Structural-semantic classification. Its principles

1. The concept of the word. Semantic structure the words.

2. Classification of the word. Lexicon as a system.

3. Non-discrete units of vocabulary.

Word concept. Semantic structure of the word

The word (lexeme) is the central unit of the language. The vocabulary of a language is called vocabulary, and the section studying it is lexicology. It is subdivided into onomasiology and semasiology.

Onomasiology- a section of lexicology that studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.

Semasiology- a branch of lexicology that studies the meaning dictionary languages, types of lexical meanings, semantic structure of the word.

Depending on the originality of lexemes and compound names, such lexicological disciplines are distinguished as phraseology, terminology, onomastics(the science of proper names). Closely related to lexicology etymology- the science of the origin of words and expressions and lexicography as the theory of compiling dictionaries different types. Word– basic structural – semantic unit language, which serves to name objects, properties, phenomena and relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features.

Characteristic features the words:

1. integrity

2. indivisibility

3. free reproducibility in speech

The word contains:

1. phonetic structure (an organized set of sound

phonetic phenomena, forming the sound shell of the word)

2. morphological structure (a set of morphemes included in it)

3. semantic structure (a set of meanings in the content of a word)

All words included in a particular language form its vocabulary (lexicon, lexicon).

The word has many definitions. One of the more successful prof. Golovin:

Word- the smallest semantic unit of the language, freely reproduced in speech to build statements.

By this definition, the word can be distinguished from phonemes and syllables, which are not semantic units, from morphemes, not reproduced in speech freely, from phrases consisting of 2 or more words.

Any word is included in 3 main types of relationships:

1. attitudes towards objects and phenomena of reality;

2. attitudes towards thoughts, feelings, desires of the person himself;

3. relationship to other words.

In linguistics these relationship types are called:

1. denotative (from the word through its meaning to the subject)

2. significative (from the word through its meaning to the concept)

3. structural (relational) (from word to another word)

In accordance with the indicated types of relations, the functions of the word are also defined:

● denotative function- allows a word to designate an object;

● significative function- allows the word to participate in the formation and expression of concepts;

● structural function- allows the word to enter into different rows and groups of words.

concept(denotation) - reflects the most common and at the same time the most significant features of an object and phenomenon.

The denotative (from Lat. denotatum - marked, designated), or subject, component correlates the word with one or another reality: objects, qualities, relationships, actions, processes, etc. The object designated by the word is called a denotation, or a referent (from Latin to refer - to send, to relate)

denotations- these are images of real or imaginary objects or phenomena, embodied in verbal form. Through denotations, words are related to real (human, tree, dog, cat) or imaginary (mermaid, dragon, brownie) realities.

Meaning (significat) – the highest level reflection of reality in the human mind, the same stage as the concept. The meaning of the word reflects the general and at the same time essential features of the subject, known in the social practice of people.

significative(from lat. significatum - denoted) the meaning component correlates the word with the concept it denotes. A significat is a concept embodied in a verbal form. The concept itself is defined as a thought, which in a generalized form reflects objects and phenomena by fixing their properties, features and relationships. Conceptual thinking is carried out with the help of special mental operations - analysis and synthesis, identification and distinction, abstraction and generalization, which receive a verbal form in the language. Any concept always corresponds to a large volume, the content of which is revealed not with the help of one word, but with a detailed description. The word only fixes a certain set of features characteristic of a certain concept. So, the word signification river contains in its meaning the conceptual features of the river as "a natural, significant and continuous water flow, flowing in the channel developed by him."

Word classifications. Vocabulary as a system

The vocabulary of a particular language includes hundreds of thousands of words, but the vocabulary of a language is characterized not only by the quantity, but also by the quality of its constituent units, which simultaneously have typical and specific features. The properties and differences of language units help to classify them on various grounds.

By way of nomination There are 4 types of words:

● independent (full-valued, denoting directly fragments of reality). These are: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals.

● official (do not have sufficient independence to be used independently). They form one member of the sentence together with an independent word (prepositions, articles), or connect words (conjunctions), or replace other words structurally and functionally (substituent words);

● pronominal words (denoting objects indirectly);

● interjections (denoting the phenomena of reality and the reaction of a person to them in an undivided way, in connection with which they do not have grammatical formality).

According to impact, i.e. words differ phonetically:

● single-beat (eg table);

● multi-beat (railway);

● unstressed (for example, he).

Morphologically words differ:

● changeable and unchangeable;

● simple, derivative, complex (move, walk, lunar rover).

By motivation:

● motivated (environment, cuckoo (because cuckoo), carpenter (because he makes tables));

● unmotivated (flour, beam, bread).

By vocabulary usage:

● active (common and very common words);

● passive (it is made up of words that are not commonly used, or are not commonly used at all for a given era).

In historical terms, the language is continuously updated, while:

1 .new words appear - neologisms(satellite, moon rover). Neologisms that are individual, speech are also called occasionalisms (egologisms). For example, the author's neoplasms of Mayakovsky;

2 .go to passive margin words that have become unnecessary - archaisms - the establishment of words displaced from active use (stable, neck, verb - word) and historicisms– obsolete words, denoting the realities and concepts of previous eras (potbelly stove), which have now come out of the life and life of the people;

3 .famous words acquire new value(pioneer - pioneer, pioneer - member of the pioneer organization).

From point of view areas of use vocabulary is:

● unlimited (typical for oral and written speech);

● limited (sometimes territorially limited - dialect, social - professional, jargon)

With positions of stylistic (connotative) allocate:

● neutral vocabulary

● technical vocabulary

● political vocabulary

● official vocabulary - business

Based on the semantic relationships between words, they distinguish:

1. synonyms(words that are similar in meaning, but differ in form (eyes, eyes, pupils, peepers, flashing lights, Zenks, balls, and also the organ of vision). Synonyms are synonymous rows. In the synonymic series there is always a word that expresses the "pure" meaning of the given synonymic series without any additional shades, without emotional coloring, call it indifferent;

2. antonyms(words that are opposite in meaning and differ in form (top - bottom, white - black, speak - be silent);

3. homonyms(words similar in form but different in meaning). Homonyms are words that have the same sound and writing(onions - plants and onions - weapons). However, in this case, a discrepancy between pronunciation and spelling is possible, and on this basis there are homophones and homographs.

Homophones are words that differ in spelling but have the same pronunciation. For example, Russian: onion and meadow, take (take) and take (take), German: Saite - string and Seite - side. A significant number of homophones are found in French and especially in English: write - write and right - straight, straight; meat - meat and meet - to meet.

Homographs are different words that have the same spelling, although they are pronounced differently. For example, Russian: castle - castle; English: tear - tear and tear - tear.

4. paronyms(words that differ both in form and in meaning, but not significantly). For example, Russian: protect - watch out German: gleich-glatt-flach-platt; English: bash - mash - smash (hit, smash) - crash (collapse) - dash (throw) - lash (whip) - rash (throw) - brash (break) - clash (push) - plash (splash) - splash (splatter) ) - flash (flicker).

By source of origin:

● native vocabulary

● borrowed vocabulary (from the French language album)

In every developed language have their own dictionaries thesauri. Except general dictionaries, which have an alphabetical construction, ideographic dictionaries are also known, where words are distributed according to classes of concepts. The first ideographic dictionary of the modern type was "Thesaurus of English words and expressions" by P.M. Roger, published in London in 1852. The entire conceptual field in English was divided into 4 classes - abstract relations, space, matter and spirit (mind), each class is divided into types, each type into groups: there are only 1000 of them. Large dictionaries are called academic (or thesauri).

Development of the lexical meaning of the word

Polysemy. Most words in the language have not one, but several meanings that have appeared in the process of a long historical development. Yes, noun pear means: 1) fruit tree; 2) the fruit of this tree; 3) an object that has the shape of this fruit. Often words have up to 10-20 meanings. Four-volume academic "Dictionary of the Russian language" in the word go notes 27 meanings, in the word case - 15 meanings, in words burn, give 10 values, etc. Polysemy is also characteristic of other languages of the world. For example, English do‘do, perform’ has 16 meanings, French a11er ‘ to go somewhere, to move in one way or another’ has 15 meanings, German comment‘come, arrive’ - 6, Czech povoleni, Polish nastaviazh‘set, set’ - at least 5 values each, etc. The ability of a word to have multiple meanings is called ambiguity or polysemy(from Greek. holysemos- multivalued). Words with at least two meanings are called polysemantic or polysemantic.

Metaphor(from Greek metaphorá - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another according to the similarity of certain signs: in shape, size, quantity, color, function, location in space, impression and sensation. The main mechanism for the formation of a metaphor is comparison, therefore it is no coincidence that a metaphor is called a hidden, abbreviated comparison. For example, based on the metaphorical connection of the meanings of a noun nose there is a similarity in shape and location in space: 1) part of a person’s face, an animal’s muzzle; 2) bird's beak; 3) a part of a teapot or jug protruding in the form of a tube; 4) front part of a vessel, aircraft, etc.; 5) cape.

Metonymy(from Greek metōnymia - renaming) - transfer of names from one object to another by adjacency. Unlike metaphor, metonymy does not provide for any similarity between the designated objects or phenomena. It is based on a close and easily understood contiguity, contiguity in space or time, involvement in one situation of designated realities, persons, actions, processes, etc.

For example: porcelain ‘ mineral mass from high-grade clay with various impurities’ and porcelain ‘ utensils, various products from such a mass’; audience ' room for lectures, reports and audience ' listeners of lectures, reports’; evening ‘ time of day and evening' meeting, concert’, etc.

Synecdoche(from Greek synekdochē - connotation, hint expression) - this is such a transfer of meaning when the name of the part is used in the meaning of the whole, the smaller - in the meaning of the larger and vice versa. Synecdoche is often considered a form of metonymy. However, its essential difference from metonymy lies in the fact that synecdoche is based on quantitative attribute ratio of direct and figurative meanings. Synecdoche is based on the relationship of objects and phenomena that are characterized by unity, integrity, but differ in quantitative terms: one is part of the other, that is, one member of the relationship will always be general, wider, and the other - private, narrower. Synecdoche covers a significant amount of vocabulary and is characterized by fairly stable relationships. The transfer of meaning can be carried out according to the following criteria: 1) part of the human body - a person: beard, long hair, head- a man of great intelligence, muzzle - a person with an ugly, rough face; 2) a piece of clothing - a person: ran after each skirt Little Red Riding Hood, pea coat - spy of the tsarist secret police; 3) a tree or plant - their fruits: plum, cherry, pear; 4) plant, cereals - their seeds: wheat, oats, barley, millet; 5) animal - its fur: beaver, fox, sable, nutria etc.

To replace forbidden words, other words were used, which in linguistics were called euphemisms. Euphemism(from Greek euphēmismos - I speak politely) - this is a substitute, permitted word, used instead of a taboo, prohibited. A classic example of a hunting euphemism is the various designations of a bear in Slavic, Baltic, Germanic languages. The original Indo-European name of this animal is preserved in Latin as ursus, in French as ours, in Italian as orso, in Spanish as oso, etc. The Slavic, Baltic and Germanic languages have lost this name, but retained euphemisms for the bear: German Bär - brown, Lithuanian Lokys - slime, Russian bear - the one who eats honey, extinct Prussian clokis - grumbler. Euphemisms could be like new words (cf. Russian bear) so and old, already known to the language, but used with a new value. The classification is very important. according to semantic and grammatical indicators(parts of speech).

Chapter structural linguistics, dedicated to the description of the meaning of language expressions and operations on it. In S. with. There are two types of models: language behavior of native speakers and language research. Models of linguistic behavior of speakers are divided into generating text and translating text into meaning or meaning into text.

The generative models that emerged under strong influence formal logic, imitate the ability of a native speaker to distinguish meaningful sentences from meaningless ones, true from false, analytically true (“Bachelors are not married”) from synthetically true (“Sun is the source of life on earth”). The ready-made syntactic structure of the sentence is fed to the input of the generative model (for example, ((tree" of its components - see Generative Grammar), using a special dictionary and rules for connecting values that "amalgamate" the meanings of two components given level into the value of the component next level, the sentence is compared with its semantic characteristics. Critics of generative semantic models have pointed out that logical analysis the judgment contained in the sentence (questions of meaningfulness, truth, etc.) is beyond the competence of linguistics, whose task is to show how language is used to convey any meanings, in particular, anomalous in one way or another. This task is solved by models of translating text into meaning (analysis) and meaning into text (synthesis).

Currently, synthesizing models are more developed. At their input comes the meaning to be expressed, written on special. semantic language; the output is many equivalent to each other

sentences expressing a given meaning (the concept of equivalence is taken as undefined; the meaning is called the invariant of equivalent sentences), and (or) many sentences-inferences from a given meaning. The essential components of the model are: an artificial semantic language and a natural semantic dictionary. A semantic language is made up of a set of concepts and syntactic relations, the rules for the formation of sentences of this language and the rules for their equivalent or implicative (for the case of inference) transformation. Interpretation (definition) of the meanings of words (or language units) in the natural-semantic dictionary is their translation into the semantic language. A hierarchy of semantic descriptions is expedient - from an abstract semantic record such as predicate calculus to a surface syntactic structure ("tree") with specific words given natural language at its nodes. Then the semantic synthesis appears as a multiple recoding of the originally given meaning with a gradual approximation to the form in which it is expressed in natural language. Models specified type in in full does not exist, but many of its fragments are developed on the basis of three principles, each with its own linguistic tradition.

1) In accordance with the principle of decomposition into diff. signs transferred from phonology, the meaning of a word is considered as a conjunction of elementary components - the so-called. "atoms of meaning". The systems of kinship names, etc., were subjected to component analysis. simple nomenclatures. A similar idea of the structure of the meaning of language units underlay the first semantic models used in information retrieval, automatic translation(see Machine translation) and in semantic generative models.

2) In accordance with the principle of syntactic organization (put forward in opposition to the 1st principle), it is believed that for an adequate representation of the meaning, the semantic components complex meaning must form a fairly complex syntactic structure (eg, a "tree" of dependencies). In practice, when interpreting the meanings of words, this principle was followed before: the syntax of natural language was used in the lexicographic tradition, spec. a syntax close to that of predicate calculus is found in the works of Sov. scientists on automatic, translation and translation from information-logical languages.

3) The need to receive many proposals equivalent to each other led to the appeal of S. s. to the principle of transformation calculus, which originally arose in the theory of generative grammars precisely on a syntactic basis (in this theory, only transformations of the syntactic structure of a sentence were considered, preserving its grammatical correctness and lexical composition). In S. with. the concept of transformation has been modified in two respects: both narrowed - only semantically invariant (and implicative) transformations are considered, and expanded - any changes in the lexical composition of the sentence are allowed (see the "meaning" model). In the newest S. with. the subject of consideration is, in addition to the semantics of the sentence, the semantic structure of the whole connected text.

Research models in S. with. are aimed at obtaining information about the meanings of language units using formal procedures for processing language material.

N.S. Pospelov identified the main difference between the two types of complex sentences. It consists in the following: the subordinate part either correlates with the main part in its entirety, or is part of the main part, attaching itself to some word and spreading it. He called sentences of the first type binomial, sentences of the second type - single-term.

An example of a binary type sentence: We will agree on everything if you come to me. The predicative parts of a complex sentence contain two situations that correlate in general: the second situation is a condition for the implementation of the first situation. The appendage is associated with main part generally. A similar relationship is observed in sentences with other semantic conjunctions: We'll agree on everything when you come to me. We will agree on everything, because we understand each other. We will agree on everything, although it will not be easy.

An example of a monomial type sentence: We agreed to meet in the evening.

The subordinate part does not refer to the entire main part, but to one word “agreed”, spreading it, making up for its informative insufficiency. This connection is comparable to the connection in the phrase: make an appointment(We made an appointment).

Other important difference one-term and two-term sentences is manifested in the means of communication. In monomial sentences as means syntactic connection asemantic unions are used (the union "what", some unions used as asemantic - "as if", "as if", "to") and allied words, i.e. such indicators that only formalize the connection, but do not establish syntactic relations (syntactic relations are expressed by other means). In binomial sentences, semantic conjunctions are used as means of syntactic communication - indicators of syntactic relations (temporal, conditional, causal, target, etc.).

The classification of complex sentences developed by N.S. Pospelov received further development in the works of other scientists, in particular, V.A. Beloshapkova, who introduced important clarifications to this classification. First of all, the terms were replaced: one-membered and two-membered, respectively, are denoted by the terms undivided and divided sentences. The reason for changing the terms is the similarity of the former terms with the names of the types of simple sentences (one-part - two-part) and their possible confusion in use.

V.A. Beloshapkova made an important clarification for sentences of a dissected structure (according to Pospelov - two-term). She found that in these sentences there is a connection not between the predicative parts as a whole, but between the predicates: the subordinate part refers to the main predicate, and this predicate is not necessarily a predicate, it can also be an additional predicate, for example, a gerund or participle in isolated revolutions, and even a semantic predicate (a word with predicate semantics). For example: He held his son tightly by the hand so that he would not run away. The subordinate clause with the target meaning refers to the predicate-predicate "held" (held - for what purpose?). He went out, holding his son tightly by the hand so that he would not run away. The subordinate part refers to an additional predicate expressed by the gerund "holding" (holding - for what purpose?)

Another important step, made by V.A. Beloshapkova in the development of a structural-semantic classification, is the definition of methods of communication between the components of a complex sentence. There are three ways of communication: conditional, determinant and correlation.

A word connection is a predictive connection, it is predetermined by the valency of the word in the main part, its morphological or lexical features. Such a connection is similar to a connection in a phrase. For example: The confidence she had at first is now gone. The word connection is determined by the morphological characteristic of the reference word - its belonging to a certain part of speech - a noun (cf. in the phrase: "initial confidence"). The confidence that he would not let me down gave me strength. In this case, the word connection is determined not by the fact that the word belongs to a part of speech, but by the peculiarity of its lexical meaning: the word “confidence” is distributed here as a synsemantic one that requires mandatory distribution - by a subordinate clause or word form (“confidence in being right”). The word connection is a sign of an undivided structure.

Determinant connection is a non-predictive connection, it is similar to the connection of a circumstantial determinant in simple sentence: determinant refers to the predicative basis of a simple sentence; the subordinate part refers to the predicate of the main part (main or additional). For example: I understood you when I got to know you better. Wed: With time I understood you. A similar connection with any semantic union: I understand you because I think so myself. I understand you, although I have a different point of view. Determinant connection is a sign of a dissected structure.

correlation has no analogues in a phrase and a simple sentence, this is a connection characteristic of complex sentence. The classic case of correlation is the T-word in the main part and the corresponding K-word in the subordinate part: Ithat , whom nobody likes. Other manifestations of correlation: T-word in the main part - asemantic union ( It wasSo hot,what melted asphalt); The K-word in the subordinate clause correlates with the entire main clause ( Today Vasya was late,what never happened to him before). Correlation is possible both in non-segmented and dissected structures.

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1. Semantic structure of the meaning of the word

Lexical semantics is a branch of semantics that studies the meaning of a word. More precisely, lexical semantics studies the meaning of words as units of a subsystem of language (also called vocabulary language, or simply its dictionary, or lexicon or lexicon) and as units of speech. Thus, the object of study in lexical semantics is the word considered from the side of its signified.

The concept of "meaning" has different aspects and is defined differently, in relation to individual areas. human activity. The general understanding of “meaning” is defined, for example, as follows: “meaning is what given object is for people who are in the process of everyday, aesthetic, scientific, industrial, socio-political and other activities.

By meaning, one can understand that the main category of semantics is its central concept. To determine the meaning of certain units of a sign (semiotic) system, including language, which represents “the most complete and perfect of communication systems”, this means to establish regular correspondences between certain “segments” of text and meaning that are correlative for a given unit, to formulate rules and reveal the patterns of transition from the text to its meaning and from the meaning to the text expressing it.

The lexical meaning of a word, that is, its individual content socially assigned to it as a certain complex of sounds, is, according to a number of linguists, a kind of semantic whole, which, however, consists of interrelated and interdependent parts or components.

Lexical meaning words-- content words that reflect in the mind and fix in it the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon and product mental activity of a person, it is associated with reduction, its connections with other meanings of linguistic units in the phrase and sentence, and paradigmatically - its position within the synonymic series. Syntagmatic factors that are essential in clarifying the meaning of a word are secondary in relation to the actual semantic aspect.

Lexical meaning is “a well-known reflection of an object, phenomenon or relationship in the mind, which is included in the structure of the word as its so-called inner side, in relation to which the sound of the word acts as a material shell ...”.

We can consider the following types of lexical meaning of the word:

Meaning as a specific linguistic form of a generalized reflection of extralinguistic reality;

Meaning as a component of a lexical unit, i.e. structural element lexico-semantic system of the language;

Meaning as an expression of the attitude of speakers to the words (signs) used and the impact of words (signs) on people;

Meaning as an actual, specific designation, naming of an object, phenomenon (situation).

The existence of lexico-semantic variants of the same word suggests that they are not isolated, but interconnected entities, in a certain way correlating with each other and forming a kind of unity. The systemic interconnection of different LSVs of the same word within its identity forms the basis of its semantic (or semantic) structure, which can be defined as an ordered (revealing system interconnection its elements) a set of LSVs of the same word. The concept of the semantic structure of a word is interpreted very ambiguously in the linguistic literature, however, it seems possible to single out two main directions that differ in how the elementary constitutive component of the semantic structure of the word is determined. The first group includes those understandings of the semantic structure, where the LSV acts as the main unit, that is, the unit correlated with a separate meaning polysemantic word. The second direction is closely related to the methodology component analysis meaning, which sets as its task the division of the content side of a linguistic unit into its constituent components and the presentation of meaning in the form of sets of elementary meanings or semantic features. These elementary or, more precisely, minimal (at a certain level of analysis) semantic components, distinguished in the content side of a lexeme or its separate LSV, are called sem. Composing the meaning of a word or a separate LSW of a word, semes act not as elements listed in an arbitrary order, but as a hierarchically ordered structure, and thus, one can speak of a semantic structure, the structural unit of which will be a seme. At the same time, the semantic (semantic) structure, presented at the seme level, can be considered both in relation to the word as a set of LSWs, and in relation to a separate LSW and, accordingly, in relation to an unambiguous word.

Considering the difference in the approach to determining the semantic structure of linguistic units, it seems that a terminological distinction should also be made, calling the semantic structure of the word the ordered set of its LSW and the semantic structure of the word - the representation of the content at the level minimum components values. Accordingly, only polysemantic words have a semantic (semantic) structure, and both polysemantic words and single-valued lexemes and individual LSVs of polysemantic words have a semantic structure.

The most important aspect of describing the semantic structure of a word is the establishment of correlative relationships between its LSW. Two approaches are possible here: synchronous and diachronic. With the synchronous approach, meaningful-logical relations are established between the meanings of LSV without taking into account obsolete and obsolete LSV, which, thus, somewhat distorts the relationship of semantic derivativeness between individual LSV (epidigmatic relations, in the terminology of D.N. Shmelev, but in a certain sense more adequately than with the diachronic approach, reflects the real ratio of values in the perception of carriers

The semantic structure of the word and the structure of the LZS differ. The first includes a set of individual variants of LZS, among which the main meanings and derivatives are distinguished - portable and specialized. Each lexico-semantic variant is a hierarchically organized set of semes - a structure in which an integrating generic meaning (archiseme), a differentiating specific (differential seme), as well as potential semes reflecting side properties of an object that actually exist or are attributed to it by the collective are distinguished. These semes are important for the formation of figurative meanings of words.

a) chronotopoi. Formulas of time indications, denoting the extent of an event or phenomenon from a certain moment in the past to the time of the chronicler's work, are found in the text of the PVL throughout the narrative. They exist in different verbal forms. The most commonly used are the following: “to this day”, “to this day”, “to this day”, “to this day”, “to this day”, “until now”. These may be indications of the places of settlement of the Slavic tribes; to the places of residence and cult burials of chronicle persons; to the locations of churches; princely parking lots, chambers; places for hunting. Some chronotopoi contain important information on the topography of cities. Chronotopic author's remarks help to find out approximate time and the place of work of the chronicler (indicating the yazveno of Vseslav, the time and place of the burial of Anthony, Jan and Evpraksia). Many remarks, in addition to chronotopic, perform the function of updating the past.

b) information remarks. The indicated type of remarks performs the function of messages about the origin of tribes, tribal customs, about the establishment of tribute to the Khazars, Varangians, Radimichi and the conquest of some Polish cities that are still under Russia; about the consequences of wars; about the "shortcomings" appearance and moral inferiority.

Some chronoconstructs are used by the chronicler to enhance some quality (usually the cowardice of enemies). They combine informative and artistic functions (hyperbolization with an element of humor: but the use of their trials to this day).

c) connecting remarks. They are designed, as a rule, for a “smart reader” (an expression by A.S. Demin) and serve as a reminder of the previously described events (“as if rekohom”), return to main topic narrations (“we will return to the former”), prepare the reader for the perception of information (“because it’s not enough”), refer to subsequent events (“as we say later”). At the same time, they connect different fragments of the text, giving it the appearance of a whole work. As M.Kh. Aleshkovsky, "these associative arches, thrown from one text to another, from maxim to maxim, the so-called cross-references, references to contemporary reality, hold the entire grandiose and narrative building"8. In addition, these external and obvious manifestations clearly demonstrate the ability of the chronicler to cover the totality of events. A.A. Shaikin, who does not specifically analyze the system of reservations and references in the annals, noted that “only by them alone one could confidently conclude that the chronicler in his thinking is not at all isolated by a fragment, that he simultaneously sees, captures, matches events of different years and realizes it is one’s own vision and conjugation in the text of the chronicle”9.

The author's speech transformations of phraseological units are revealed within the following main structural and semantic changes: inversion, replacement, insertion, contamination, ellipsis, allusion, etc. Despite such a variety of types of transformations, the number of uses of phraseological units without changes in fiction exceeds the number of transformed units.

In addition to the basic methods of changing phraseological units related to lexical side stable unit, in works of art there are changes in the grammatical plan.

lexical semantics word note

3. The history of the development of the concept of "image"

Imagine, imagination, image. Imagine, imagination are words inherited by Russian literary language from the Old Church Slavonic language. The morphological composition of the word imagine shows that its original meaning was to give an image to something, to draw, depict, embody in the image of something, to realize.

Thus, the history of changes in the meanings of the verb imagine is closely connected with the semantic fate of the word image. In the language of ancient Russian writing, the word image expressed a whole range of meanings - concrete and abstract:

1) appearance, appearance, external outlines, form

2) image, statue, portrait, icon, imprint

3) face, physiognomy;

4) rank, rank, state characteristic of one or another social position, features of the species and life;

5) sample, prim;

6) a symbol, sign or sign;

7) way, means,

An image is a holistic, but incomplete representation of an object or class of objects, is an ideal product of mental activity, which is concretized in one form or another. mental reflection: sensations, perceptions.

This is enough correct definition this word. A product of the psyche, which tends to bring the representation of an object into the plane of a perfect, finished look. All the phenomena hidden behind the words of the language are not fully covered by the words, the images try to get closer to the known properties of the phenomena that a person can perceive. And the sciences are trying to expand the experience of the integrity of the phenomenon. We have to admit that, expanding the “boundaries of knowledge”, there are no less questions than answers. Wherein vocabulary much more limited than the variety of surrounding forms and phenomena, therefore, in the language there is a huge repetition of some words for different areas activities.

And at the same time, even all the outgoing waves of linguistic communication can be attributed to the phenomenon - "a person talks about himself." In the sense that what is being said comes from personal perception, in connection with which, very often it is necessary to find out: - What did you mean when you said health? Health, what is it for you? And in this social phenomenon of limited language, individuals are trying to express the image they have adopted behind the word, the conviction, the evolution of their own consciousness. Here lies a more effective (real) influence of an example of an individual's behavior than the voiced "correct" words and advice. Which is shown in Physical culture”, as imitation and a special kind of active straight-knowledge (not by reason), and when quick reactions of the whole organism to a changing environment are required (outdoor games, relay races, high-speed qualities of exercises ...).

In addition to this, the very form of presentation of our figurative representations is complicated by their translation through words. In addition to the meaning of the word itself, which may not be unambiguous, the word order of the composed sentences and the meaning of the general array that the author intended to convey to readers are also important. Or completely different forms of reproduction with their help are possible.

At the same time, the reader himself must also be grown up in linguistic and written culture of the people whose texts he reads, to have an interest in the chosen topic and reason active perception, not on faith but for information.

The information itself, built in alphabetic notations, is with great difficulty capable of conveying the emotions and moods of the author embedded in the text (which is expressed in the difficulties of translating works of art into different languages).

These simple experiments with the form of presentation and the meaning of transmission, show additional difficulties in understanding the fruits of our figurative thinking expressed through texts. In contrast to the international "body language", one's own behavior and example (actions and appearance), which instantly transmits information of your momentary state without logical comprehension of it, but in any society perceived by straight-knowledge. This is confirmed by numerous popular science videos of travelers meeting with the cultures of primitive existence. Where is the difference in knowledge about the world around, does not interfere with the quick finding of common concepts of the beginning of the dialogue. Help and respect meets help and respect, aggression and contempt meets aggression and contempt.

4. Modern dictionary definition

1) in psychology - a subjective picture of the world, including the subject himself, other people, the spatial environment and the temporal sequence of events.

The term comes from the Latin word for imitation, and most uses of it in psychology, old and new, revolve around this concept. Consequently, the most common synonyms for it are the concepts of similarity, copy, reproduction, duplicate. There are several important variations of this concept:

1. Optical image - the most specific use, which refers to the reflection of an object by a mirror, lens or other optical device.

2. Broader meaning - retinal image - (approximate) image of an object on the retina, which occurs point by point when light is refracted optical system eyes.

3. In structuralism - one of the three subclasses of consciousness; the other two are sensations and feelings. The main emphasis in this model of use was on the fact that the image should be considered as a mental representation of the previous sensory experience, as its copy. This copy was thought to be less vivid than the sensory experience, still represented in consciousness as a memory of that experience.

4. The picture in my head. This commonsense concept actually captures the essence of the term quite well in its most modern usage, but some caveats should be made,

a) "Picture" is not in the literal sense - there is no device, such as a slide projector / screen, rather it should be said: "as if a picture." That is, imagination cognitive process, acting in such a way "as if" a mental picture arises in a person, which is an analogue of a scene from the real world,

b) The image is not necessarily seen as a reproduction of an earlier event, but rather as a construction, a synthesis. In this sense, the image is no longer seen as a copy, for example, one can imagine a unicorn riding a motorcycle, which is unlikely to be a copy of any previously seen stimulus,

c) This picture in the head seems to be able to mentally "move" in such a way that one can imagine, for example, a unicorn riding a motorcycle towards you, away from you, in a circle.

d) The picture is not necessarily limited to a visual representation, although, undoubtedly, the term is most often used in this sense. Some people claim that they even have taste and smell images. Because of such extended interpretations, definitions are often added to the term to indicate the form of the image under discussion.

e) this pattern of usage impinges on the meaning of the etymologically related term imagination.

The main patterns of use were given above, but there are some others:

5. A general attitude towards some institution, such as "an image of some country)".

6. Elements of dreams.

5. Direct and specific meaning

The world depicted in the work in all its integrity can be considered as a single image. An image is an element of a work that belongs both to its form and to its content. The image is inextricably linked with the idea of the work or with the author's position in the work. It is both a concrete, sensuous representation and the embodiment of an idea.

An image is always concrete, not abstract, unlike an idea, but it does not have to evoke a definite, clear visual representation of the object depicted.

6. Assignment of concepts to a given subject area

The word - image, image - image, feeling - image, and also involuntarily - through the action of unconscious mechanisms are updated by associations. The image of representation is projected in the sphere of consciousness. Projection of representations in real space is a hallucination. Personal representations are objectified, become available to others through a verbal description, graphic image and related behavior. Motor representations pre-adjust a person to an action and, as a standard, correct it. By means of a language that introduces socially developed methods of logical operation of concepts into the representation, the representation is translated into an abstract concept.

When comparing the qualitative characteristics of the image of perception and images of representation, the obscurity, indistinctness, incompleteness, fragmentation, instability and paleness of the latter in comparison with the image of perception are striking. These features are indeed inherent in representations, but they are not essential. The essence of representations is that they are generalized images of reality that preserve the most characteristic features of the world that are important for an individual or personality. At the same time, the degree of generalization of a certain representation can be different, in connection with which the representations are single and general. Representations are the initial data for operating in the mind with casts of reality.

Representations are the result of sensory knowledge of the world, the experience, the property of each individual. At the same time, the image of representation is the initial form of development and deployment of the mental life of the individual. Among the regularities, first of all, the generalization of the image, which is characteristic even for individual representations, is important; for general representations, it is the main feature.

The sensory-objective nature of representations makes it possible to classify them according to modality - as visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, etc. Types of representations are distinguished. Corresponding to the types of perception: representations of time, space, movement, etc. general.

Representation transformations play an important role in solving mental tasks, especially those that require a new "vision" of the situation.

List of used literature

1. Antsupov A.Ya., Shipilov A.I. Conflict Dictionary, 2009

2. IMAGE - a subjective picture of the world or its fragments, including the subject himself, other people, space ...

3. Big psychological dictionary. Comp. Meshcheryakov B., Zinchenko V. Olma-press. 2004.

4. V. Zelensky. Dictionary of analytical psychology.

5. Glossary of political psychology. -M RUDN University, 2003

6. Glossary psychological terms. Under. ed. N. Gubina.

7. Diana Halpern. Psychology critical thinking, 2000 / Terms on the book.

8. Dudiev V.P. Psychomotor: dictionary-reference book, 2008

9. Dushkov B.A., Korolev A.V., Smirnov B.A. Encyclopedic Dictionary: Psychology of work, management, engineering psychology and ergonomics, 2005

10. Zhmurov V.A. The Great Encyclopedia of Psychiatry, 2nd ed., 2012

11. Applied aspects of modern psychology: terms, laws, concepts, methods / Reference edition, author-compiler N.I. Konyukhov, 1992

12. S.Yu. Golovin. Dictionary of practical psychologist.

13. Oxford dictionary in psychology / Ed. A. Rebera, 2002

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