Limestones (in the broadest sense) have extremely diverse applications. They are used in the form of lump limestone, crushed stone, crushed sand, mineral powder, mineral wool, limestone flour. The main consumers are the cement industry (limestone, chalk and marl), construction (obtaining building lime, concrete, plaster, mortar; laying walls and foundations, metallurgy (limestone and dolomite - fluxes and refractories, processing of nepheline ores into alumina, cement and soda ), agriculture (limestone flour in agricultural technology and animal husbandry), food (especially sugar).
The area is known for its abundance of lime stones; lime burning has been carried out here since time immemorial. In 1982, on the left side of the Solominka River, a lime quarry was opened. This is used to fertilize the soil of collective farms and state farms in our and other neighboring regions of the republic. The quarry annually produces 45 thousand tons of lime.
According to the estimates of geologists, limestone deposits in the Mozharsky quarry are about 15 million tons, and in the Yantikovsky quarry - 5 million tons.
The program of social and economic development of the Yantikovsky district for 2007-2010 specifies the main tasks to improve the efficiency of using the natural resources of the district. The expected results of the program implementation are also given: budgetary security per capita will increase, the level of the average monthly wage of workers in the sectors of the economy will increase, additional jobs will appear providing effective employment for the population, and the volume of industrial production will increase.
Yantikovsky district is included in the zone where the average subsistence level of the population is considered below the norm, 66.7% of the population of the district is not employed. The main problem in the employment of the unemployed and unemployed citizens in the region is the lack of jobs in enterprises and organizations of the region. In this regard, we propose to pay attention to the development of industrial production, in particular the production of crushed stone, cement, and sugar. And for the production of cement and sugar, natural raw materials must be of high quality. Therefore, the purpose of our work is: 1 To study the qualitative and quantitative composition of limestone from 2 quarries on the territory of the Yantikovsky district.
Limestone, sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate - calcite. Due to its wide distribution, ease of processing and chemical properties, limestone is mined and used to a greater extent than other rocks, second only to sand and gravel deposits. Limestones come in many colors, including black, but the most common rocks are white, gray or brownish. Bulk density 2.2–2.7. This is a soft breed, easily scratched by a knife blade. Limestones boil violently when exposed to dilute acid. In accordance with their sedimentary origin, they have a layered structure. Pure limestone consists only of calcite (rarely with a small amount of another form of calcium carbonate - aragonite). There are also impurities. The double carbonate of calcium and magnesium - dolomite - is usually found in variable amounts, and all transitions between limestone, dolomitic limestone and dolomite rock are possible.
Although limestones can form in any freshwater and sea basins, the vast majority of these rocks are of marine origin. Sometimes they precipitate, like salt and gypsum, from the water of evaporating lakes and sea lagoons, but, apparently, most of the limestones were deposited in seas that did not experience intensive drying. In all likelihood, the formation of most limestones began with the extraction of calcium carbonate from sea water by living organisms (to build shells and skeletons). These remains of dead organisms accumulate in abundance on the seafloor. The most striking example of the accumulation of calcium carbonate are coral reefs. In some cases, individual shells are distinguishable and recognizable in limestone. As a result of wave and surf activity and under the influence sea currents reefs are destroyed. Calcium carbonate is added to the calcareous debris on the seabed, which precipitates from water saturated with it. The formation of younger limestones also involves calcite coming from the destroyed older limestones.
Limestones are found on almost all continents, with the exception of Australia. In Russia, limestones are common in the central regions of the European part, and are also common in the Caucasus, the Urals, and Siberia.
1.2 Cement
Cement is an astringent powdered material that forms a plastic mass capable of gradually hardening into stone. It consists mainly of tricalcium silicate 3 CaO SiO2.
The composition of cement may include various additives, the mass ratio of oxides determines the technical suitability of the cement. Silica, which is part of it, binds oxides of calcium, aluminum; in this case, the following silicate compounds are formed - 3CaO SiO2 nH2O, 2CaO SiO2 nH2O; hydroaluminates - 3CaO X AI2 O3 6H2O; aluminoferrites - 4CaO AI2 O3 Fe2O3.
The most common type of cement is Portland cement. It has great mechanical strength, stability in air and under water, frost resistance. The main raw materials for the production of Portland cement are limestone and clay containing silicon oxide (IV).
Limestone and clay are thoroughly mixed and their mixture is fired in inclined cylindrical kilns, the length of which reaches more than 200 m, and in diameter - about 5 m. During the firing process, the kiln slowly rotates and the raw materials gradually move towards its lower part to meet hot gases - products combustion of incoming gaseous or solid pulverized fuel.
At elevated temperatures, complex processes occur between clay and limestone. chemical reactions. The simplest of these are the dehydration of kaolinite, the decomposition of limestone and the formation of silicates and calcium aluminates:
Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O → Al2O3 2SiO2 + 2H2O
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
The substances formed as a result of the reactions are sintered in the form of separate pieces. After cooling, they are ground to a fine powder.
The hardening process of the cement paste is explained by the fact that various silicates and aluminates that make up the cement react with water to form a stony mass. Depending on the composition, various grades of cement are produced.
1. 3 Hydrated lime. Calcium hydroxide is used to make sugar
Sugar beet is fed to the plant by hydraulic conveyor and pumped to the beet washing machine. The washed beet is lifted by an elevator of 15-17 m and fed into the beet cutter, where it is crushed and turns into thin shavings. Beet chips enter the diffusion apparatus. The first task of production is to extract the sugar from the beets more completely. For this purpose, hot water is passed through the diffusers to meet the moving chips (beet pulp), the mass fraction of sucrose does not exceed 0.5%. Diffusion juice is an opaque dark liquid. Dark color give pigments that belong to non-sasar.
And the task of another stage of production is to free the sucrose solution from impurities. To free the sucrose solution from impurities, milk of lime is poured into it from above at the rate of 20-30 kg of calcium hydroxide Cu (OH) 2 per 1 kg of beets. Under the action of calcium hydroxide, the diffusion juice is neutralized.
Chapter 2. Experimental part of the work
2. 1 Determination of CaCO3 in limestone.
The simplest way to determine CaCO3 in limestone is that a certain sample of an average sample of limestone is treated with an excess of a titrated solution of hydrochloric acid and an excess of HCl that has not reacted with CaCO3 is subjected to back titration with a caustic alkali solution. The content of CaCO3 in limestone is calculated from the amount of HCl used for the decomposition of limestone.
For analysis, a sample of an average sample of limestone (200 g) was ground in a mortar, passed through a 0.5 mm sieve, from here a new average sample was taken in the amount of 40 g. 500 ml, moistened with 5 ml of distilled water and carefully poured 50 ml of 1.0 normal hydrochloric acid solution. After the release of carbon dioxide, 300 ml of distilled water and the contents of the flask were poured into the flask for 15 min. boiled (until the complete cessation of CO2 emission). At the end of boiling, the solution was allowed to cool, topped up to the mark with distilled water, mixed, and the precipitate was allowed to settle to the bottom of the flask. After that, 100 ml of a clear solution was taken from here with a pipette, transferred to a 250 ml conical flask and titrated with a 0.1-normal solution of caustic alkali in the presence of 2-3 drops of methyl orange until a slightly yellow color of the solution appeared.
(a KHCl - bKshch) 0.005 * 500 * 100
Where a is the number of milliliters of solution taken for titration; in this case a = 100 ml; b is the number of millimeters of 0.1-normal caustic alkali solution used for titration of excess HCl;
KHCl and Ksh - corrections for the normality of acid (KHCl) and alkalinity, (Ksh);
0.005 - the number of grams of CaCO3 corresponding to 1 ml of 1.0 - normal acid solution;
P - limestone sample.
CaCO3+2HCl → CaCl2+CO2+H2O
2.2 Characteristic and specific reactions of magnesium cations
There are currently no publicly available specific reactions for magnesium cations. Of the general analytical reactions, the most characteristic of them are: interaction with acidic sodium phosphate.
Formation of double magnesium phosphate - ammonium salt.
To water containing magnesium salts, NH4OH is added until the formation of a precipitate of magnesium oxide hydrate stops:
MgCl2 + 2NH4OH = ↓Mg(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl2
Then a solution of ammonium chloride is poured here until the resulting magnesium oxide hydrate is completely dissolved:
Mg(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl = MgCl2 + 2NH4OH
A dilute solution of Na2HPO4 is carefully added dropwise to the resulting ammonium solution of magnesium salt. In this case, small white crystals of MgNH4PO4 fall out of the solution, some of which, in the form of a barely noticeable film, seem to “creep” up the walls of the test tube. If an amorphous precipitate formed under the action of Na2HPO4, a few drops of HCl are added to dissolve it, after which Na2OH solution is added and MgNH4PO4 precipitates again. The maximum opening concentration of cations by this reaction is 1.2 mg/l.
Since the formation of white MgNH4PO4 crystals was not observed, it means that the concentration of magnesium cations
2.3 pH determination
To characterize aqueous solutions of electrolytes, it is conventionally customary to use the concentration of H+ ions. At the same time, for convenience, the value of this concentration is expressed through the so-called hydrogen index - pH.
The pH is the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution: pH = -1g
In pure water, obviously, pH = 7. If the pH is 7, then the solution is alkaline.
The pH of aqueous solutions was determined with a universal indicator. The table shows the pH values of limestone aqueous solutions.
Results of the study of two open pits
Quarry deposit CaCO3 content MgCO3 content pH
S. Yantikovo 87% >9% 8.0-8.5
S. Mozharki 94.81%
1. Studies show that limestone from the Mozhar lime quarry contains 94.81% CaCO3 and 5.19% impurities.
2. The percentage of CaCO3 in the limestone from the Mozharsky quarry turned out to be higher than in the limestone from the Yantikovsky.
3. Since limestone from the Mozharsky quarry is better in quality and composition, it meets the technological standards for cement production.
4. In the future, it is possible to build a plant for the production of sugar in the Yantikovsky district.
Expected results
Budget security per capita will increase, the level of the average monthly wage of workers in the sectors of the economy will increase, additional jobs will appear that provide effective employment for the population, and the volume of industrial production will increase.
Student Resource 9"Paleontology and Calcium Carbonate"
Calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate(calcium carbonate) - an inorganic chemical compound, a salt of carbonic acid and calcium.
Chemical formula- CaCO 3 .
calcium carbonate in nature
Calcium carbonate is the basis of most natural calcium minerals (chalk, marble, limestone, shell rock, calcite, Icelandic spar). The pure substance white color or colorless crystals. Calcium compounds - limestone, marble, gypsum (as well as lime - a product of burning limestone) have been used in construction for several millennia ago. Up to late XVIII For centuries, chemists considered lime to be a simple substance. In 1789, A. Lavoisier suggested that lime, magnesia, barite, alumina and silica are complex substances.
In the natural migration of calcium essential role plays the "carbonate equilibrium" associated with reversible reaction interactions of calcium carbonate with water and carbon dioxide to form a soluble bicarbonate:
(equilibrium shifts to the left or right depending on the concentration carbon dioxide).
Calcium compounds are found in almost all animal and plant tissues. A significant amount of calcium is part of living organisms. The shells and shells of many invertebrates, egg shells, etc. are composed of calcium carbonate CaCO 3. In living tissues of humans and animals, 1.4-2% Ca (according to mass fraction); in a human body weighing 70 kg, the calcium content is about 1.7 kg (mainly in the composition of the intercellular substance of bone tissue).
Chemical properties of calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate, when heated, decomposes into the corresponding oxide and carbon dioxide.
With water containing dissolved carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate reacts to form solutions of bicarbonates:
When heated, and even when trying to isolate the bicarbonate from the solution, removing water when room temperature, it decomposes according to the reverse reaction:
Ca 2 + + 2HCO 3 - \u003d CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O.
Calcium carbonate reacts with acids to release carbon dioxide
Calcium carbonate is insoluble in water and ethanol.
Calcite, calcite is a mineral, one of natural forms calcium carbonate. Exceptionally widespread on the surface of the Earth, rock-forming mineral. Limestones, Cretaceous rocks, marls, carbonatites are composed of calcite. Calcite is the most common biomineral: it is part of the shells and endoskeleton of most invertebrates, as well as the integumentary structures of some unicellular organisms.
The name was proposed by Haidinger in 1845 and, like the name of the chemical element, comes from lat. calx (genus calcis) - lime.
In its pure form, calcite is white or colorless, transparent (Icelandic spar) or translucent, depending on the degree of perfection of the crystal structure. Impurities color it in different colors.
Calcite belongs to the trigonal syngony. Crystals are very diverse, but more often rhombohedral (acute, basic and obtuse rhombohedrons). Calcite composes the rock marble, is the main component of limestones. Often forms pseudomorphs on organic remains, replaces the shells of ancient mollusks and corals ("fossils").
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock of organic origin, consisting mainly of calcite crystals of various sizes and formed with the participation of living organisms in marine basins.
Limestone, consisting mainly of the shells of marine animals and their fragments, is called shell rock. During metamorphism, limestone recrystallizes and forms marble.
The name of the limestone variety reflects the presence in it of the remains of rock-forming organisms, the area of distribution, structure (for example, oolitic limestones), impurities (ferruginous), the nature of occurrence (platystone), geological age (Triassic).
Entire mountain ranges in the Alps are composed of limestones, limestone is also widespread in other places. Limestone has no sheen, it is usually light gray in color, but can be white or dark, almost black, bluish, yellowish or pink, depending on the composition of the impurities.
Marble
Marble (ancient Greek μάρμαρος - “white or shiny stone”) is a metamorphic rock consisting only of calcite, as well as organic compounds. Marbles appear by metamorphism at moderate temperatures and pressures from predominantly carbonate sedimentary rocks. Under these conditions, very small grains of calcium and magnesium carbonate of sedimentary rocks experience "blastez" - coarsening of crystals.
A huge number of marble deposits have been explored in the world. The most famous are Carrara in Italy, Parian and Pendelicon in Greece. In Russia, these are Kibik-Kordonskoye in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, Burovshchina in Transbaikalia, Ufaleyskoye in the Urals, Ruskealskoye and Belogorskoye in Karelia. The color of marble also depends on impurities.
Paleontology
Paleontology(from other Greek παλαιοντολογία) - the science of organisms that existed in past geological periods and preserved in the form of fossil remains, as well as traces of their life.
Paleontologists study not only the remains of animals and plants themselves, but also their fossilized traces, discarded shells and other evidence of their existence. Paleontology also uses the methods of paleoecology and paleoclimatology in order to reproduce the living environment of organisms, to compare modern environment habitats of organisms, hypotheses of extinct habitats, etc.
Fossils or fossils have been used by humans since the Paleolithic. This is evidenced by the finds of necklaces made from fragments of extinct corals and sea urchins used in burial rituals, and others archaeological finds. Various fossils are mentioned in legends, myths and fairy tales. So, belemnites call "devil's fingers" and in oriental tales they are considered as the nails of genies, the shells of foraminifers - nummulitids in the legends about the battles of Alexander the Great are described as petrified coins.
The first scientific written documents about fossil organisms belong to the ancient Greek naturalists and philosophers. The successes of the natural sciences of the ancient Greeks were summarized in the writings of Aristotle, who lived in 384–322. BC, - the great thinker of his time, who created the foundations of the classification of animals, the beginnings of comparative anatomy and embryology. Fossils he considered the remains of marine animals. Many centuries later, in the XV-XVI centuries. this view of fossils was supported by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), although at that time there were other points of view, in particular, that fossils are objects created by God after the Flood.
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Intensive research begins in various branches of natural science. This led not only to the accumulation of huge factual material, but also to the emergence of various ideas and hypotheses. Of great importance in the development of paleontology were the works of the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), the founder of classification and systematics. He divided all nature into three kingdoms: minerals, plants and animals. Brilliant scientists worked simultaneously with Linnaeus: Georges Buffon (1707–1788) in France and Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) in Russia.
Buffon, considering the origin and development of life, the history of the animal and flora, emphasized a single plan of the structure of animals, spoke of the presence of intermediate forms between different groups of animals, and believed that the history of the development of the Earth has up to 75,000 years.
M. Lomonosov in his book "On the Layers of the Earth" explained the origin of sedimentary rocks by their formation in sea basins. The fossil mollusks found in these rocks owe their origin to the seas that existed in past geological epochs. Lomonosov imagined the change of various periods of life on Earth as a successive alternation of the advance and retreat of the seas, explaining these phenomena by slow fluctuations of the land. The area of distribution of living beings on Earth forms a special shell called the biosphere. The biosphere arose with the advent of living beings on Earth: it occupies the entire surface of the land, all the water bodies of the Earth (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers), penetrates into the atmosphere - most organisms rise into the air by more than 50 - 70 m, and spores of bacteria and fungi are brought to a height of up to 22 km. Life penetrates into the lithosphere, where it is concentrated mainly in the surface of layers at a depth of up to 6-8 m, but some bacteria are found in layers at a depth of up to 2-3 km.
In the 90s years XVIII century and early XIX century surveyor and mining engineer William Smith actively used fossils to establish a connection between mountain strata in different places. He established the principle of succession of faunas, according to which each layer of sedimentary rock contains a certain type of fossil, which follow each other in a predictable order, even in layers separated by a huge distance.
A new stage in the development of paleontology begins with the appearance in 1859 of Charles Darwin's most complete theory of evolution at that time, which had a decisive influence on the entire further development of natural science. Modern evolutionary paleontology was founded by Vladimir Kovalevsky. It was thanks to Kovalevsky's research and his findings that Darwinism acquired a paleontologically sound basis.
The conditions of existence on earth are very diverse and are determined by factors of both inorganic and organic order. Inorganic factors include: temperature, humidity, water salinity, pool depth, pressure. Organic factors include those relationships that organisms enter into with each other. These relationships are primarily expressed by food ties. Each species has its own range, occupying different parts of the earth's surface. All organisms on earth live in communities called biocenoses. The organisms that make up the biocenosis react differently to fluctuations in one or another environmental factor - salinity, temperature, pressure. Some can exist with wide fluctuations of one of the environmental factors, and then the prefix "evry" is added; others do not tolerate even a slight change in this factor, and then the prefix "wall" is added. If it is depth - eurybatic, stenobatny; salinity - euryhaline, stenohaline; temperature - eurythermal, stenothermal.
Ammonites - an extinct subclass of cephalopods that existed from the Devonian to the Cretaceous. Ammonites got their name in honor of the ancient Egyptian deity Amon with spiral horns. Most ammonites belong to the ecological group of nekton, that is, organisms floating freely in the water column. Some heteromorphic forms were representatives of the benthic (bottom) community. The best swimmers among ammonites were forms with a distinct keel. Many paleontologists believe that the complex lobed line is an adaptation to a wide distribution along the vertical in the water column (eurybacy), since the complex lobed line has a large area and better strengthens the shell. Ammonites are an extremely important group of marine fossils for stratigraphy. This group is important for determining the relative geologic age of sedimentary rocks and for separating Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments.
Nautiluses- a genus of cephalopods. It's the only one modern genus subclass of nautiloids and the only modern cephalopods that have an external chambered shell. This subclass appeared in the Cambrian, and during the Paleozoic was very diverse. The spiral shell, 15–23 cm in diameter, is divided into 35–39 chambers connected in series by a long siphon. The mollusk lives in the front, largest chamber. The shell is used as a float and ballast. By pumping biogas into the shell chambers or pumping it out of them, the nautilus is able to float to the surface of the water or sink into its thickness.
Belemnites- representatives of the order of extinct invertebrates of the cephalopod mollusk class, belong to the shell cephalopod mollusks, since all parts of their shells were located inside the body. Belemnites lived from the Carboniferous to the Cretaceous, spread most widely from the Triassic, died out at the end of the Mesozoic. The belemnite rostrum is best preserved in the fossil state - a strong conical formation located at the posterior end of the body.
Brachiopods- type of marine invertebrates. Known since the Early Cambrian; reached their peak in the Devonian. At the turn of the early and late Paleozoic, part of the orders became extinct; in the Carboniferous and Permian periods, the orders of productids and spiriferids dominated. After the Permian-Triassic extinction, 4 orders have survived that have survived to this day. Brachiopods, due to the richness of the remains and their good preservation, are valuable index fossils for establishing the geological age of the layers containing them and the physical and geographical situation that once existed in a given area.
sea urchins- class of echinoderms. Fossils have been known since the Ordovician. The body of sea urchins is usually almost spherical, ranging in size from 2-3 to 30 cm; covered with rows of calcareous plates. The plates, as a rule, are fixedly connected and form a dense shell (shell), which does not allow the hedgehog to change shape.
sea lilies- one of the classes of echinoderms. Fossil crinoids are known from the Lower Ordovician. They flourished most in the Middle Paleozoic, when they numbered up to 11 subclasses and over 5,000 species, but by the end of the Permian period, most of them died out. Fossilized remains of sea lilies are among the most common fossils. Some limestone beds dating from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic are composed almost entirely of them. Fossil segments of the stalks of crinoids, resembling gear wheels, are called trochites.
Bivalves or lamellar molluscs - a class of marine and freshwater inactive mollusks, the body of which is flattened laterally and enclosed in a shell of two valves. Findings of the most ancient fossil bivalve mollusks date back to the beginning Cambrian period, their age is more than 500 million years. The total number of living species is approximately 9,200 (according to other sources, more than 20,000). Bivalves are a class of invertebrates that are exclusively aquatic and are found in fresh and salt waters throughout the world. Most are benthic organisms and live by burrowing into bottom sediments or attaching themselves to underwater objects. Shell valves in bivalves are often symmetrical. The shell valves are connected by a ligament, a ligament consisting of a thickened stratum corneum of the shell. The shell wall consists of three layers: outer conchiolin (periostracum), inner calcareous (ostracum), and lower mother-of-pearl (hypostracum). The mineral component of the shell may be exclusively calcite, as in oysters, or calcite and aragonite. Sometimes aragonite also forms a nacreous layer. In other molluscs, the layers of aragonite and calcite alternate.
Calcium oxide is a white crystalline compound. Other names for this substance are quicklime, calcium oxide, "kirabit", "boiling". Calcium oxide, the formula of which is CaO, and its interaction product with (H2O) water - Ca (OH) 2 ("fluff", or slaked lime) were found wide application in the construction business.
How is calcium oxide obtained?
1. industrial way obtaining this substance consists in thermal (under the influence of temperature) decomposition of limestone:
CaCO3 (limestone) = CaO (calcium oxide) + CO2 (carbon dioxide)
2. Calcium oxide can also be obtained through the interaction of simple substances:
2Ca (calcium) + O2 (oxygen) = 2CaO (calcium oxide)
3. The third method of calcium is the thermal decomposition of calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH) 2) and calcium salts of several oxygen-containing acids:
2Ca(NO3)2 = 2CaO (product) + 4NO2 + O2 (oxygen)
calcium oxide
1. Appearance: white crystalline compound. It crystallizes as sodium chloride (NaCl) in a cubic crystal face-centered lattice.
2. The molar mass is 55.07 grams/mol.
3. Density is 3.3 grams/centimeter³.
Thermal properties of calcium oxide
1. The melting point is 2570 degrees
2. The boiling point is 2850 degrees
3. Molar heat capacity (under standard conditions) is 42.06 J / (mol K)
4. Enthalpy of formation (under standard conditions) is -635 kJ/mol
Chemical properties of calcium oxide
Calcium oxide (formula CaO) is a basic oxide. Therefore, he can:
Dissolve in water (H2O) with the release of energy. This produces calcium hydroxide. This reaction looks like this:
CaO (calcium oxide) + H2O (water) = Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) + 63.7 kJ/mol;
React with acids and acid oxides. This forms salts. Here are examples of reactions:
CaO (calcium oxide) + SO2 (sulfur dioxide) = CaSO3 (calcium sulfite)
CaO (calcium oxide) + 2HCl (hydrochloric acid) = CaCl2 (calcium chloride) + H2O (water).
Applications of calcium oxide:
1. The main volumes of the substance we are considering are used in the production of silicate bricks in construction. In the past, quicklime was used as lime cement. It was obtained by mixing it with water (H2O). As a result, calcium oxide turned into hydroxide, which then, absorbing from the atmosphere (CO2), strongly hardened, turning into calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Despite the cheapness of this method, at present lime cement is practically not used in construction, since it has the ability to absorb and accumulate liquid well.
2. As a refractory material, calcium oxide is suitable as an inexpensive and readily available material. Fused calcium oxide is resistant to water (H2O), which allows it to be used as a refractory where the use of expensive materials is impractical.
3. In laboratories, calcium is used to dry those substances that do not react with it.
4. In the food industry, this substance is registered as food additive under the designation E 529. Used as an emulsifier to create a homogeneous mixture of immiscible substances - water, oil and fat.
5. In industry, calcium oxide is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2) from flue gases. As a rule, a 15% aqueous solution is used. As a result of the reaction, in which sulfur dioxide also interacts, gypsum CaCO4 and CaCO3 are obtained. When conducting experiments, scientists achieved an indicator of 98% of smoke removal from sulfur dioxide.
6. Used in special "self-heating" dishes. A container with a small amount of calcium oxide is located between the two walls of the vessel. When the capsule is pierced in water, a reaction begins with the release of a certain amount of heat.
Structural formula
True, empirical, or gross formula: CCAO 3
Chemical composition of calcium carbonate
Molecular weight: 100.088
Calcium carbonate (calcium carbonate) is an inorganic chemical compound of carbonic acid and calcium. The chemical formula is CaCO 3 . It occurs in nature in the form of minerals - calcite, aragonite and vaterite, is the main component of limestone, marble, chalk, is part of the egg shell. Insoluble in water and ethanol. Registered as white food coloring(E170).
Application
Used as white food coloring E170. Being the basis of chalk, it is used for writing on boards. It is used in everyday life for whitewashing ceilings, painting tree trunks, for alkalizing the soil in gardening.
Mass production/use
Purified from foreign impurities, calcium carbonate is widely used in paper and Food Industry, in the production of plastics, paints, rubber, household chemicals, in construction. Paper manufacturers use calcium carbonate simultaneously as a bleach, filler (replacing expensive fibers and dyes), and deoxidizer. Manufacturers of glassware, bottles, fiberglass use calcium carbonate in large quantities as a source of calcium - one of the main elements needed for glass production. Widely used in the manufacture of personal care products (such as toothpaste), and in the medical industry. In the food industry, it is often used as an anti-caking agent and separator in dried dairy products. When used in excess of the recommended dose (1.5 g per day), it can cause milk-alkaline syndrome (Burnett's syndrome). Recommended for diseases of bone tissue.
Plastic manufacturers are one of the main consumers of calcium carbonate (more than 50% of total consumption). Used as a filler and dye, calcium carbonate is needed in the production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyester fibers (crimplen, lavsan, etc.), polyolefins. Products from these types of plastics are ubiquitous - these are pipes, plumbing, tiles, tiles, linoleum, carpets, etc. Calcium carbonate makes up about 20% of the coloring pigment used in the manufacture of paints.
Construction
Construction is another major consumer of calcium carbonate. Putties, various sealants - they all contain calcium carbonate in significant quantities. Also, calcium carbonate is the most important component in the production of household chemicals - sanitary ware cleaners, shoe creams.
Calcium carbonate is also widely used in cleaning systems, as a means of combating environmental pollution, with the help of calcium carbonate, the acid-base balance of the soil is restored.
Being in nature
Calcium carbonate is found in minerals in the form of polymorphs:
- Aragonite
- Calcite
- Vaterite (or μ-CaCO 3)
Calcium carbonate minerals are found in the following rocks:
- Limestone
- Marble
- Travertine
Geology
Calcium carbonate is a common mineral. In nature, there are three polymorphic modifications (minerals with the same chemical composition, but with a different crystal structure): calcite, aragonite and vaterite (vaterite). Some rocks (limestone, chalk, marble, travertine and other calcareous tufas) are almost entirely composed of calcium carbonate with some impurities. Calcite is a stable polymorph of calcium carbonate and occurs in a wide variety of geological environments: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. About 10% of all sedimentary rocks are limestone, composed mainly of calcite remains of shells of marine organisms. Aragonite is the second most stable polymorph of CaCO 3 and is mainly formed in the shells of mollusks and the skeletons of some other organisms. Aragonite can also be formed in inorganic processes, such as in karst caves or hydrothermal vents. Vaterite is the least stable variety of this carbonate and very rapidly transforms into either calcite or aragonite in water. In nature, it is relatively rare when its crystal structure is stabilized by certain impurities.
Manufacturing
The vast majority of calcium carbonate extracted from minerals is used in industry. Pure calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be made from pure source(usually marble). Alternatively, calcium carbonate can be prepared by calcining calcium oxide. dissolves, forming an acid salt - calcium bicarbonate Ca (HCO 3) 2: CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O → Ca (HCO 3) 2. The existence of this particular reaction makes it possible to form stalactites, stalagmites and other beautiful forms, and in general to develop karst. At 1500 °C, together with carbon, it forms calcium carbide and carbon monoxide (II) CaCO 3 + 4C → CaC 2 + 3CO.
LIMESTONE IS THE BASIS FOR SOIL AND PLANT HEALTH
LIMESTONE (CaCO3) – A NEW MINERAL POWER
Preface 3
General about limestone 4
History of limestone use 4
Varieties of limestone 6
Limestone as fertilizer in agriculture 7
Limestone impact 8 A well-thought-out supply of limestone is the basis of any soil and plant fertilization 10 Limestone impacts 11 Soil-physical 12 Soil-chemical 15 Plant-biological 19 Plant-physiological 20 Transpiration 22 Photosynthesis 24 Calcium 26 Qualitative features calcium 30 Modern level of science and technology 31 Conclusion 36
Foreword:
This brochure is primarily a reminder. While working on it in order to provide informational support for the use of PANAGRO on the soil of Ukraine, it was found that agronomists, scientists, large agricultural companies, as well as private farmers, have undeservedly forgotten centuries of knowledge and experience about the action of limestone as a natural fertilizer among agronomists, scientists, and private farmers. More than 50 years of planned "fertilization" of the soil, a huge selection alternative ways"one-time improvement" of its quality, contributed only to the departure from the use of natural resources.
And despite the fact that the soil of Ukraine is considered one of the most fertile, yield indicators are far from reaching their possible potential.
Most of the soils of Ukraine, as well as the soil of Eastern Europe, indicate their massive degradation (destruction of soil structures) due to compaction.
For decades, without regard for the consequences, the land was cultivated with heavy machinery, which led to its destruction. In addition, many agricultural enterprises due to lack of funds, lack of necessary knowledge almost universally applied the wrong dosage of fertilizers. As a result: soils are acidic, minimally structured and highly compacted.
With the help of ordinary natural rock - limestone, the situation can be significantly improved if we remember and apply the knowledge that has long existed about this. We ourselves were surprised, while writing this brochure, how essential limestone is for the soil, the health of plants, and, in the end, for excellent yields and profits.
An optimal supply of limestone to the soil is the basis for successful farming, both economically and ecologically...
We have made an attempt to look at limestone fertilization from a modern point of view, and we hope that this will become a support and source of information for carrying out fertilization activities in accordance with each specific type of soil. We have tried to describe the variety of effects of limestone fertilizers, as well as their types, with the main advantages and recommendations for use, and, in fact, for the fertilization process. Thus, we invite your attention to consider agronomic and economic aspects.
Jurgen and Natalia Brausevetter, PANAGRO LLC, Simferopol, Crimea, 2011.
CALCIUM:
For element No. 20 in the periodic system, and, accordingly, its compounds, two methods of designation are used in writing: CALCIUM or KALZIUM.
The name comes from the Latin word "calx", and from the Greek - "chalix", for limestone rock,
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Calcined limestone is obtained by incandescent stone limestone. Limestone is the oldest building material. Excavations of ancient settlements are replete with finds of limestone mortars used earlier for construction. Finds in Anatolia, for example, date back to 12,000 BC.
Many living things use calcium compounds to build their skeletons.
The bones of the human skeleton consist of 40% of the calcium compound - hydroxylapatite, in the composition of the dentary even up to 95%, and, due to which, it is the hardest material in our body. In general, the human body contains between 1 and 1.1 kg of calcium.
Calcium is vital component all living matter involved in the growth of foliage, bones, teeth and muscles. Along with K+, Na+ - Ca2+ plays an important role in the transmission of impulses of nerve endings. Also, in other cells, calcium ions perform the most important task of transporting signals.
History of limestone use
Stone limestone and marble were mined and processed back in ancient times. The Pyramid of Cheops, whose height reaches 137 m, was built from 2 million massive stone blocks, namely from stone limestone. Even in the Bible there are references to "lime mortar" and "lime white". The Greek philosopher Theoprastus (c. 327 BC) reported on the firing of limestone to produce building stone and the preparation of lime mortars. The Latin word "calx" is found already in the reign of Gaius Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD). The Romans, who used limestone as a building material in Germany, brought the firing technique to a high industrial standard.
Limestone used to be the most important raw material for making mortars. Slaked limestone has found use as a fertilizer, for making wall paints, or as a frost protection for fruit trees.
milk of lime ( water solution slaked limestone) served to control harmful insects. If milk of lime is filtered, a clear solution of lime water is obtained, which in laboratories is used to determine the presence of carbon dioxide in solutions, at which the solution takes on a whitish color again.
As a result of the versatility of the existence of limestone forms, its main substance was discovered much later. Erasmus Bartholinus undertook in 1669 physical experiments on calcareous spar, and only in 1804 Buchholz carried out a correct chemical analysis. Today, chemists call this basic substance calcium carbonate, minerologists call it calcite or, in the case of a change in structure, aragonite. Geologists refer to rocks that are composed of a base substance as stony limestone or marble.
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Almost one third of the production of the entire limestone calcination industry is sent to Germany for the metalworking industry, where it is used for high-quality processing of iron ore, raw iron and rolled metal.
New areas of application are constantly emerging.
The current demand for limestone can be roughly divided into the following groups:
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LIMESTONE IS DIVIDED INTO TYPES
In order to distribute limestone into groups of industrial needs, it is first necessary to consider the limestone options themselves. Limestone is not always limestone, it is distinguished as follows:CALCIUM CARBONATE
The chemical compound Calcium carbonate (formula CaCO3) or in everyday use - limestone carbonate, is chemical compound elements: calcium, carbon and oxygen.Calcium carbonate is a carbonate consisting of salts of carbon dioxide and is in a stable state, from a network of Ca2+ ions and CO32 ions in a ratio of 1:1.
LIME STONE
Sedimentary rock that is predominantly composed of calcium carbonate Sedimentary rock that is predominantly composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the minerals calcite and aragonite. Lime stone is a very variable stone, both in terms of its origin and its properties, type and economic feasibility of use. Most of all calcareous rocks have a biogenic basis of origin (sedimentary rocks from the remains of living organisms), and there are also chemically isolated and clastic rocks.CALCITE
The mineral Calcite (Ca), or calcite, is the most commonly encountered mineral, and it presides over and names the whole class of minerals, the Carbones and their relatives, by its name. It crystallizes into a trigonal crystal system, with the chemical formula: Ca, and develops a variety of crystalline and aggregate forms(Habitus), which may be colorless or milky white to gray, and due to inclusions also yellow, pink, red, blue, green or black.CALCIUM OXIDE
White Powder Derived from Calcium Carbonate Calcium oxide, also calcined limestone, quicklimestone or poison limestone, is a white powder that reacts with water to generate a large amount of heat. As a result, calcium hydroxide (slaked limestone) is formed. Calcined limestone is divided into: weakly, medium and heavily burnt.CALCIUM HYDROXIDE
White powder formed when calcium oxide reacts with water Calcium hydroxide (also: slaked limestone, limestone hydrate) is calcium hydroxide. It occurs naturally as the mineral portlantide.BUILDING LIMESTONE
Construction material obtained from limestone Natural mineral mixture in the form of refined limestone or limestone hydrate - without which it is impossible to imagine any construction site today. It is used for mortars, the manufacture of porous concrete, as an additive in concrete or crushed limestone ...LIMESTONE AS A FERTILIZER IN AGRICULTURE
Why should one fertilize at all, or rather, fertilize with limestone?Fertilizer is a collective concept for materials and their mixtures, which in agriculture serve to ensure that plants receive as many nutrients as possible. In most cases, after fertilization activities, high yields are obtained in a shorter period of time. The basic principles of fertilization follow Liebig's law of minimization and the law of growth reduction.
Fertilizers are divided into:
mineral
organic
Mineral Organic Mineral fertilizers are offered as mono or multi nutrients.
Fertilizers that contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are called full-length fertilizers (NPK). Also, such fertilizers may contain sulfur, calcium, magnesium and trace elements. Often they are called fertilizers with dispersed elements.
Distinguish between conventional fertilizers and leaf fertilizers.
The sometimes used expression: "artificial fertilizer" is used erroneously.
These are synthetic fertilizers made from organic and/or chemical substances. However, this term is often misapplied to mineral fertilizers in general, probably due to the misconception that only mineral fertilizers are synthesized.
The task of fertilizer is to provide the plant with nutrients and promote its growth.
And what happens to the soil? What is the condition of the soil in general?
Often, fertilized soil without the use of limestone is characterized by the following parameters:
Increased acidity (pH level is not optimal)
High compaction (the volume of the useful layer is too small)
Reduced humus content, etc.
As a result:
Plants suffer from watery swollen cells
Metabolic disease
small stature
Increased number of pests, etc.
Up to 30% lower yields, increased water consumption and tillage costs In general, there is a pressure on the environment (soil, water and air), the number of beneficial organisms decreases, and the entire ecosystem suffers:
Atrophied supply of plants (lack of nutrient intake, eg: nitrogen and phosphate)
Presence of pesticides in soil and groundwater
Soil compaction (due to the use of heavy machinery) and disturbance of its microfauna
Increased soil erosion (due to compaction)
Increased demand for humus (due to shortened fruit ripening period)
Accumulation harmful substances also outside the agricultural food chain (wild flora and fauna)
The increase in the number of diseases and pests in cultivated plants
Increasing the resistance of pathogens to antibiotics, and the resistance of pests to pesticides
Reducing species diversity, not only in crops and domestic animals, but also in the wild
Saturation of products of plant and animal origin with low-value and hazardous substances(eg: pesticides, nitrates, antibiotics, hormones, sedatives)
Decrease in nutrient content (eg: increase in water content due to the use of artificial fertilizers, decrease in the amount of minerals, vitamins and aromatics)
Reducing the shelf life of agricultural products
Poisoning of people involved in agriculture, pesticides (according to the WTO estimate in the late 1980s, there were more than 20,000 deaths worldwide)
Increased consumption of energy, fuel, and as a result - increased CO2 emissions
EXPOSURE TO LIMESTONE
Direct fertilization with limestone or limestone fertilizers is understood as an action aimed at increasing (regulating) the pH level of the soil due to the distribution of limestone flour or slaked limestone in it. Fertilizing the soil with limestone serves to reduce the acidity of the soil and to preserve and increase its fertility, as well as to ensure the supply of nutrients to plants (limestone loosens the soil).
In connection with the growing strength of acid precipitation (acid rain), limestone fertilizer is gaining more and more importance and benefits.
The importance of limestone fertilization for agricultural soil has been recognized for a long time. Limestone has a physical and chemical effect on the soil and successful agriculture is unthinkable without it. Humus, thanks to limestone, decomposes in such a way that first nitrogen passes into ammonia, and he, in turn, into nitric acid. Limestone retains minerals in the soil, which has a positive effect on the growth and development of plants. Thanks to limestone, the acidity of the soil decreases and its temperature rises, poisonous iron is processed, and heavy and dense soil is loosened. The increased calcium content in plants, necessary for their growth, is beneficial for animals and people who consume such plants and feed for food.
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To understand why limestone is a fertilizer in general, and is able to withstand all negative phenomena for plants, it is necessary to consider its influence and classification of impact:
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IMPACTS OF LIMESTONE
Based on the multifaceted and positive effects of limestone, it is necessary to distinguish between different types of effects. The impact aimed at increasing the yield is based on the physical, chemical and biological impact not only on the soil, but also on the physiological impact on the plants. We are talking about the so-called multi-functional fertilizer.A) physical impact on the soil Due to the accumulation of calcium ions in the particles of clay and humus, the soil structure is stabilized, which favors a better supply of moisture and air to the soil (fermentation). This in turn reduces the risk of hardening or siltation and prevents erosion. Plant roots can grow more easily in the soil and the plants receive more nutrients. An increase in the volume of soil per unit area leads to the fact that the space for saturation with moisture and the vital activity of vital microorganisms increases.
B) Chemical exposure on the soil The availability of nutrients in the soil is highly dependent on the pH level. Due to low or too high pH levels, nutrients in the soil can be inaccessible to plants. Limestone regulates soil pH levels by neutralizing acids.
C) Biological effects on the soil The life process in the soil is present at a slightly acidic or neutral pH level. This leads to the fact that improving the structure of the soil contributes to the normalization of its vitality. important processes. The remains of past crops are processed faster, i.e.
turn into the most valuable humus. The level of phosphate in plants increases and the release of nitrogen from organic fertilizers improves, which directly contributes to the increase in the biological activity of plants.
G) Physiological impact on plants Better nutrient solubility. The chemical effect of limestone is to neutralize the acids that arise and are present in the soil. If the acids are not neutralized, the pH will drop. Since plants can only take up nutrients in a dissolved state, and most nutrients dissolve at pH levels between 5.5 and 7.0, at very low pH levels, the availability of essential nutrients will be limited or impossible.
Let's take a closer look at these impacts:
A) Physical impact - limestone and soil structure The presence of a soil layer is one of the most important features of soil fertility.
This causes the presence and location of hollow spaces and solid particles of the earth. The structure of the soil is characterized, first of all, by the size and shape of the mineral and organic constituents of the soil. The concept of soil structure is often replaced, and is limited to considering the soil as an arable layer of the earth. The presence of moisture, air and heat, as well as its mechanical features. On the development of plants, especially during the period of origin and the first stage of their vegetation, the structure of the soil has greatest influence. However, the ability of the soil to cultivate and move machinery along it is also interconnected with the future harvest.
Without sufficient calcium saturation of the soil exchanger (60 - 80%), clay particles first form an edge-to-edge profile in such a way that it can then be converted into a coherent bond. In this form of occurrence, the clay particles "stick together" and form a dense surface structure in such a way that moisture and gas exchange is strongly inhibited.
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Edge-to-edge (volumetric, but unstable design) Due to limestone, not only is the fixation of clay particles, but also the structures are fixed to each other. Calcium ions also accumulate on humus particles. Thus, limestone forms a bridge between the particles of clay and humus, the so-called clay-humus complex is obtained.
Fig. 4: Scheme of limestone-clay-humus bridge
Limestone creates stable porous systems, improves moisture and air exchange. Through loosening and bridging, aggregate bundles are stabilized and larger aggregates are built. Thus, the number of air-conducting coarse pores increases, and the construction of the entire pore system consisting of coarse pores, medium and small pores filled with moisture is determined. This improves the exchange of moisture and air, reduces fluidity surface water thereby reducing the risk of siltation and soil erosion. In the presence of heavy precipitation, the level bandwidth soil fertilized with limestone is much higher than the level of soil untreated with limestone.
Seepage time from 50mm WS per minute
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Due to the stable structure of the soil, its carrying capacity increases and compaction decreases. At the same time, a good exchange of air and heat in the soil leads to the fact that it dries out faster and heats up. A field fertilized with limestone can be processed earlier in the spring with machinery. The time intervals for tillage and sowing can be better varied, the working stages can be optimally planned. You can also influence the growth phase, thereby planning its most important areas for the most favorable weather conditions.
Improving the structure of the soil due to limestone contributes to its earlier drying.
With a longer drought, the stabilizing effect of limestone leads to the formation of multiple small aggregates during drying. Soil provided with limestone dries out less and there are fewer cracks and large splits. The mechanical stress on plant roots is thus reduced and the soil remains relaxed. Well-fertilized soil with limestone is easier to process, with less use of machinery and fuel. On particularly large areas, savings on fuel and equipment alone can be up to 100,000 EUR.
Reduced need for force on a fertilized limestone field
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Limestone regulates pH levels and neutralizes harmful acids. If acid neutralization is not carried out in the soil, then the pH level drops to a greater or lesser extent. This leads to structural and acid damage, which is primarily visible due to the excess presence of aluminum and manganese in the clay (pH level from 4.3). Limestone neutralizes destructive acids and prevents the widespread phenomenon after winter,
Soil acidification.
Limestone improves nutrient levels. Plant roots can only take up beneficial (and also dangerous) nutrients in a soluble state. For optimal plant nutrition, not only the quantity but also the actual solubility of nutrients in the soil is decisive.
Access to crop nutrients Highly acidic - acidic - slightly acidic - pH neutral - slightly alkaline - alkaline - strongly alkaline soils Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Sulfur Magnesium Iron Manganese Thief Copper and zinc Molybdenum Slow soil acidification has no effect at first on the development and growth of plants. However, a lack of nutrients is strongly pronounced in this case, which has been repeatedly proven by many experiments.
Most nutrients are optimally soluble at a soil pH of 5.5 to 7.0. As the pH increases, so does the presence of nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesia (Mg) and molybdenum (Mo). The solubility of micronutrients such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) is reduced such that at pH 7.0 some of them will be deficient.
In particular, the presence of phosphate responds very strongly to a decrease in pH.
Soil phosphate solubility is best between pH 6 and pH 7. Below pH 5.5, solubility drops significantly. In repeated field trials, it has been found that just timely fertilization with limestone can increase the solubility of phosphates by 100%.
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Influence of pH level on the content of NPV (useful nutrients) in arable soil.
Thanks to the optimal provision of plants with calcium, the available substances in the soil are better used by plants, which reduces the additional costs of fertilizing with these substances. The effectiveness of the impact of nutrients increases.
Taking into account the environmental requirements that society places on farmers, a high degree of efficiency from the use of nitrogen and phosphorus is essential. An example is the guidance on the use of artificial fertilizers, which reduce nitrogen consumption (60 kg/ha).
Agricultural enterprises whose soils do not contain an optimal pH level cannot meet these requirements.
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Limestone carbonate - burnt limestone Yield effects of limestone fertilization in the example of sugar beet and wheat Consequences of soil acidification Soil acidification impairs, first of all, the access of plants to nutrients and inhibits the development of the root system and thus impairs soil hydroponics.
Impact of soil acidification:
inhibition of soil life, e.g. worm life, and humus formation significant deterioration in crumbling stability, structural damage, siltation decrease in cation exchange capacity, and, on the basis of this, a stronger leaching of absorbing cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium decrease in the availability of useful nutrients substances, primarily molybdenum and phosphorus, as well as weak absorption of potassium and magnesia from the soil.
increased formation of phosphates and the release of aluminum, magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, chromium and boron.
Poor clover growth due to low tuber bacterial activity Decrease in soil nitriding Decrease in root growth and thus moisture retention Increased wetting and consequent compaction of particularly heavy soils In soils with high acidity and leaching of cations (especially calcium) there is a danger of soil compaction to a much greater extent than in permanently planted soils with a very dense root system. Therefore, the impact of free (not bound by carbonate) - calcium, aimed at restoring the structure of the soil, is very important for the condition of the soil.
C) The biological effect of limestone is life-creating Microorganisms such as bacteria, mites, centipedes and, above all, earthworms, is the most important component of the soil, which has a direct impact on the diversity of the processing process. The process of reproduction and vital activity of microorganisms is carried out optimally in soil with a neutral pH level. Only in well-fertilized limestone soil do these most important "helpers" find optimal conditions for their life. There they can multiply rapidly and process soil organic matter, constantly producing humus.
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Optimum pH level for various soil organisms In acidic soils, the life of microorganisms is inhibited. This can lead to the fact that the processing of straw and organic fertilizers will be slowed down.
The course of the decay process at in large numbers straw depends on the standard typical pH level (pH-class C), since there is a risk of new seeds not germinating due to undecomposed straw.
Earthworms are responsible for the formation of lumps and passages in the soil, which are essential for the development of the pore system. The vital activity of microbes increases in the presence of limestone, soil formation processes are accelerated.
The increased activity of microbes leads to the saturation of the soil with micromolecular organic compounds, which in turn leads to branching and gluing of soil colloids, and thus positively affects the increase and stability of soil aggregates. When the soil condition approaches pH-class C, mineralization, i.e. the processing of organic substances and the supply of useful nutrients (eg nitrogen and sulfur) to plants is at an optimum.
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D) Physiological effects on plants Plants are constantly exposed to weather conditions, grow on saline soils and soils overloaded heavy substances, repel attacks by pests and diseases: plants also suffer from stress. To withstand all the complexities of life, nature endowed plants with the smallest micromolecular building blocks to create an anti-stress program. For example, there are molecules that work like doors, elegantly removing destructive elements from cells.
Another example is a protein, which, like a crab, takes poisonous substances into its "pincers" and thereby prevents harm. The prerequisite for all this is a perfectly working transpiration.
Plants do not have blood circulation. And so far, the ability of plants to isolate hormones that do not fit the system has not been revealed. There is also no central nervous system.
The central, but only, process that occurs in plants is photosynthesis. An important role is played by the processes of growth, reactions of various organs to changes in the environment and intracellular transport of substances.
Plants cannot "run away" from heat, frost, drought and flooding. They cannot "shelter" from pests, viruses, bacteria or fungi. Plants have no choice but to "defend themselves" by standing still. To do this, they have developed specific strategies. The most important key element of the defense strategy is embedded in their development: an incredible ability to regenerate. If the plant is damaged, it begins to produce protective material for "healing the wound", and soon the growth process resumes again. All plant organs, as genetically incorporated into them, can be reproduced in a new identical modular form. An increasing number of seeds with their "thought-out"
a form that guarantees the successful settlement of new living spaces, carry with them all the abilities for survival. Plants were able to overcome such a feature as settled life by the fact that they can adapt to local conditions.
Each plant for the entire period of its development has formed a number of "constitutive" defense mechanisms. In addition to this, there are many more "inductive" functions, i.e. protective factors against pathogens of stress.
For people defensive strategies plants are especially important when it comes to cultivated plants. Modern agriculture creates mainly high-yielding varieties that guarantee maximum yields. In the process of breeding high-yielding varieties, unfortunately, plants often "forget the old" defense mechanisms.
Old agricultural varieties very often show high resistance to various pests, but are less productive. From the point of view of modern biotechnology, plants are bioreactors powered by solar energy. The product of these "bioreactors" can become a natural source of materials such as oil from seeds, sugar from sugar beet, or starch from potatoes and various cereals.
For a plant "bioreactor" to work well, two factors must be present: optimal performance with minimal interference.
bs = connecting boundary xy = xylem ph = phloem sp = slit opening (graminium type) At first glance, there are two features that distinguish plants from most animals: a mechanically strong cell wall and a large, membrane-enclosed (tonoplast) cell space (cell sap space) or vacuole), which, although they are outside the "living" plasma, are still of central importance for the work of each individual cell and for the metabolism of the plant as a whole.
Cellular centers for the accumulation and processing of poisons
From the sheets that produce carbon hydrate to the places of consumption of useful nutrients - for example, roots or inflorescences - salts and nutrients are constantly moving. Two types of "pipelines" cooperate here. One type is responsible for transportation organic matter, it is called - phloem.
The other type moves ions and water and is called xylem. In practice, both systems have assigned specific tasks to each other, but it is often difficult to distinguish between them. The decisive thing is that despite all the built-in regulatory processes for the movement of substances, cells need their own storage spaces in order to protect against possible fluctuations in the supply of nutrients. An important task is performed by vacuoles. They store nutrients, such as sugar and amino acids. Also accumulate in the vacuoles and toxic compounds, which may be the plant's own protective agent against rodents and pests, e.g. alkaloids. There are also certain ions that harm the metabolic process in the cytosol.
The variety of cellular tasks of the plant vacuole is obvious: the reaction to stress, for example, the accumulation of sodium ions with a high load of salts on the soil, cannot be separated from others. essential functions, as the accumulation of nutrients and potassium and calcium ions, which are very important for plant growth. The vacuole of each cell must meet both of these requirements.
Despite everything, the plant continues to grow and develop, passing various types of nutrients through the cells, and communicating between them. For this, respectively, there are regulatory molecules - effectors. There are at least six classes of molecules.
Transpiration Under transpiration is understood, on the one hand, the evaporation of water through the openings of the mouths in the leaves of plants, on the other hand, this is the release of perspiration through the openings - excessive evaporation, it is also called hyperhidrosis.
The volume of transpired fluid is determined by the types of transpiration. In botany, two types of transpiration are distinguished: stoma and cuticle.
The plant controls the openings of the stomata through the action of calcium.
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Since the surface of the leaves is dense, water, for example, simply flows off the protective layer. But still the plant must exchange gases with environment, how e.g. recoil steam or taking in carbon dioxide from the air. For this, holes on the reverse side of the leaves are usually used. They establish a connection between the outside air and the air systems within the leaf.
Holes are not just holes in fabric, but complex structures that open and close based on factors such as light, temperature, and humidity. On one square millimeter there are from 100 to 1000 holes. During normal opening, about one to two percent of the surface is involved, however, due to this, important work for gas exchange with the environment.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
At first, the scientific concept of photosynthesis was reduced to the production of organic substances with the help of light energy. This definition appears directly in its name. From the Greek "photo" means
Light, and "synthesis" - connection.
Plant Photosynthesis The ability to photosynthesis is found in all plants, including almost all algae and some bacteria. However, knowledge about photosynthesis is of interest not only to science. A person can use it extremely specifically in economic purposes, eg in greenhouses. Simplistically, we can formulate that as part of the process of photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed under the influence of certain coloring substances (light-absorbing chlorophyll) and, as a result, it is processed into chemical energy, which is necessary for certain organisms for life.
The course of photosynthesis In a more detailed examination, photosynthesis occurs in three, separate from each other, stages.
At the first stage, a living organism, let's take a green plant for simplicity, with the help of an appropriate coloring matter, absorbs the light contained in the electromagnetic energy. The coloring matter, chlorophyll, is responsible for this. This green coloring matter provided the flora with a green color. Approximately we can say that every green plant is engaged in photosynthesis. This collection of energy occurs through the leaves, which is why all plants stretch their leaves towards the sun.
At the second stage, the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy takes place with the help of a complex chemical transformation process. This process is also called phototrophy, i.e. direct use of solar energy as a source of energy by certain living organisms At first, the thus released chemical and organic energy, firstly, ensures the growth of plants, and secondly, it is transformed as part of the metabolism within the plant. It is interesting that this process just happens with the help of carbon dioxide (CO2). It is converted into oxygen during photosynthesis, which further increases the importance of photosynthesis for human life.
The CO2 found in the plant is very important and essential for calcium.
CO2 in the plant and conversion of CaCO3 to CaO and CO2 Calcium carbonate (CaCo3) can, as already mentioned, be broken down by acid. It cannot be soluble in water, then limestone mountains would never have arisen. In nature, carbon dioxide is very important. The oxonium ions arising in the hydrogen-carbonate equation can react with carbonate ions. Ca2+ ions drop out from the crystal network.
Intracellular CO2 found in soil and plants breaks down calcium carbonate CaCo3 into CaO and CO2. This self-degradation and production of CO2 supports and enhances the process of photosynthesis so much that the plant does not need to look for energy, but can concentrate on the essential: growth. The more CO2 is available, the more progressive the calculation of calcium balance.
However, this effect occurs only when the upper part of the plant is fertilized - and only when calcium penetrates the leaf due to the smallest fraction of CaCO3 (from 0.1 to 96 µm).
Storage of calcium "in reserve" is not possible.
Since photosynthesis is accelerated in bright light, the plant's need for CO2 also increases. This is usually done through openings in the stomata (stomata), since only CO2 can get inside the leaf. If there is enough CO2, then fewer stomata open, again causing the plant to lose less moisture.
Photosynthesis proceeds in most plants in the presence of CO2 in the air in the amount of 0.03% only suboptimally. Maximum result is achieved when the dosage is 13 times higher, i.e. at 0.4% Vol CO2.
Thanks to the spraying of PANAGRO, the intensity of photosynthesis increases. This is where our product differs from others. PANAGRO is proof that the simplest is the best.
Until now, CO2 has been a limiting factor and has limited the process of photosynthesis in nature, and thus the growth of plants. According to this principle of minimalism, providing plants with CO2 was the key to success.
Since photosynthesis is accelerated in bright light, the need for CO2 in plants also increases. Usually this process is regulated by slits in the stomata.
When there is enough CO2 inside the plants, fewer stomata open, which causes the plant to absorb less moisture... Stomata on a tomato leaf Decomposed calcium plays many roles, even in the activation of enzymes, regulates the movement of water at the intracellular level of the plant, and at the same time has crucial in the formation of new cells - for plant growth.
Calcium (Ca) The calcium content of the plant is usually between 10 and 30 mg of Ca per gram of dry substance.
Transportation of calcium in the plant occurs predominantly in the direction of transpiration flows, i.e. from the roots to the aerial tops of plants. Reverse transportation, for example, as in the case of potassium from the top of the plant to the roots, practically does not occur. Calcium ions that have got through the mouths of the foliage penetrate into the tissues of the leaves, but are transported upwards to the top of the plant. Calcium is an effective growth element for plants.
Calcium is important for cell division, both for dividing their nucleus and for building middle lamellae. The positive effect of calcium on the development of the root system is always noticed.
An essential nutrient - calcium - performing tasks in physiological process life of a plant, going far beyond simple actions, has great value. First of all, the propensity of calcium ions to enter organometallic compounds is important.
2+ In the process of plant metabolism, calcium (Ca) performs various functions: it is involved in the construction of cell walls, stabilizes cell membranes and enters into hormonal reactions.
Calcium is taken up by the roots exclusively in the form of Ca2+, depending on the calcium content in the soil and its pH level, and reaches the upper parts of the plant through water transpiration. Transferring old calcium stores to new shoots or plant roots is not possible.
The intensity of transpiration has a significant impact on the storage of calcium from roots to young shoots.
Interruptions in water supply are usually the main cause of calcium deficiency in plants. In stressful situations, such as a long drought, sudden frosts, calcium is the guarantor of plant endurance and vitality.
If there is a sufficiently long supply of calcium and carbon dioxide, then carbon dioxide regulates the opening and closing of the stomata, thereby preventing the plant from losing moisture. As soon as the internal saturation of the cells with carbon dioxide occurs, the mouths automatically close, which reduces the evaporation of moisture.
Calcium also has importance for the process of nitrogen metabolism, as it accelerates the absorption of ammonia. Nitrogen is the main element in the combination of amino acids that form the core of the protein. Calcium helps the plant to bind nitrogen ions that come from the soil in the form of ammonia ions. Since the plant is not able to fix nitrogen ions from the atmosphere, the supply of nitrogen from the soil through the calcium system is very important. The role of calcium is great, especially for the binding of ammonia ions, activation of the process of photosynthesis and secondary metabolism.
Deficiency symptoms occur due to low calcium movement in the plant, especially on tops, inflorescences and fruits. (It is interesting that the surface inside the leaf is 30 times larger than the outside, and that from the outside we see only a part of the symptoms of the internal "disease".
Outwardly invisible symptoms are: increased leakage of the membrane cell, destruction of the structure of the cell nucleus, a decrease in the stability of chromosomes, which leads to disruption of the division of the nucleus and cells.
Calcium also contributes to changing the placement of wax on the epidermis of the leaf.
On an untreated plant, water collects on the leaf in the form of small droplets, so that only a small part of the leaf surface is covered with moisture, while on treated plants, the wax layer is structured in such a way that water can be distributed in one direction over the entire surface of the leaf. Thus, calcium has an effect on hydrogenation.
Calcium ions increase the viscosity of the cytoplasm. The osmotic pressure in plants of the extracellular fluid may be different in comparison with the pressure inside the cells. If extracellular osmotic pressure identical to intracellular (approx. 300 mOsm), then they call it isotonic, and hypertone if it is lower, and hypotone if it is higher.
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The finer the limestone fraction, the better its effect.
The current state of science and technology in the manufacture of fertilizer from limestone, its quality, impact on productivity and economics of agriculture Based on the many-sided use of limestone and the requirements of industry, the needs that science seeks to satisfy have also increased. Although limestone alone is not a panacea for agriculture. Limestone is a well-studied topic, and for each area there are optimal solutions and scientific experiments. However, despite this, science is constantly watching him, and reveals more and more of his secrets. New qualitative characteristics, analysis of their impact, additional scientific possibilities, discoveries that are tested by technology, become the basis for versatile applications.
Experiments with limestone were already mentioned in 1954 (Hartmann and Wegener). The smaller the fraction, the larger the surface of each individual particle. Back then, only by computation, the proven reaction with limestone showed not only a huge, but also a completely new effect. At that time, obtaining the smallest fractions was not available at the technical level.
More by accident than on purpose, the tribomechanical grinding experience that emerged in the 1990s demonstrated that it was possible to grind tough materials down to particle sizes of 1/1000 mm (my area).
Although this principle is not so new. Davinci also described the principle of tribomechanics.
In 1990 only the technology itself was new. At 40,000 rpm, every ten-thousandth of a second at triple the speed of sound, matter particles hit each other, which splits it to the smallest tangible and measurable size. In the end, an electrostatically highly charged spherical powder is formed, the particle size of which is 1-well, multi-millionth of a millimeter.
Experiments on various materials eventually helped to focus on limestone.
So scientific experiments have shown how much you can optimize the effect of the material (in this case, calcium) by grinding it into tiny particles. Scientists Alberti and Fiedler described this experience in 1996 as a reverse process to growth.
Ordinary calcium has a closed smooth surface. In the process of tribomechanical activation, the resulting damage to the surface means the opening of network structures and, thereby, a significant increase in the ability to ion exchange and adsorption of harmful substances. On the one hand, the experience gained has led to the fact that the specific surface of calcium has increased significantly - three times -. On the other hand, as a result of tribomechanical processing of limestone, much smaller particles appeared. The resulting microparticles, due to their small size, shape and specific surface, can better attach metabolic products to themselves.
CaCO3 particle size under electron microscope 1 – 25 my Conventional grinding methods stop at sizes over 1mm, and there can be no question of economic feasibility.
Experiences at universities in Austria, Switzerland, Spain, Australia, etc. soon showed that calcium in this micronized form not only increased the effect, but also served as an antioxidant.
Micronized calcium (in view of the grinding process and the resulting friction), having an electrostatic charge and its high ion exchange power, is currently the most effective antioxidant. He "directs himself" to the places of greatest electrical polarity and "discharges them himself." As a carrier substance, calcium can supply magnesium, copper, and other substances directly to the cells, both naturally related to themselves and included in the limestone itself.
New fields of application have emerged, based on new physical possibilities, for example, for the treatment of oncological diseases and AIDS.
Calcium is already widely used as a neutralizer of so-called free radicals. A six-month study with 120 patients in an Austrian private clinic in Villach showed that the applied material intensively supports the immune system.
So the total level of protection in the blood (TAS) increased by an average of 27% after only three weeks of taking pulverized limestone.
Patients shared their impressions that when they swallowed the powder, it seemed to them that light penetrated into every cell. The experiments are still going on.
The question of the use of limestone in agriculture was not even raised, it was taken for granted. Limestone has been used as a fertilizer for many decades. The agricultural industry took up the development of the "new-old" limestone with great interest.
Thanks to the optimization of the method, it is possible to produce and supply large quantities of fertilizer, guaranteeing the same excellent quality.
The new grinding method showed initially excellent, and even incredible, results. Such results immediately activated scientists and skeptics, as well as those who, frankly, decided to release an “analogue”, which can only be considered an ineffective fake.
Scientists have found that two critical factors are required to successfully reduce calcium to micro-size for agricultural use.
The first factor is the presence of an electrostatic charge (occurs due to the high friction of the particles when they hit each other during the grinding process).
These results are also confirmed by medical studies (when using pulmonological powder application).
The Colombe and Van der Waal force, known in scientific circles, increases the ability of the powder to flow in water (0.5% aqueous solution), as well as the water itself.
The larger the powder particles, the worse it moves in the water. For example, medical research is demonstrating compelling results for this behavior. Water, with its conductive ability, reacts to tiny particles and becomes more fluid. Having become even more fluid, the calcium solution is activated in such a way that the liquid gains the ability to penetrate hitherto impossible spaces.
Another feature of electrostatically charged particles also appeared.
Swiss scientists have found that electrostatically charged powder particles attract microorganisms. In the immediate vicinity of the particles, there is such a high concentration of ions that an antimicrobial effect occurs. The osmotic pressure becomes so high that it can bring the microorganisms out of the state of stagnation and induce them to move.
These two characteristic properties of the high concentration of CaCO3 in the product lead to plants showing impressive self-reproduction, i.e. multiple increase in productivity. It also reduces the rate of ripening, improves quality, and extends the shelf life of the crop. The reduced water requirement of the plants is also important, something that no other fertilizer has so far been able to guarantee, not to mention the environmental aspect of this 100% natural fertilizer.
After a few days, you can visually observe success. Plants become saturated green, which indicates vitality and health.
Long-term experiments show the feasibility and necessity of using such a fertilizer.
The spontaneity and force of nature reveals itself plausibly and in full swing in that intense growth occurs immediately after application.
An increase in the number of chloroplasts and chlorophyll nuclei in the leaf awakened the processes of secondary metabolism, as well as the construction and strengthening of cells, cell nuclei and cell membranes, and at the same time began to control the introduction of calcium into the most important life processes of the plant.
Experiments in greenhouses and on the open ground, carried out under the constant supervision of scientists, confirm this, and CaCO3 in micronized form has been approved in Europe since 2003, and since 2011 in Ukraine, as a leaf fertilizer.
Finding a definition for PANAGRO was and still is a difficult task. It is not just a plant growth accelerator. It is difficult to attribute it to only organic or mineral fertilizers. Also it does not match the normal function of conventional fertilizer. It has everything from everyone!
It's perfect new approach. By fertilizing, not only the usual fertilization of the soil occurs, but completely different - they create ideal conditions for the soil, which actually has everything that the plant needs.
Thanks to the micronized form, the impact on the entire plant occurs through the leaf.
PANAGRO is a natural mineral - calcite (in its nano- and micro-fractions), which has all natural trace elements known (Si, Al, Mg,...), and also has an electrostatic charge (resulting from grinding in a patented tribomechanical installation), increasing the effectiveness of the impact by 600% compared to the usual fractions, the result of the influence of which, according to the Redox potential, serves as an antioxidant for the plant.
Only such a biological fertilizer can meet all economic requirements.
Economic aspect:
Based on the data provided by the Austrian manufacturer: apply at 9kg/ha (depending on the crop), dividing the process into 3-5 applications (spraying occurs three times at 3-5 kg/ha per application) - it became clear that conventional calcium fertilizer cost would be at least twice as expensive.
The usual set of fertilizers:
Microfertilizers with scattered elements,
Spraying (pesticides, herbicides, etc.) Of course, they affect the preservation and increase in yield, but in comparison with what?
Financially, weak investment will also bring weak harvests.
In this case, the soil and plants will be subject to heavy loads, compaction and, frankly, left to fend for themselves.
But purely biological measures to improve the quality of the soil, and therefore aimed at the growth of a biologically pure crop with a correspondingly high quality and in large quantities, have so far remained a utopia.
With serious financial investments, it can be accurately calculated that the excess profit will be higher than 40%, and profitability will increase many times over.
Thus, as a result of studies in Europe, the USA, Asia, as well as in Ukraine, as part of product certification experiments, it was proved that the use of Panagro fertilizer convincingly demonstrates the following qualitative and quantitative indicators: (only a few are listed below):
Increase in sugar content in sugar beet from 15 to 18%
Increase in oil content in winter rapeseed from 39 to 53%
Increase in potato yield up to 42%
Increasing the oil content of sunflower from 45 to 48%
Increase in protein content in soy from 39.5 to 43.5%
Increase in tomato fiber (94% H2O) up to 25% and the actual yield up to 80%
Increasing the yield of winter wheat up to 60%, with an increase in protein and gluten ... In multiple field trials by PANAGRO, it has been proven that the most important factor was the savings on C/H. With a financial load of 1000 Euro/ha (saline-vegetable growing), a saving of 50% on S\W was applied, which amounted to 500 Euro, subtracting the cost of PANAGRO, and we get plus 280 Euro/ha. We have not yet included the profit from the over-harvest and the dramatic difference in product quality.
In wheat (with the same savings in C/W) it was proven that only 600 kg/ha more crop was needed to justify the investment. The actual yield increase was almost 60% with an average yield of 28 centners per hectare, not to mention a significant change in better side quality indicators.
Conclusion In parallel, practical control tests have proven the occurrence of the following effects, which are quite understandable from a scientific point of view:
Increase in total yield up to 30-100% (depending on the crop)
Biologically pure crop (mineral product - calcite)
Reduction of water demand up to 70%
Reduction of the growing season up to 30%
Savings on NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium) up to 50 - 100%
Excellent, preventing the occurrence of fungi, damage by insects and other pests, the effect, which made it possible to save up to 50% of funds
Significant increase in green mass
High vitality and disease resistance
Increasing fiber mass in fruits and improving fruit quality
Improved taste and aroma
Longer storage life of crops
Increasing the level of Brix (liquid density measurement level is mainly used in fruit production as an indicator of quality) in fruits and berries ...
Thus, from a scientific point of view, we have: a CaCO3 product, which is a 100% natural material, ground using nanotechnology, suitable for use on all soils, providing a significant increase in yield in a short time and with high level quality.
Limestone is the new strength of the mineral.
As we worked on this booklet, it became clear to us that much of the knowledge about the effects of calcium had simply been forgotten. The more we found material, read doctoral papers, got acquainted with the practical results of experiments, the more we realized that we had chosen the title of this brochure correctly.
Today we are convinced that you, as an agronomist, farmer, amateur gardener or gardener, will be able to rediscover the importance of calcium in literally all life processes of the nature around us, just like we do.
Whatever you do or are going to do with the soil, no matter how you fertilize it
- she needs only one thing - the right ratio of calcium. Calcium, on the basis of its chemical, physical and biological properties, changes the soil for the better, makes it really fertile, the process of growing crops - natural and healthy, and any farming - economically viable.
We wish you a successful and healthy harvest!
PANAGRO. Jurgen and Natalia Brausevetter, Simferopol, Crimea, January 2011.
