

Sentence loses its negative meaning,

firstly, when repeating a particlenot ; for example;

Secondly, when the particle acquires no other shades of meaning:

assumptions-Searched the world, don't you want to get married? (Gr.);

generalizations-Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters? (P.);

concerns-Whatever happens! (Ch.);

approval-Well, why not work!;

need-How can I not cry!

can act as a negative particle. particleneither , introducing an additional amplifying connotation of meaning:Not a soul in the living room (Ch.).

Particle neither on repetition functions as a union:He himself is neither rich, nor noble, nor smart (T.). Word neither here corresponds to the combination and not(connective union and negation).

Reinforcement of denial also achieved with negative pronouns and adverbs:Nothing foreshadowed bad weather (Ars.); The boy never got sick and never caught a cold (Inb.).

Particle neither does not always express a negative meaning: it can act and only as an intensifying particle when conveying an affirmative meaning. This is typical for parts of a complex sentence that have concessive connotation values: But no matter how the girls all over the world say, everything becomes sweet in their mouths (Fad.).

grammatical feature negative sentence can serve as a special negative wordNo , performing the function predicate in an impersonal sentence:There is no beast stronger than a cat (Kr.); He has no equal river in the world (G.).

Finally, negation can be expressed without the participation of special lexical means - with the help of intonation,word order,some emotional particles. Such constructions are characteristic of the colloquial style, accompanied by subjective-modal meanings. They are always expressive. For example: So I'll be waiting for you! I also found a commander!

The position of A.M. Peshkovsky on the connection between the category of negation and predicability and his division of sentences accordingly into general negative and particular negative applicable specifically to the sentence as a unit of language, since it is the predicate that is the carrier of the main grammatical meanings of the sentence - modality and syntactic time. However, the same the category of negation at the level of the utterance, i.e. units of speech, manifests itself somewhat differently.

When a sentence (statement) is considered from the point of view of communicative needs (i.e. in speech), any component, and not just a predicate predicate, can become its center, since the statement is divided according to a different principle: into something given and new, reported on this given.

For example: offer Students went to practice from the point of view of communicative significance, it can include three messages:

students (and not anyone else) let's go to practice;

studentsgo (rather than going, say, on foot) to practice;

Students wentfor practice (not rest).

The component of the utterance, which is emphasized in each case, carries the new, i.e. the purpose of the message. If, according to this division, negative constructions are constructed, then the particle does not need to be placed just in front of these components:

Not students went to practice;

studentsdidn't go for practice;

Students wentnot for practice .

Logical stress in such cases accompanies the word form in which there is negation. This component contains the message center, ie. that for which the statement is made. In this case, the question of particular and general negation is removed.

Negation and means of its expression in English

Introduction.

As you know, language is a historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means that objectifies the work of thinking and is a tool for communication, exchange of thoughts and mutual understanding of people in society.

Each language, including English, is a dynamic system that has its characteristic grammatical structure, the components of which are two interconnected sections: morphology and syntax. This work is aimed at studying one of the phenomena of such a grammatical section as syntax, which considers the words in a sentence, the sentence itself, its structure, features and types. Considerable attention is also paid to the morphological and lexical component.

The relevance of this topic lies in the fact that negation in the English language is a multifaceted phenomenon that requires constant reflection, changing along with the development of the language, the complexity of which for learning and understanding mainly lies in the divergence from the Russian language. Despite the many works and studies carried out by linguists, the problem of negation remains poorly understood.

Thanks to a huge number ways of negating the English sentence and its members, the following problem arose: in what cases the means of negation used will be the most accurate and appropriate.

The object of study of this work is negative sentences, which are understood as sentences in which the connection between the subject and the predicate or between various members suggestions.

The subject of the research is the linguistic ways and means of expressing negation.

The purpose of this work is to review the most common ways of expressing negation in modern English.

Work tasks:

consider the ways and means of negation in the sentence structure;

identify the main means of expressing negation in English;

1.1. Denial in philosophy

The term "negation" was introduced into philosophy by Hegel, but he put an idealistic meaning into it. From his point of view, the basis of negation is the development of ideas, thoughts. Marx and Engels, retaining the term "negation", interpreted it materialistically. They showed that negation is an integral moment in the development of material reality itself. Negation is also inherent in the development of knowledge and science. Each new, more perfect scientific theory overcomes the old, less perfect one. Negation is not something introduced into an object or phenomenon from outside, it is the result of its own, internal development. Objects and phenomena, as we already know, are contradictory and, developing on the basis of internal opposites, they themselves create the conditions for their own destruction, for the transition to the new, top quality. Denial is the overcoming of the old on the basis of internal contradictions, the result of self-development, self-movement of objects and phenomena (Gubsky 1999:180).

In contrast to the metaphysically interpreted "denial", which emphasizes the gap, the contrast between the features of the previous and subsequent stages of change, dialectical "denial" implies a connection, a transition from one stage to another. The dialectical understanding of negation proceeds from the fact that the new does not completely destroy the old, but preserves all the best that was in it. And not only preserves, but also processes, raises to a new, higher level. (Gubsky 1999: 183)

As can be seen from the above theses, negation does not completely destroy the old, but takes it to a new level, which can be correlated with both logic and language. Next, we will draw a parallel of this concept with logic and language itself.

1.2. Negation in logic and linguistics

Negation has always been an object of both linguistics and formal logic. From the point of view of formal logic, negation is “... a logical operation that opposes an untrue proposition to a true proposition, a non-false proposition to a false proposition, indicating a non-compliance of a predicate with a subject or forming an addition to a given class ...” (Kondakov 1971:56). At the same time, it is noted that it is not a simple non-discovery of the expected other specific object that leads to a negative judgment, since the non-existence of one consists in the existence of another. In other words, negation is not a direct reflection of reality and its connections, but a way of our consideration of them, based on the contrast with the original positive facts.

In linguistics, the essence of linguistic negation has been defined in different ways. Supporters of the psychological concept interpret negation as a purely subjective manifestation of the human psyche (Grinneken 1907; Jespersen 1958; Potebnya 1958 and others). Negation is interpreted as the generation of various mental (sensual) reactions of the speaker, as an expression of a feeling of resistance or prohibition (Grinneken 1907); as an explication of what is felt as a contradiction between the expected (or generally possible) and the actual, as a reflection of a feeling of disappointment, contrast (Delbrück 1887), a feeling of disgust (Jespersen 1918), etc. Thus, according to this concept, denial acts not as a reflection of reality, but as a manifestation of the human psyche, its psychological and emotional feelings.

Negation is a communicative operation that rejects or corrects the opinion of the addressee, that is, denial is a speech act, the purpose of which is not in the message. new information, but to refute the opinion of the addressee.

Theoretically, negation is an affirmation of non-existence. In a negative judgment, the negation can be directed either to its entire content or to the connection between the subject and the predicate; in language, negation is expressed by the word "no". We can recognize any judgment as right or wrong, but it would be unreasonable to do this at the same time (the law of contradiction and the law of the negation of the third). No positive affirmation is associated with negation. The saying "this flower has no fragrance" is valid even when the flower has no fragrance at all. Under any conditions, the correct meaning in the negation of a predicate is primarily a formal negative (contradictory) meaning, and any other, narrower, more specific meaning must still prove its validity. Being a universal category of language with a complex and multifaceted semantics and a diverse arsenal of means of expression, negation receives a separate interpretation in the light of each new direction in linguistics.

Negation is one of the original, semantically indecomposable semantic categories inherent in all languages ​​of the world, which cannot be defined through simpler semantic elements. Negation is an element of the meaning of a sentence that indicates that the connection established between the components of the sentence, in the opinion of the speaker, does not really exist or that the corresponding affirmative sentence is rejected by the speaker as false. Most often, a negative statement is made in a situation where the corresponding affirmative statement was made earlier or is included in the general presumption of the speakers.

Denial - English. - negation - an expression using lexical, phraseological, syntactic and other means of the language that the connection established between the elements of the statement does not really exist. Negation can be absolute (absolute negation) or related to the statement and then called syntactic (syntaxique) or connecting (conjunctive). A connective negation can refer to a concept (lexical negation) or to a sentence (phrasal negation). Simple negation, regardless of its form, is one in which there is nothing but the idea of ​​negation; A complex negation or a negative word is a negation, with which the concept of time (never), person (nobody) or object (nothing) is associated. Semi-negation (demi-negation) is a word that serves to weaken a statement, such as hardly - hardly.

In order to reveal the fullness of the concept of negation, to most widely determine the ways and means of its expression, we need to analyze the cases of its use in speech. For this purpose, it is necessary to trace the cases of the use of negation in the syntactic structure of the sentence and to single out separate morphological, lexical means. Below we will dwell on this in more detail.

Chapter II. MEANS OF NEGATIVE EXPRESSION

IN ENGLISH

2.1. Negation in the structure of an English sentence

According to the nature of the attitude towards reality expressed in the sentence, they are divided into affirmative and negative. Denial is often accompanied by affirmation, both potential and expressed. Sentences that include grammatically formed negation and affirmation are called negative-affirmative. Such sentences can be either simple or complex. With an asyndetic connection of parts of a complex sentence, the combination of affirmation / negation can be one of the means of communication that also serves to express the meaning of the comparison.

Two negative particles sometimes form an affirmative sentence (a sentence with a double negation), since the negation of the negation occurs in it. In English, negation in a sentence can be expressed:

a) in the subject:

A woman become like their mothers. That is their tragedy. No man does.

That's his tragedy (Wild 1979:35).

All women become like their mothers. This is their tragedy. No man does this. This is his tragedy.

Nothing will induce me to part with Bunarry (Wild 1979:21).

Nothing will make me leave Banery.

What I suffer in that way no tongue can tell (Jerome 1994:16).

What I experienced in this way no man can say.

b) in the predicate:

I haven't asked you to dine with me anywhere to-night (Wild 1979:20).

I didn't invite you to dine with me anywhere tonight.

I haven't the smallest intention of doing anything of the kind (Wild 1979:20).

I have no intention of doing anything of the sort.

That is not very pleasant. Indeed, it is not even decent (Wild 1979:21).

It's not very pleasant. In fact, it's even indecent.

In the last example in the English sentence, the negation is expressed

with the help of a negative particle not, and when translated into Russian, negation is also conveyed by a negative particle not.

c) in addition:

I know nothing, Lady Blacknell (Wild 1979:30).

I don't know anything, Lady Blacknel.

took no interest in people apart from their social position (Graham 1976:9).

He showed no interest in people, apart from their social position.

d) in the circumstances of time:

I never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger (Wild 1979:23).

I have never seen a woman so much changed: she looks twenty years younger.

In fact, I am never wrong (Wild 1979:26).

Indeed, I am never wrong.

My own one, I have never loved anyone in the world but you (Wild 1979:28).

My dear, I have never loved anyone in the world but you.

By the way, in the last example, the negative pronoun never in the Russian sentence corresponds to the negative pronouns never and nobody, as well as the verb in the negative form, while in the English sentence the verb is presented in the affirmative form. This is explained by the fact that in English negation is grammatically expressed once.

e) with the whole sentence as a whole (using a negative union):

There were no cucumbers in the market this morning, sir (Wild 1979:27).

There were no cucumbers in the market this morning, sir.

Unlike the Russian language, negation in an English sentence can be expressed in only one of the above ways.

I "ve never been so sure of anything in my life (Graham 1976:25).

I've never been so sure of anything in my life.

It should be borne in mind that what has been said refers only to the expression of negation in the same sentence. If there is not one, but two or more sentences, even those that are part of one complex sentence, then negation can be expressed in each of them:

She did not feel angry, she did not feel inclined to laugh, she did not

know what she felt (Graham 1976:75).

She didn't feel angry, she wasn't inclined to laugh, she didn't know how she felt.

He "d laugh and say that of course if he hadn" t been such a kid he "d never

had cheek to ask her (Graham 1976:73).

He would have laughed and said that, of course, had he not been such a child, he would never have dared to ask her.

His ear was perfect, and though he could not produce the right intonation himself he would never let a false one pass in anyone else (Graham 1976:21).

His hearing was excellent, and although he could not produce correct intonation himself, he never let anyone else fake it.

In addition, in one sentence, a combination of negation in the main part of the sentence and negation in the verb phrase is possible. In infinitive, gerund and participial constructions, negation can be expressed:

a) with the leading component - non-predicative form:

His father, not liking the idea of ​​his going on the stage, had insisted on this (Graham 1976:28)

His father, who didn't like the idea of ​​him going on stage, insisted on it.

“I'm awfully sorry,” I said, not knowing what else to say (Graham 1976:35).

“I'm sorry,” I said, not knowing what else to say,

b) with any subordinate component:

Long after the lorry had gone... Lanny stood there, staring at nothing, thinking of nothing, feeling nothing (P. Abrahams).

I believe him to have done nothing but harm... (Bentley).

Sometimes he would sit silent and abstracted, taking no notice of anyone (S. Maugham).

In infinitive, gerund and participial constructions, as in the whole sentence, in English, unlike Russian, there can be only one negation:

Not having any friends \ having no friends

"Without having any friends."

However, it is quite possible that there are two negatives: in the main part of the sentence and in a construction with a non-predicative form, for example:

Would it not be better not to tell your father? (J.London).

There's no danger of not winning your mother to our marriage (J.London).

Having no new companions, nothing remained for him but to read (J.London).

Speaking about the ways of expressing negation in English, one should

Note that there are different approaches to data classification. For example, such linguists as Barkhudarov L.S. and Shteling D.A. there are three ways of expression (Bardukharov 1973:289-291):

negative pronouns:

Nobody wanted to talk about it after that (Richard1984:44).

After that, no one wanted to talk about it.

But nothing happens here - inside (Richard1984:39). - But nothing happens

here inside.

None of us has heard it, that we could remember (Richard1984:116). - None of us heard it, we could remember it.

Never thought that he was a spy. (George B. Mair).

negative conjunctions: neither... nor, not... nor,

But neither of you knew him as I did (Richard 1984:46).

But none of you knew him like I did.

Bondarenko V.N. in his monograph "Negation as a logical-grammatical category" identifies the following six ways of expression: negative affixes; negative particles; negative pronouns and adverbs; negative conjunctions; negative prepositions are postpositions in some languages; as well as an implicit way of expressing negation.

In the next chapter, we will consider the most common means of expressing negation in English in their linguistic categories.

2.2. Morphological means of expressing negation

Morphological ways of expressing negation include affixation, represented by prefixation and suffixation. In the word-formation processes taking place in the English language, they occupy a special position. First of all, they usually do not form new parts of speech, the same prefix can, and does, form new words from different parts of speech. Newly formed words remain the same part of speech from which they are formed, for example:

common (ordinary) - uncommon (uncommon)

grateful (grateful) - ungrateful (ungrateful)

satisfactory (satisfactory) - unsatisfactory (unsatisfactory)

trained (trained) - untrained (untrained)

ability (ability) - disability (inability)

approval (approval) - disapproval (disapproval)

trust (trust) - distrust (distrust)

responsible (responsible) - irresponsible (irresponsible)

The most extensive group of prefixes in English are negative prefixes. Let's consider them in more detail.

The un- prefix occurs in various forms in many Indo-European languages. In modern English, it has survived in the form in which it was used in Old English. This is a very productive prefix and easily forms new words from different parts of speech:

ungrateful (ungrateful)

unwritten (unwritten)

unemployment (unemployment)

unhumanly (inhumanly)

Most often this prefix occurs in adjectives and adverbs, for example:

The only thing that makes me unhappy is that I "m making you unhappy

(Graham 1976:49).

The only thing that makes me unhappy is that I make you unhappy.

Oh, Freda, that was unforgivable (Richard 1984:26).

Oh, Freda, that was unforgivable.

I think that's unfair and also rather stupid and affected (Richard1984:25).

I think it's unfair, and also rather stupid and unnatural.

Just as with the negative particle not-, words with the un- prefix express not just a negation, but a new quality, a new feature:

wise - means “wise; wise", and unwise has a different meaning (unreasonable) and approaches the meaning of foolish (stupid; foolish; reckless). The word unhappy rather means miserable (miserable, poor). Usually, antonyms for adjectives with un- are formed not with un-, but with the suffix less-, for example:

careful - careless (uncareful)

hopeful - hopeless (unhopeful)

thoughtful - thoughtless (unthoughtful)

Frankie listened breathlessly. His hand looked lifeless and pale. (Graham 1976:26).

Frankie listened with bated breath. His hand looked lifeless and pale.

prefix in- Latin origin, cognate with the Germanic prefix un-, has appeared in loanwords from French:

The in- prefix has the variants il-, im-, ir-; il- in words beginning with l-, im- in words beginning with p-, b-, m-, and ir- in words beginning with r-, for example:

Some words are subject to semantic shifts, for example, “infamous” - “shameful”.

She had met innumerable people of all kinds and I think she summed them up shrewdly enough according to the standards of the small Virginian town where she was born and bred (Graham 1976:78).

She met countless different people, and I think she judged them quite soberly by the standards of the small town in Virginia where she was born and raised.

He "d have invented the most extravagant and incredible sins to confess to

(Richard1984:32).

He could invent the most extravagant and implausible sins in order to repent of them.

Must you talk in that awful dry inhuman way? (Richard1984:38).

Do you have to speak in such a terrible dry and inhuman way?

Was not indefatigable (Graham 1976:8).

He was tireless.

The prefix mis- is of common Germanic origin. It most often forms derivatives of verbal stems, for example:

Some words have words of negativity, while others have “incorrect” expressions of action:

miscalculate - miscalculate ("incorrect")

mistrust - not to trust (“negativity”).

I have never begun a novel with more misgiving (Graham 1976:3).

I have never started a novel with more distrust.

The barometer is useless: it is as misleading as the newspaper forecast (Richard1984:70).

The barometer is useless: it is as misleading as the forecast in the newspaper.

The prefix dis- of Latin origin, appeared in English in the Middle English period as part of loanwords. French words:

Like most word-forming elements, it is not native English origin the prefix dis- as a means of forming English words began to be used both with stems of French origin and with English stems. This prefix forms derivatives of the stems of nouns, verbs, adjectives:

I do not want the reader to think I am making a mystery of whatever it was that happened to Larry during the war that so profoundly affected him, a mystery that I shall disclose at a convenient moment (Graham 1976:52).

I don't want the reader to think that I'm making a mystery out of anything about what happened to Larry during the war that shook him so deeply, a mystery that I will reveal at the right moment.

When critics disagree the artist is in accord with himself (Wild 1979:19).

When the critics don't get along, the artist is at peace with himself.

As a matter of fact, to be absolutely candid, I rather disliked him (Richard 1984:23).

In fact, to be completely sincere, I don't like him.

Didn't try to amuse himself with them, but he really distrusted them, disliked them (PJ, p.27).

He tried to pass the time with them, but he didn't really trust them, he didn't like them.

She is distressed now and trifle incoherent (Richard 1984:41).

She is worried now and slightly inconsistent.

Francesca disarranged the bed (Richard1984:40).

Francesca made the bed a mess.

The meaning of this prefix, or rather the meaning obtained by the derived word with this prefix, is the negation of the quality, attribute or action expressed by the stem of the derived word.

The prefix anti- is of Greek origin, it is larger than the listed prefixes and retains its lexical meaning - ‘against’. This prefix appeared only in the New English period, its use is limited to the literary and bookish style of speech. Most often it is found in words expressing socio-political and scientific concepts: antifascist, anticyclone, anticlimax, antithesis. Some independence of the meaning of this prefix also affects the graphic design of the derivative word, many such derivatives are written with a hyphen: anti-social, anti-aircraft, anti-Jacobin, etc.

The prefix counter- of Latin origin, as well as anti- retains its lexical meaning, so some researchers call it a prepositional prefix. It appeared in the Middle English period as part of loanwords from French. Its meaning is approximately the same as that of anti- i.e. against. The use of this prefix is ​​limited to the literary and bookish style of speech. The most common in socio-political literature, its independence is supported by hyphenated writing: counter-act, counter-balance, counter-poise, counter-move.

So, we can draw the following conclusions: in the presence of negative suffixes and prefixes, the vast majority of negative affixes are prefixes. Many researchers note that the compatibility of negative affixes with the stems of different parts of speech varies both from language to language and within the same language.

With the names of adjectives and (less often) nouns, the prefixes un- (homonym for the verb un-), non-, in- (im-, il-, ir-, dis-, mis-) are most often used. The closest in meaning are the prefixes un- , pop-, in-, as evidenced by the existence of doublet words that differ little from each other in their meanings:

nonprofessional - unprofessional nonprofessional,

inacceptable - unacceptable unacceptable.

Thus, negative affixes in English are attached only to nominal stems. Verbal stems do not combine with negative affixes, because verbal negation is conveyed in this language by the analytical form of the verb with the particle not.

Above, we considered the means of expressing a negative value at the level of morphology. As it turned out, the meaning of negation can be transmitted using prefixes. Below we will focus on lexical means that convey negative meanings: these are negative verbs, nouns, adverbs, pronouns.

2.3. Lexical means negative expressions

The actual lexical way of expressing negation is the way of expression using verbs with a negative meaning, such verbs include:

To deny (do not do, do not decide)

He denied breaking into the shop (Murthy).

To doubt (doubt)

I doubt whether he was really able to do that (Christie).

To fail (fail, fail)

I waved to Katherine, but failed to attract her attention (Christie).

This method of negation also applies to some nouns:

Failure (failure, collapse)

Bobby had a sort of failure (Christie).

Lack (lack, shortage)

He used to have a lack of money (Wells).

Negative adverbs:

hardly (hardly)

We could hardly understand him (Christie)

scarcely (barely)

She scarcely seems to care, does she? (Murthy)

This method expressing negation by parts of speech is actually a lexical way of expressing negation. The words themselves used in speech carry negative semantics. This is a fairly common method. In this case, negation can freely move from one part of speech to another. So, for example, the verb - to fail (to fail) with the suffix -lure forms the noun failure (failure), or -to doubt (to doubt) with the suffix -ful - doubtful (doubtful).

Negative pronouns indicate the absence of an object or feature. They are correlative, on the one hand, with indefinite pronouns, on the other hand, with generalizing ones, denying the existence of a concept that these pronouns express.

The pronoun no is combined with all classes of nouns with which the affirmative indefinite appears. pronoun some and interrogative indefinite pronoun any. With subject nouns, no serves as a definition and is used only in the function of definition:

No cab came buy, but the street boys did… (Jerome)

That's no reason why I should have it. (B. Shaw)

There's no better reason. (G. Elliot)

The negative pronoun no expresses the absence of something and is used as an adjectival pronoun:

That's no reason why I should have it (Shaw, p.35)

There is no better reason (Elliot p.75)

Compound negative pronouns are used in the function of the objective member of the sentence. The genitive form of the pronoun nobody (no one), acting as a determiner, can simultaneously serve as a determiner of a noun, for example:

It's nobody's fault, but your own.

Compound negative pronouns limit person from ‘not person’. Nobody, no one - personal, nothing - objective. Both structures are similar to complex indefinite and generalizing pronouns:

He cared for nobody and for nothing - except dominion and the wonders of his brain. (Benn)

The pronoun none can be personal and objective, have a singular and plural meaning; it appears in the sentence as a subject member:

None, not even Mary, dared cross-examine Ralph… (Benn)

None of us can hold on forever (Galsworthy).

None of us has heard it, that we could remember (Richard1984:116).

The none utility function is to replace the phrase ‘definition + defined’:

There was no apparent downward slope, and distinctly none upward, so for as a casual observer might have seen. (Dreis) (none = no slope)

Since the pronoun none is the equivalent of a substantiated phrase, it is combined with a verb in both singular and plural forms, depending on the meaning of the phrase:

None of them is going to get anything of me. (S. Lindsay)

None of them were conscious of the date's dose (S. Heym)

None can replace combinations with nouns denoting both people and things (personal and impersonal):

- “Have you got any spare pencil?” - “Nor, I have none…”

The group of negative pronouns includes the pronoun neither, which indicates that neither of the two mentioned persons performs an action and is not the subject of a state. In the sentence, the pronoun neither is used in the function of the subject member of the sentence or definition:

Neither, but the conversation that one could imagine was clearly as follows (Jerome).

In the definition function, neither serves as the definition of the subject noun: neither book, neither friend.

Expression of negation using the particle not

Particles in English are functional words that are used to reinforce, clarify, limit or negate other words or phrases in a sentence. These are immutable words that clarify the meaning of other words, give modal or expressive shades to other words or groups of words. They serve to form a semantic connection or grammatical form of a word, belong to the service parts of speech. The particle not most often refers to the predicate and through it to the entire content of the entire sentence, for example:

This did not prevent Julia from falling madly in love with him (Graham 1976:22).

This did not stop Julia from falling madly in love with him.

She did not feel hurt or upset (Aut.) - She did not feel upset or offended.

The particle not is the main means of making a negative sentence, but it can also give a negative meaning to the word in those cases when it appears with a singular noun with an indefinite article, and emphasizes the complete absence of the object denoted by the noun, for example:

Not a head turned to see us (Kutuzov L.).

Not a single head turned in our direction = No one turned their heads in our direction.

Not a car has been sold (Kutuzov L.)

Not a single car (of those offered for sale) was sold.

The negative particle not occurs in the following syntactic constructions, depending on the speaker's goals to create a negative connotation of one or another part of the construction:

Giving a negative meaning to the verb predicate:

“Six weeks isn’t really long” she said… (Galsworthy)

"I don't know" said Paul. (Lawrence)

I didn't hear you. (Lock)

Making part of the sentence negative:

Not one little sound of beast or bird or tree; not one bee humming! (Galsworthy)

He said not a word more. (wells)

I was angry with Dalton for not telling me about it (Galsworthy).

He begged her not to go. (Dickens)

The answer to the question in combination with an adverb or modal word:

"Then there's no danger?" - “Certainly not!” (Bennett)

“You certainly shall not go till you have told me all!” I said - “I would rather not, just now” (Bronte)

To negate a statement (with a negative pronoun):

“Are you going to tell him all about it?” - “Not I”. “Will he come and tell us?” - “Not he”. “I take a degree!” - cried Steerforth - “Not I” (Dickens)

To negate a predicate (after words expressing an opinion, such as: to hope, to think, to believe, etc.):

“A man or your caliber is not likely to be ignorant of it” - “I hope not”.

“It’s possible to repair the ornament, Madam?” - "I'm afraid not" (Maurier)

After conjunctions or, whether (if) ... or, the particle not adjoins the verbs:

When I opened the door, …believe me or not, madam, …that man was gone! (Mansfield)

I don't know whether they come or not. (Mansfield)

Thus, we managed to reveal that the lexical means of expressing negation are those means, in the very semantics of which negation is contained. At the same time, the negative characteristic of the word of one part of speech freely passes into another part of speech in the process of word formation. Along with other means, lexical means provide the speaker with a rich choice of shades of negation, allow the most accurate use of linguistic means, form one or another language situation, and achieve goals in their speech. Vocabulary is the most accurate, expressive means of any state, it is through vocabulary that a person's thoughts are voiced.

2.3 Negative expression syntactically

Syntactic way expressions of negation is possible, because the dialectically interconnected grammatical categories of affirmation and negation constitute a binary one-dimensional, therefore, neutralizable, opposition. The common semantic feature of the members of this opposition is the establishment of a semantic connection in a sentence between concepts expressing a doer or action, an object and a sign of an object. The differential feature of this opposition is the nature of this semantic connection: if the connection between the concepts of the agent and the action is qualified as positive, the sentence implements a grammatical statement (you won my bet): if the semantic connection between them is regarded as absent, the negative sentence is updated (you did not win my bet).

It is generally recognized that the main content of linguistic negation is formal-logical negative meanings - the meanings of non-inherence, non-belonging to the subject of any sign, non-existence, non-existence, absence of the subject. The relationship between logical and linguistic negation can be characterized as a relationship of semantic identity, since the logical category of negation, constituting the main content of the linguistic category of negation, "does not fill it entirely." The language category of affirmation and negation also performs other functions, is relatively independent and has its own range of meanings, inadequate to the logical category.

The categorical meaning of linguistic negation is the expression of the absence of an object or its attribute. The latter include properties, qualities, connections, relationships, actions, states. An analysis of the ratio of linguistic negation reveals the feasibility of the following consideration of this ratio: negation and modality in the narrow sense, existing in two varieties - objective and subjective, are independent categories that can function in parallel; negation and modality in a broad sense correlate through the concept of predicativity.

A comparative analysis of the functioning of negation at two hierarchical levels of the language made it possible to conclude that there are two particular denotative meanings of negation - meanings corresponding to logical ones, and values ​​that are different from them, although they are genetically related to logical ones.

The variability of the negative syntactic construction in terms of content is associated with the strengthening and weakening of the meaning of negation. Strengthening and weakening of negation is manifested in the form of intensification - de-intensification of negative values. Intensification - deintensification of denial is interpreted as the interaction of denial with the category of intensity, reflecting all the differences that come down to the categories of quantity, magnitude, value, strength. The intensity of the manifestation of the action of a state or quality is usually expressed by intensifying particles or combinations with them: too much, too, too far, altogether too.

He was altogether too excited too sleep (Wells).

Old Jayden was too much of a Forsyte to praise anything freely (Galsworthy).

He had drawn too far to draw back (Cronin).

My child, you are too young to think of falling in love (Wild).

Abbreviated negation (abbreviated negation)

In circumstances where it is perfectly acceptable to abbreviate the subject by using short forms, this method is usually used. Typically, this is the colloquial form:

He isn't coming - he's not coming

We aren't ready - we're not ready

They haven't caught him - they've caught him

She won't miss us - she'll not miss us

For example, the form I'm not coming does not have an alternative in the left column. It is logical to assume that in sentences and questions there should be a construction like am I not correct? But this form is used only in some formal cases. To replace it in colloquial speech, aren't I correct? Over time, aren't gradually began to transform into a lighter and more versatile aint. Now aint has gained general acceptance: aint is used as a universal replacement form instead of haven't, isn't, aren't, etc.

Negation in impersonal sentences and phrases

Sometimes the word not is attached not to the verbal part of the sentence, but to another element of the sentence - the nominal part, and is placed in front of the word or phrase that it negates. When the negated nominal part is the subject, inversion does not occur:

Not all the passengers escaped unhurt. (Leech)

Not a single word did he utter. (Leech)

No nation can afford to offend its allies - not even the USA. (Leech)

To negate an impersonal sentence, we place a negative unit before the verb group:

Not having read the book I can't tell you whether it is worth buying. (Leech)

I asked her not to interfere. (Leech)

Transferred negation (denial transfer)

After some verbs, such as believe, suppose, think, the particle not, which belongs to the subordinate clause with the union that, is transferred to the main clause:

I don't believe that you two have met, haven't you? (Leech)

= (I believe you two haven't met)

I don't suppose that anyone will object to my sentence. (Leech)

= (I suppose anyone (no one) won't object to my sentence)

I don't think you need to worry. (Leech)

= (I think you needn't worry)

Grammatical Behavior negative particles.

In grammatical terms, the overall effect of all negative units is to create a sentence that has a connotation of negation. This means that certain characteristics of negative sentences are formed not only with the particle not, but also with other units of negation:

After the negation, any is used instead of some:

No one has any doubts about his ability. (Leech)

I seldom get any sleep after the baby wakes up. (Leech)

I've spoken to hardly anyone who disagrees with me on this point. (Leech)

2. A negative unit at the beginning of a sentence introduces an inversion of the subject. This construction sounds somewhat upbeat and rhetorical:

Only after a long argument did he agree to our plan. (Leech)

Negative words are followed by positive tag-questions rather than negative ones:

|She never/scarcely seems to care| does she?

|You won't forget the shopping| will you?

Compare:

|You'll remember the shopping| won't you?

CONCLUSION

In the course of the work carried out, the most common means of expressing negation in English were investigated and analyzed. Examples have been studied from works of art foreign authors, which made it possible to most reliably and clearly determine the range of means used in the literature to express the category of negation on different levels language; examples and excerpts from textbooks on dialogical speech were also used, which also turned out to be useful in identifying relevant ways of negation in a speech situation.

So, we can draw the following conclusions:

The main morphological means of negation are prefixation and affixation, and negative affixes are more common.

At the level of negative particles, not is the main means of forming a negative sentence, but can give a negative connotation and separate parts sentences (for example, a predicate);

Lexical means of expressing negation are the most independent, in view of the fact that the negative semantics of these universals is contained in themselves, and negation freely moves from one part of speech to another, derived from it.

At the level of syntax, the variability of the negative syntactic construction in terms of content is associated with the strengthening and weakening of the meaning of negation. For this purpose, particles are used that reinforce the negation: too, too much, too far.

Thus, we have identified the main means of negation in the English language, thus fulfilling the methodological task set at the beginning of the study.

Bibliography

1. Afanasiev P.A. Teaching dialogic speech when expressing confirmation and negation in modern English [Text]: Textbook / P.A. Afanasiev. - Rostov N / D: RGPI, 1979. - 97s.

2. Barkhudarov L.S. Grammar of the English language [Text] / L.S. Barkhudarov, D.A. Stelling. - 4th ed. Spanish - M.: Higher. school, 1973. - 423p.

3. Berman I.M. Grammar of the English language [Text] / I.M. Berman. - M.: Higher. shk, 1994. - 288s.

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N.A. Kobrina, E.A. Karieva, M.I., Osovskaya, K.A. Guzeev. - M.: Enlightenment, 1996. - 288s.

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6. Kondakov N.I. Linguistic Dictionary [Text] / Kondakov N.I. - M.: Nauka, 1971. - 367 p.

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8. Leech, G. A Communicative Grammar of English / Leech, G; Svartvik, J. - M.: 1983.- 224p.

9. Murphy R. English grammar in Use /R. Murphy. - Cambridge.: Cambridge University Press, 1985. - 328p.

10 Graham, Kenneth. The Wind in the Willows. - M.: Progress, 1976. - 360p.

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Indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

Negation Denial -

meaning element, which indicates that the connection established between the components of the sentence, according to the speaker, does not really exist (A. M. Peshkovsky) or that the corresponding affirmative sentence is rejected by the speaker as false (Sh. Bally). Most often, a negative statement is made in a situation where the corresponding affirmative statement was made earlier or is included in the general presumption of the speakers. Negation is one of the initial, indecomposable semantic categories inherent in all, which cannot be defined through simpler semantic elements.

Negation can be expressed (they are sometimes also called negation), negative prefix (cf. "incomplete", unbekannt, impossible), negative form (okur 'he reads', okumaz 'he doesn't read'; I don't want - negative form) , or may not have a separate expression, i.e. be a component, as in Russian. "refuse" = "disagree", eng. fail intralexemic negation), or a whole sentence, cf. “You understand a lot”, “So that I can still contact him!” ( implied negation).

A sentence containing a negative word or a negative form of a verb is called negative (or grammatically negative). In a negative sentence, some statement () is always negated, which is called scope denial. The scope of the negation can be the entire sentence (“He didn’t come to work”) or only part of it (for example, in the phrase “The children are not sleeping because of the noise”, the circumstance of the cause is not included in the scope of the negation). A sentence can be ambiguous due to the ambiguous scope of the negation, e.g. "She doesn't want to change the original plan because of you" = 1) 'You are the reason she doesn't want to change the plan' and 2) 'She doesn't want to only because of you to change the plan '. In oral speech, ambiguity is partially eliminated. A sentence that is wholly within the scope of the negation is called a sentence with complete negation (otherwise - semantically generally negative); in a sentence with incomplete negation (or semantically private negative) only one of the semantic components of the sentence is denied. In any sentence there may be semantic components that are not subject to negation, -; for example, in the general negative sentence "I am not upset that he left", the component "he left" is included in the scope of negation, but is not negated.

Negation from the point of view of the role of the elements expressing it in the sentence structure is phrasal(expressed by a negative word in the predicate or by the negative form of the predicate) and conditional- not with the predicate. Most often, phrasal negation is complete, and conditional negation is incomplete (O. Jespersen, Peshkovsky). However, the opposite relationship is also possible: in the sentence "A few have sat to the end" the conditional negation is complete ('It is not true that many ...'), and in the sentence "We won't see you for a long time" the phrasal negation is incomplete ('For a long time time our meeting will not take place').

Denial is called displaced, if it is attached not to the word to which it refers in meaning, but to another word that syntactically subordinates the first (cf. English. My observations didn't help me much‘My observations did not help me much’). Usually, a shifted negation is a negation at . It is also possible to shift the negation to, for example, “not to your sleigh” = “to not your sleigh”: negation in meaning refers to, but is syntactically connected with a preposition subordinating (through) this pronoun.

One of the types of bias is climb negations, when the negation is transferred from the subordinate clause to the main one (or from the subordinate to the subordinating verb or word); cf. English I don't believe it is true Jeg haber ikke at De blev bange‘I hope you are not afraid’ (lit. I don’t hope you are afraid). Among those that allow the rise of denial are such as Rus. “I think”, “I think”, “expected”, “it seems to me”, “I want”, “advise”, “intend”, “should”; English suppose, imagine, reckon, guess, anticipate; it appears, sounds like etc. The ability of a predicate to "pull" negation is not fully predicted by its semantics: words that are close in meaning in different languages ​​often behave differently; for example, English. suppose is able to drag negation, and Rus. "assume" - no. If the negation in the main clause is displaced, then the subordinate clause turns out to be a valid context for words with negative polarization (see ), as if it itself contained a negation.

For many languages, in particular, it is characteristic plural(or cumulative) negation. In languages ​​with multiple negation, if there is a negative pronoun in the sentence, or a negative occurs, it is permissible or even required to have an “excessive” negation with the predicate; cf. not allowed by the rules of Russian grammar "No one saw him" and the correct "No one saw him." In other languages, multiple negation is prohibited by the language norm, cf. English Nobody ever saw him

Another manifestation of negative agreement is denial in the subordinate clause subordinate to verbs with the meanings ‘deny’, ‘forbid’, ‘doubt’, ‘hold back’, ‘be afraid’, etc.; cf. Russian "I could hardly resist not to hit him," French. J'ai peur qu'il ne vienne 'I'm afraid he will come'.

The formal features of the structure of negative sentences include the special design of some syntactic units that are within the scope of phrasal negation - ordinary, displaced or even redundant. So, in a direct complement with a negative verb, it can be formed not accusative, but genitive (cf. “He has no right to do this”). In the context of verbs with a quantitative meaning, where Jespersen saw a special associated meaning in negation, in reality the verb has a special meaning. So, the phrase “A bag does not weigh fifty kilograms” means “weighs less” (and not “either less, or more”). The point, however, is that "weighs" here means "reaches in weight": "not" has its usual meaning of "wrong."

The logical rule that the negation of a negation is equivalent to an affirmation is also valid in natural language: when two negations are combined with the same word, the meaning will turn out to be affirmative. However, two negations usually do not cancel each other out exactly: a complex expression is usually weaker than a simple one, cf. “frequent” (≈ ‘quite frequent’) and ‘frequent’; “not without fear” (≈ ‘with some fear’) and “with fear”; English not uncommon and common.

Strict semantic equalities link the so-called dual words, for example, “I allow” - “I demand”: “I do not allow ...” = “I demand not ...”; "I allow" = "I do not demand not"; “I don’t require” = “I allow not”; "require" = "I do not allow not". Other examples of pairs of words that are dual to each other: “maybe” - “necessarily”, “can” (in the meaning of 'I have permission') - “must” (“should”), “all” - “some” (in the sense of 'although some'), etc. Hence the equality that Peshkovsky cites: "I cannot but confess" = "I must confess."

• Peshkovsky A. M., Russian syntax in scientific coverage, M., 1956;
• Jespersen O., Philosophy of Grammar, trans. from English, M., 1958;
• Paducheva E. V., On the semantics of syntax, M., 1974;
• Bondarenko V.N., Negation as a logical-grammatical category, M., 1983;
• Boguslavsky I. M., Research on syntactic semantics: spheres of action of logical words, M., 1985;
• Jespersen O., Negation in English and other languages, Kbh., 1917;
• Klima E. S. Negation in English, in book: The structure of language. Readings in the philosophy of language, Englewood Cliffs, 1964;
• Smith S., Meaning and negation, The Hague, 1975;
• Horn L.R., Some aspects of negation, in book: Universals of Human Language, v. 4 - Syntax, Stanford, 1978.

E. V. Paducheva.

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. 1990 .

Synonyms:

See what "Negation" is in other dictionaries:

negation- Denial... Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language

NEGATION- philosophy. a category expressing a definition. type of relationship between two consecutive. stages, states of a developing object. O. is a necessary moment in the process of development. Dialectics in "... a positive understanding of the existing ... includes ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

NEGATION.- DENIAL. 1. In natural language, depending on the location, external and internal negation are distinguished. External (propositional) serves to form complex statement from another (not necessarily simple) statement. In him… … Philosophical Encyclopedia

negation- Renunciation, denial, renunciation, refusal, repudiation. // They say that carelessness is in the character of a Russian person: completeness, it is in the character of a simple person. Hound. // Naughty! she doesn't love him! Mushroom. I think next year a threshing machine ... ... Synonym dictionary

NEGATION- in grammar, the expression, using various linguistic means, that the connection between the elements of the statement is conceived as not really existing or absent. Negation can be expressed in separate words (Russian no, not, German nein, nicht, ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary