Catherine II

Empress of All Russia (June 28, 1762 - November 6, 1796). Her reign is one of the most remarkable in Russian history; and dark and bright sides it had a tremendous influence on subsequent events, especially on the mental and cultural development of the country. Spouse Peter III, nee Princess of Anhalt-Zerbt (born April 24, 1729), was naturally gifted with a great mind, strong character; on the contrary, her husband was a weak man, ill-bred. Not sharing his pleasures, E. devoted herself to reading and soon moved from novels to historical and philosophical books. An elected circle was formed around her, in which Saltykov, and then Stanislav Poniatovsky, later the Polish king, enjoyed the greatest confidence in Ye. Her relationship with Empress Elizabeth was not particularly cordial: when E. had a son, Pavel, the Empress took the child to her and rarely allowed her mother to see him. On December 25, 1761, Elizabeth died; with the accession to the throne of Peter III, the position of E. became even worse. The coup on June 28, 1762 elevated E. to the throne (see Peter III). The harsh school of life and a huge natural mind helped E. herself to get out of a very difficult situation, and to bring Russia out of it. The treasury was empty; the monopoly crushed trade and industry; factory peasants and serfs were agitated by rumors of freedom, now and then renewed; peasants from the western border fled to Poland. Under such circumstances, E. entered the throne, the rights to which belonged to her son. But she understood that this son would become a toy of parties on the throne, like Peter II. The Regency was a fragile business. The fate of Menshikov, Biron, Anna Leopoldovna was in everyone's mind.

E.'s penetrating gaze was equally attentive to the phenomena of life both at home and abroad. Having learned, two months after accession to the throne, that the famous French Encyclopedia was condemned by the Parisian parliament for godlessness and its continuation was prohibited, E. invited Voltaire and Diderot to publish the encyclopedia in Riga. This proposal alone swayed to the side of E. the best minds which then gave direction to public opinion throughout Europe. In the autumn of 1762 E. was crowned and spent the winter in Moscow. In the summer of 1764, Lieutenant Mirovich decided to enthrone John Antonovich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig, who was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress. The plan failed - Ivan Antonovich, during an attempt to free him, was shot dead by one of the guard soldiers; Mirovich was executed by a court verdict. In 1764, Prince Vyazemsky, sent to pacify the peasants assigned to the factories, was ordered to investigate the question of the benefits of free labor over hired labor. The same question was put to the newly founded Economic Society (see Free economic society and Peasants). First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of the monastic peasants, which took especially sharp character still under Elizabeth. Elizabeth, at the beginning of her reign, returned the estates to monasteries and churches, but in 1757 she, along with the dignitaries surrounding her, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to transfer the management of church property to secular hands. Peter III ordered the fulfillment of Elizabeth's plan and the transfer of management of church property to the college of economy. Inventories of monastic property were made, under Peter III, extremely rudely. Upon the accession of E. II to the throne, the bishops filed complaints with her and asked for the return of management of church property to them. E., on the advice of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, satisfied their desire, canceled the collegium of economy, but did not abandon her intention, but only postponed its execution; she then ordered that the 1757 commission resume its studies. It was ordered to make new inventories of monastic and church property; but the clergy were dissatisfied with the new inventories; Metropolitan Arseny Matseevich of Rostov especially rebelled against them. In his report to the synod, he expressed himself harshly, arbitrarily interpreting church-historical facts, even distorting them and making comparisons offensive to Ye. The synod presented the case to the empress, in the hope (as Solovyov thinks) that E. this time too would show his usual gentleness. The hope was not justified: Arseny's report caused such irritation in E., which was not noticed in her either before or after. She could not forgive Arseny comparing her with Julian and Judas and the desire to expose her as a violator of her word. Arseny was sentenced to exile in the Arkhangelsk diocese, to the Nikolaevsky Korelsky monastery, and then, as a result of new accusations, to deprivation of monastic dignity and life imprisonment in Revel (see Arseny Matseevich). Characteristic for Catherine is the following case from the beginning of her reign. A case was reported on allowing Jews to enter Russia. E. said that to start the reign by decree on the free entry of Jews would be a bad way to calm the minds; it is impossible to recognize entry as harmful. Then Senator Prince Odoevsky offered to take a look at what Empress Elizabeth wrote in the margins of the same report. E. demanded a report and read: "I do not want selfish profit from the enemies of Christ." Turning to the prosecutor general, she said: "I want this case to be postponed."

The increase in the number of serfs through huge distributions to favorites and dignitaries of populated estates, the establishment of serfdom in Little Russia, completely fall into a dark spot on the memory of E. It should not be overlooked, however, that the underdevelopment of Russian society affected at that time at every step. So, when E. decided to abolish torture and proposed this measure to the Senate, the senators expressed their fear that if torture was abolished, no one, going to bed, would be sure whether he would wake up in the morning. Therefore, E., without publicly destroying torture, sent out a secret order that in cases where torture was used, the judges based their actions on Chapter X of the Order, in which torture is condemned as a cruel and extremely stupid thing. At the beginning of the reign of E. II, an attempt was renewed to create an institution that resembled a supreme privy council or a Cabinet that replaced it, in a new form, under the name of the permanent council of the empress. The author of the project was Count Panin. Feldzeugmeister General Villebois wrote to the Empress: "I don't know who the drafter of this project is, but it seems to me that, under the guise of defending the monarchy, he is subtly more inclined towards aristocratic rule." Villebois was right; but E. herself understood the oligarchic nature of the project. She signed it, but kept it under wraps, and it was never made public. Thus Panin's idea of ​​a council of six permanent members remained a mere dream; E.'s private council has always consisted of rotating members. Knowing how the transition of Peter III to the side of Prussia irritated public opinion, Catherine ordered the Russian generals to remain neutral and thus contributed to the end of the war (see. Seven Years' War). The internal affairs of the state demanded special attention: the lack of justice was most striking. E. expressed herself energetically on this occasion: “extortion has increased to such an extent that there is hardly the smallest place in the government in which the court would go without infection of this ulcer; if someone is looking for a place, he pays; if anyone slanders anyone, he backs up all his cunning intrigues with gifts. E. was especially amazed when she learned that within the boundaries of the current Novgorod province they took money from the peasants for bringing them to the oath of allegiance to her. This state of justice forced E. to convene in 1766 a commission to publish the Code. E. handed over to this commission the Order, by which she was to be guided in drawing up the Code. The order was drawn up on the basis of the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria (see Order of Catherine II and the Commission for the preparation of a new code). Polish affairs, the first Turkish war that arose from them, and internal unrest suspended the legislative activity of E. until 1775. Polish affairs caused the partitions and the fall of Poland: according to the first partition in 1773, Russia received the current provinces of Mogilev, Vitebsk, part of Minsk, i.e. most of Belarus (see Poland). The first Turkish war began in 1768 and ended in peace in Kuchuk-Kaynardzhi, which was ratified in 1775. According to this peace, the Port recognized the independence of the Crimean and Budzhak Tatars; ceded Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn to Russia; opened free passage for Russian ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean; granted forgiveness to Christians who took part in the war; allowed Russia's petition on Moldovan affairs. During the first Turkish war plague raged in Moscow, causing a plague riot; in the east of Russia, an even more dangerous rebellion broke out, known as the Pugachevshchina. In 1770, the plague from the army penetrated into Little Russia, in the spring of 1771 it appeared in Moscow; the commander-in-chief (currently - governor-general) Count Saltykov left the city to the mercy of fate. retired general Eropkin voluntarily assumed the heavy duty of maintaining order and, by preventive measures, weakening the plague. The townsfolk did not comply with his instructions and not only did not burn clothes and linen from those who died from the plague, but hid their very death and buried them in the backyards. The plague intensified: in the early summer of 1771, 400 people died daily. The people crowded in horror at the Barbarian Gates, in front of the miraculous icon. The contagion from crowding people, of course, intensified. The then Moscow Archbishop Ambrose, an enlightened man, ordered the removal of the icon. A rumor immediately spread that the bishop, along with the healers, had conspired to kill the people. The ignorant and fanatical crowd, maddened with fear, put to death a worthy archpastor. There were rumors that the rebels were preparing to set fire to Moscow, exterminate doctors and nobles. Eropkin, with several companies, managed, however, to restore calm. In the last days of September, Count Grigory Orlov, then the closest person to E., arrived in Moscow: but at that time the plague was already weakening and stopped in October. This plague killed 130,000 people in Moscow alone.

The Pugachev rebellion was raised by the Yaik Cossacks, dissatisfied with the changes in their Cossack way of life. In 1773, the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev took the name of Peter III and raised the banner of rebellion. Catherine entrusted the suppression of the rebellion to Bibikov, who immediately understood the essence of the matter; It's not Pugachev that matters, he said, it's the general displeasure that matters. The Bashkirs, Kalmyks, and Kirghiz joined the Yaik Cossacks and the rebellious peasants. Bibikov, ordering from Kazan, moved detachments from all sides to more dangerous places; Prince Golitsyn liberated Orenburg, Mikhelson - Ufa, Mansurov - Yaitsky town. At the beginning of 1774, the rebellion began to subside, but Bibikov died of exhaustion, and the rebellion flared up again: Pugachev captured Kazan and moved to the right bank of the Volga. Bibikov's place was taken by Count P. Panin, but did not replace him. Mikhelson defeated Pugachev near Arzamas and blocked his path to Moscow. Pugachev rushed to the south, took Penza, Petrovsk, Saratov and hanged the nobles everywhere. From Saratov, he moved to Tsaritsyn, but was repulsed and again defeated by Mikhelson near Cherny Yar. When Suvorov arrived at the army, the impostor held on a little and was soon betrayed by his accomplices. In January 1775, Pugachev was executed in Moscow (see Pugachevshchina). Since 1775, the legislative activity of E. II was resumed, which, however, had not stopped before. So, in 1768, commercial and noble banks were abolished and the so-called assignation or change bank was established (see Banknotes). In 1775, the existence of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was already declining, ceased to exist. In the same year, 1775, the transformation of the provincial government began. An institution was issued for the administration of the provinces, which took twenty whole years to be introduced: in 1775 it began with the Tver province and ended in 1796 with the establishment of the Vilna province (see Gubernia). Thus, the reform of the provincial administration, begun by Peter the Great, was derived by E. II from chaotic state and finished with it. In 1776, E. ordered in petitions to replace the word slave with the word loyal. By the end of the first Turkish war, he received especially importance Potemkin, striving for great things. Together with his collaborator, Bezborodko, he drew up a project known as the Greek one. The grandiosity of this project - destroying the Ottoman Porte, restore Greek Empire, on the throne of which to elevate Konstantin Pavlovich, - liked E. The opponent of the influence and plans of Potemkin, Count N. Panin, the tutor of Tsarevich Paul and the president of the board of foreign affairs, in order to distract E. from the Greek project, presented her with a project of armed neutrality, in 1780 Armed neutrality was aimed at protecting the trade of neutral states during the war and was directed against England, which was unfavorable for Potemkin's plans. Pursuing his broad and useless plan for Russia, Potemkin prepared an extremely useful and necessary thing for Russia - the annexation of the Crimea. In the Crimea, since the recognition of its independence, two parties were worried - Russian and Turkish. Their struggle gave a reason to occupy the Crimea and the Kuban region. The manifesto of 1783 announced the annexation of the Crimea and the Kuban region to Russia. The last khan Shagin-Giray was sent to Voronezh; Crimea renamed into Taurida Governorate; Crimean raids stopped. It is believed that due to the raids of the Crimeans, the Great and Little Russia and part of Poland, from the 15th century. until 1788, lost from 3 to 4 million people: captives were turned into slaves, captives filled harems or became, like slaves, in the ranks of female servants. In Constantinople, the Mamelukes had Russian nurses and nannies. in the 16th, 17th and even 18th centuries. Venice and France used shackled Russian slaves bought from the markets of the Levant as galley laborers. The pious Louis XIV tried only to ensure that these slaves did not remain schismatics. The annexation of Crimea put an end to the shameful trade in Russian slaves (see V. Lamansky in " Historical Bulletin"for 1880:" The power of the Turks in Europe "). Following that, Erekle II, the king of Georgia, recognized the protectorate of Russia. 1785 is marked by two important legislative acts: Letter of Complaint nobility (see Nobility) and City position (see City). The statute on public schools on August 15, 1786 was implemented only on a small scale. Projects to establish universities in Pskov, Chernigov, Penza and Yekaterinoslav were shelved. In 1783, the Russian Academy was founded to study the native language. The foundation of institutions was the beginning of the education of women. Orphanages were established, smallpox vaccination was introduced, and the Pallas expedition was equipped to study the remote outskirts.

Potemkin's enemies argued, not understanding the importance of acquiring Crimea, that Crimea and Novorossiya were not worth the money spent on their establishment. Then E. decided to inspect the newly acquired region herself. Accompanied by the Austrian, English and French ambassadors, with a huge retinue, in 1787 she set off on a journey. The Archbishop of Mogilev, Georgy Konissky, met her in Mstislavl with a speech, which was famous by his contemporaries as a model of eloquence. The whole character of the speech is determined by its beginning: "Let's leave it to the astronomers to prove that the Earth revolves around the Sun: our sun walks around us." In Kanev I met E. Stanislav Poniatowski, King of Poland; near Keidan - Emperor Joseph II. He and E. laid the first stone of the city of Yekaterinoslav, visited Kherson and examined the newly created Potemkin Black Sea Fleet. During the journey, Joseph noticed the theatricality in the setting, saw how hastily they drove the people to the villages supposedly under construction; but in Kherson he saw the real deal - and did justice to Potemkin.

The second Turkish war under E. II was waged, in alliance with Joseph II, from 1787 to 1791. In 1791, on December 29, peace was concluded in Iasi. For all the victories, Russia received only Ochakov and the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper (see Turkish wars of Russia and the Peace of Jassy). At the same time, with varying happiness, there was a war with Sweden, declared by Gustav III in 1789 (see Sweden). It ended on August 3, 1790 with the Peace of Verel, on the basis of the status quo. During the 2nd Turkish War, a coup took place in Poland: on May 3, 1791, a new constitution was promulgated, which led to the second partition of Poland, in 1793, and then to the third, in 1795 (see Poland). Under the second section, Russia received the rest of the Minsk province, Volhynia and Podolia, under the 3rd - the Grodno province and Courland. In 1796, in the last year of E.'s reign, Count Valerian Zubov, appointed commander-in-chief in the campaign against Persia, conquered Derbent and Baku; His progress was stopped by the death of E.

The last years of the reign of E. II were overshadowed, from 1790, by a reactionary direction. Then the French Revolution broke out, and with our domestic reaction all-European, Jesuit-oligarchic reaction entered into an alliance. Her agent and instrument was E.'s last favorite, Prince Platon Zubov, together with his brother, Count Valerian. European reaction wanted to draw Russia into a struggle against revolutionary France - a struggle alien to the direct interests of Russia. E. spoke kind words to the representatives of the reaction and did not give a single soldier. Then the undermining under the throne of E. intensified, accusations were renewed that she illegally occupied the throne belonging to Pavel Petrovich. There is reason to believe that in 1790 an attempt was being made to elevate Pavel Petrovich to the throne. This attempt was probably connected with the expulsion from St. Petersburg of Prince Frederick of Württemberg. The domestic reaction at the same time accused E. allegedly of excessive free-thinking. The basis of the accusation was, among other things, the permission to translate Voltaire and participation in the translation of Belisarius, the story of Marmontel, which was considered anti-religious, because it does not indicate the difference between Christian and pagan virtue. Catherine grew old, there was almost no trace of her former courage and energy - and now, under such circumstances, in 1790 Radishchev's book "Journey from St. The unfortunate Radishchev was punished by exile to Siberia. Perhaps this cruelty was the result of a fear that the exclusion of articles on the emancipation of the peasants from the Nakaz would be considered hypocrisy on the part of E. In 1792, Novikov, who served so much for Russian enlightenment, was imprisoned in Shlisselburg. The secret motive for this measure was Novikov's relationship with Pavel Petrovich. In 1793, Knyazhnin suffered severely for his tragedy Vadim. In 1795, even Derzhavin was suspected of taking a revolutionary direction, for transcribing Psalm 81, entitled "To Rulers and Judges." Thus ended the enlightening reign of E. II, this great man (Cathérine le grand), which raised the national spirit. Despite the reaction recent years, the name of the enlightenment will remain behind him in history. From this reign in Russia, they began to realize the importance of humane ideas, they began to talk about the right of a person to think for the benefit of his own kind [We almost did not touch on the weaknesses of E. Second, recalling the words of Renan: "serious history should not attach too much importance to the morals of sovereigns if these morals did not have much effect on general course under E. Zubov's influence was harmful, but only because he was an instrument of a harmful party.].

Literature. The works of Kolotov, Sumarokov, Lefort are panegyrics. Of the new ones, Brickner's work is more satisfactory. The very important work of Bilbasov is not finished; only one volume was published in Russian, two in German. S. M. Solovyov in the 29th volume of his history of Russia dwelled on peace in Kuchuk-Kainardzhi. The foreign works of Rulière and Caster cannot be bypassed only by the undeserved attention given to them. Of the countless memoirs, the memoirs of Khrapovitsky are especially important (the best edition is N. P. Barsukov). See Waliszewski's latest work: "Le Roman d" une impératrice". specific issues indicated in the respective articles. The publications of the Imperial Historical Society are extremely important.

E. Belov.

Gifted with literary talent, receptive and sensitive to phenomena surrounding life, E. took an active part in the literature of her time. excited by her literary movement was devoted to the development of educational ideas of the XVIII century. Thoughts on education, briefly outlined in one of the chapters of the "Order", were subsequently developed in detail by E. in allegorical tales: "About Tsarevich Chlor" (1781) and "About Tsarevich Fevey" (1782), and mainly in "Instructions to Prince N . Saltykov, "given when he was appointed tutor of the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich (1784). Pedagogical ideas expressed in these writings, E. mainly borrowed from Montaigne and Locke: the first she took a general view of the goals of education, the second she used in the development of particulars. Guided by Montaigne, E. put forward in the first place in the upbringing of the moral element - the rooting in the soul of humanity, justice, respect for the laws, indulgence towards people. At the same time, she demanded that the mental and physical aspects of education should be properly developed. Personally leading the upbringing of her grandchildren up to the age of seven, she compiled for them a whole educational library. For the grand dukes were written E. and "Notes regarding Russian history". In purely fictional writings, to which journal articles and dramatic works, E. is much more original than in the writings of a pedagogical and legislative nature. Pointing to the actual contradictions of the ideals that existed in society, her comedies and satirical articles were to greatly contribute to the development of public consciousness, making more understandable the importance and expediency of the reforms she was undertaking.

Start of public literary activity E. refers to 1769, when she was an active collaborator and inspirer of the satirical magazine "Vsyakaya Vsyachina". The patronizing tone adopted by Vsyakoy Vsyachina in relation to other journals, and the instability of its direction, soon armed almost all the journals of that time against it; her main opponent was the bold and direct "Drone" of N. I. Novikov. The latter's sharp attacks on judges, governors, and prosecutors strongly displeased Vsyakaya Vsyachina; who conducted the controversy against Trutnya in this journal cannot be said positively, but it is known for certain that one of the articles directed against Novikov belongs to the empress herself. Between 1769 and 1783, when E. again acted as a journalist, she wrote five comedies, and between them her best plays: "On Time" and "Name Day of Mrs. Vorchalkina." The purely literary merits of E.'s comedies are not high: they have little action, the intrigue is too simple, and the denouement is monotonous. They are written in the spirit and after the model of French modern comedies, in which the servants are more developed and intelligent than their masters. But at the same time, purely Russian social vices are ridiculed in E.'s comedies and Russian types appear. Bigotry, superstition, bad education, the pursuit of fashion, blind imitation of the French - these are the topics that E. developed in her comedies. These themes had already been outlined earlier by our satirical magazines of 1769 and, among other things, by Vsyakoy Vsachina; but what was presented in the magazines in the form of separate pictures, characterizations, sketches, in E.'s comedies received a more solid and vivid image. The types of the miserly and heartless prude Khanzhakhina, the superstitious gossip Vestnikova in the comedy "On Time", the petimeter Firlyufyushkov and the projector Nekopeikov in the comedy "Mrs. Vorchalkina's Name Day" are among the most successful in Russian comic literature of the last century. Variations of these types are repeated in other comedies by E.

By 1783, E. was actively involved in the Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word, published at the Academy of Sciences, edited by Princess E. R. Dashkova. Here E. placed a number of satirical articles, entitled by the common name "Tales and Fables". The original purpose of these articles was, apparently, satirical image weaknesses and ridiculous aspects of the society of the contemporary empress, and the originals for such portraits were often taken by the empress from among those close to her. Soon, however, "There were Fables" began to serve as a reflection of the magazine life of the "Interlocutor". E. was the unspoken editor of this magazine; as can be seen from her correspondence with Dashkova, she still read in manuscript many of the articles sent for publication in the journal; some of these articles touched her to the core: she entered into polemics with their authors, often making fun of them. For the reading public, E.'s participation in the magazine was not a secret; Articles of the letter were often sent to the address of the writer of "Tales and Fables", in which rather transparent hints were made. The empress tried as much as possible to keep her composure and not betray her incognito; only once, enraged by Fonvizin's "impudent and reprehensible" questions, she so clearly expressed her irritation in "Facts and Fables" that Fonvizin found it necessary to hasten with a letter of repentance. In addition to "Tales and Fables", the empress placed in the "Interlocutor" several small polemical and satirical articles, for the most part ridiculing the pompous writings of random collaborators of the "Interlocutor" - Lyuboslov and Count S. P. Rumyantsev. One of these articles ("Society of the Unknowing Daily Note"), in which Princess Dashkova saw a parody of the meetings of the then newly founded, in her opinion, Russian Academy, served as a pretext for the termination of E.'s participation in the journal. In subsequent years (1785-1790), E. wrote 13 plays, not counting dramatic proverbs in French intended for the Hermitage theatre.

Masons have long attracted E.'s attention. If we are to believe her words, she took the trouble to get acquainted in detail with the vast Masonic literature, but found nothing in Freemasonry but "folly." Stay in St. Petersburg. (in 1780) Cagliostro, about whom she spoke of as a scoundrel worthy of the gallows, armed her even more against the Masons. Receiving disturbing news about the ever-increasing influence of Moscow Masonic circles, seeing among her close associates many followers and defenders of Masonic teachings, the Empress decided to fight this "folly" literary weapon, and within two years (1785-86) she wrote one the other, three comedies ("Deceiver", "Seduced" and "Siberian Shaman"), in which she ridiculed Freemasonry. Only in the comedy "Seduced" are there, however, life traits reminiscent of Moscow Freemasons. "Deceiver" directed against Cagliostro. In "Shaman Siberian" E., apparently unfamiliar with the essence of Masonic teachings, did not hesitate to reduce it to the same level as shamanic tricks. Undoubtedly, E.'s satire did not have much effect: Freemasonry continued to develop, and in order to deal him a decisive blow, the Empress no longer resorted to meek methods of correction, as she called her satire, but to harsh and decisive administrative measures.

To the indicated time, in all likelihood, E.'s acquaintance with Shakespeare, in French or German translations, also applies. She remade "Windsor Gossips" for the Russian stage, but this reworking turned out to be extremely weak and very little resembles a genuine Shakespeare. In imitation of his historical chronicles, she composed two plays from the life of the ancient Russian princes - Rurik and Oleg. The main meaning of these Historical representations", Literally extremely weak, lies in those political and moral ideas that E. puts into the mouths of the characters. Of course, these are not the ideas of Rurik or Oleg, but the thoughts of E. In comic operas, E. did not pursue any serious goal: these were scene plays, in which the main role was played by the musical and choreographic sides.The Empress took the plot for these operas, for the most part, from folk tales and epics known to her from manuscript collections. Only "Unfortunate Hero Kosometovich", despite his fabulous character, contains an element of modernity: this opera put in a comic light the Swedish king Gustav III, who at that time opened hostile actions against Russia, and was removed from the repertoire immediately after the conclusion of peace with Sweden. French plays by E., the so-called "proverbs" - small one-act plays, the plots of which were, for the most part, episodes from modern life. Of special importance they do not have, repeating the themes and types already bred in other comedies by E. E. herself did not attach importance to her literary activity. “I look at my compositions,” she wrote to Grimm, “as if they were trifles. I like to make experiments in all kinds, but it seems to me that everything I wrote is rather mediocre, why, apart from entertainment, I did not attach any importance to this.”

E.'s works were published by A. Smirdin (St. Petersburg, 1849-50). Exclusively literary works E. published twice in 1893, under the editorship of V. F. Solntsev and A. I. Vvedensky. Separate articles and monographs: P. Pekarsky, "Materials for the history of the journal and literary activities of E. II" (St. Petersburg, 1863); Dobrolyubov, Art. about "The Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word" (X, 825); "Works of Derzhavin", ed. J. Grota (St. Petersburg, 1873, vol. VIII, pp. 310-339); M. Longinov, "Dramatic works of E. II" (M., 1857); G. Gennadi, "More on the dramatic works of E. II" (in "Bibl. Zap.", 1858, No. 16); P. K. Shchebalsky, "E. II as a writer" ("Dawn", 1869-70); his own, "Dramatic and moral writings of Empress E. II" (in "Russian Bulletin", 1871, vol. XVIII, nos. 5 and 6); N. S. Tikhonravov, "Literary little things in 1786" (in the scientific and literary collection, published by "Russian Vedomosti" - "Help for the Starving", M., 1892); E. S. Shumigorsky, "Essays from Russian history. I. Empress-publicist" (St. Petersburg, 1887); P. Bessonova, "On the influence folk art on the dramas of Empress E. and on whole Russian songs inserted here" (in the magazine "Zarya", 1870); V. S. Lebedev, "Shakespeare in the alterations of E. II" (in the Russian Bulletin "(1878, No. 3); N. Lavrovsky, "On the Pedagogical Significance of E. Velikaya's Works" (Kharkov, 1856), A. Brikner, "E. II's Comic Opera "The Unfortunate Hero" ("Zh. M. N. Pr.", 1870, No. 12 ); A. Galakhov, "There were also Fables, the composition of E. II" ("Notes of the Fatherland" 1856, No. 10).

V. Solntsev.

(Brockhaus)

Catherine II

Russian Empress (1727-1796; she reigned in 1762 after the violent death of her husband, Peter III). Already in the first days after her accession to the throne, E. was faced with the question of the Jews. Arriving for the first time in the Senate, she - as she herself tells in her notes drawn up in a third person - found herself in a difficult situation when the first question was raised about the admission of Jews to Russia, expelled in the previous reign, and it was unanimously resolved in a favorable way. “Not even a week has passed since Catherine II,” the notes say, “came to the throne; she was erected on him to protect Orthodox faith ...; the minds were greatly excited, as always happens after such an important event; to start a reign with such a project could not be a means of comfort; it was impossible to recognize the project as harmful. "The Empress was presented in the Senate by Elizabeth's hostile resolution to the Jews, and E. declared that she wanted the matter to be postponed until another time. "And that's how often it is not enough to be enlightened, to have the best intentions and the power to lead E. was guided by the same considerations when, in her manifesto on December 4, 1762, on allowing foreigners to settle in Russia, she stipulated “except for the Jews.” In reality, E.’s attitude towards the Jews was different. Answering in 1773 Mr. Diderot, to his question about the Jews in Russia, Catherine explained that the question of admitting Jews to the country was raised inappropriately, and added to this that in 1764 the Jews were recognized as merchants and residents of Novorossia and that three or four Jews had been staying for several years in St. Petersburg - "they are tolerated contrary to the law; they pretend not to know that they are in the capital" (they lived in the apartment of the empress's confessor). The recognition of the Jews by the inhabitants of Novorossiya was in connection with the proposal of the Senate to admit the Jews to Russia. Not daring to openly declare his agreement with the opinion of the Senate, E. On April 29, 1764, she sent a secret letter to Governor General Brown in Riga, which boiled down to the following: if the office of guardianship (the prototype of the Ministry of Agriculture) recommends some merchants of the Novorossiysk province, then they should be allowed to live in Riga and trade; if they wish to send clerks or workers to Novorossia, everyone, without distinction of religion, should be given passports and an escort; and if three or four people wishing to go to Petersburg arrive from Mitava, then they must be provided with passports without indicating nationality, without asking them about religion; for certification personally, they will present a letter from the merchant Levin Wolf, who is in St. Petersburg. she added with her own hand: “If you don’t understand me, then I won’t be guilty: this letter was written by the president of the guardianship office himself; keep everything a secret. "The Novorossiysk merchants meant Jews. From Mitava, Major Rtishchev brought 7 Jews to St. Petersburg; two of them, David Levi Bamberger (see) and Moses Aaron, as well as Veniamin Ber, who did not go to St. Petersburg, received the authority to deal with the resettlement of Jews in Novorossia in Riga under the leadership of Levin Wolf. This episode indicates that E., aware of the commercial and industrial importance of the Jews, considered them a useful element for the state. In 1769, allowing the Greeks, Armenians, and others sent from the army to settle in Russia, E. allowed such Jews to move to New Russia. E. showed her favorable attitude towards the Jews to the fullest extent when, with the first partition of Poland, she took under her scepter Belarus with a large Jewish population. In the poster on August 11, 1772, about the annexation of the region, there were lines specially dedicated to the Jews: living in the cities and lands annexed to the Russian Empire will be left and preserved with all those freedoms that they now enjoy in the discussion of the law and their property: for the philanthropy of Her Imperial Majesty does not allow them alone to be excluded from the general mercy and future welfare under blessed by Her Power, as long as they, for their part, with subject obedience, like loyal subjects, live and in real trades and crafts, according to their ranks, will be treated. [Book. Golitsyn in his "History of Russian law." stated that the words "according to their ranks" E. wanted to say "as citizens with no full rights". This fabrication is already refuted by the fact that the same manifesto on the annexation of Podolia and Volhynia clearly defined the meaning said words: "engaged, as before, in trade and crafts." Yes, and the local authorities understood these words properly - as long as the Jews will be treated "in their auctions and trades according to their custom."]. By this manifesto, the Jews were not equalized in rights with the rest of the new subjects; the Jews were reserved only the right to exercise faith and use property; in relation to other inhabitants, moreover, it was stipulated that each state would enjoy the rights of "ancient" subjects throughout the entire space of the empire. It is possible that in this case Catherine II was guided by caution; in any case, the rights of the Jews were soon so expanded that, constituting a separate group in Poland, remote from the general civil and political life, the Jews became in Russia citizens. In 1772, at the suggestion of the Belarusian governor-general gr. Chernyshev, a kahal organization was introduced, which had long existed in Poland, and the Jews were subject to a special tax. But after the Jews received the right to join the merchant class in 1780, E. personally explained to the procurator-general that with regard to the payment by the merchant class of interest on capital, "the confession of the merchants should not serve as a reason for any difference"; and on May 3, 1783, an order was issued that the Jews were taxed according to the state in which they would be registered (merchants or philistines). Along with taxes, the Jews were equalized in rights with other merchants and bourgeoisie in the field of estate-city self-government, which at that time covered the life of the urban commercial and industrial class very widely, in connection with which the functions of the kahal were limited - "Jewish kahals, in county towns and those who are provincial, should not concern themselves with any other matters, except for the rites of the law and their worship "(1795). When the Christian society began to prevent the election of Jews to the positions of city government, E. in a special letter addressed to the governor-general Passek (May 13, 1783 d.) demanded the restoration of their rights (see City self-government). Equality of Jews before the law - this principle E. tried to carry out on all issues of Jewish life. In 1785, Belarusian Jewry, represented by a deputation that arrived in St. Petersburg, appealed to the empress with a complaint about the violation of their rights by the local administration. E. sent a complaint to the Senate, and instructed her secretary, Count Bezborodko, to convey to the Prosecutor General that "when the people designated by the Jewish law entered, already on the basis of Her Majesty's decrees, into a state equal to others, then and in every case it is necessary to observe the rule established by Her Majesty that everyone, according to his rank and status, should enjoy the benefits by us and by rights, without distinction between law and people." In accordance with this, the decree of the Senate on May 7, 1786 (incorrectly referred to by some researchers as the "Regulations of 1786") was passed, which determined some of the rights of the Jews. Incidentally, the decree canceled the eviction of Jews from the counties to the cities, which was supported by the Empress, who sought to create commercial and industrial centers, for which purpose the Jews were a desirable element. The rights granted to Belarusian Jews were also extended to Hebrew. population of the provinces annexed under the second and third partitions of Poland. - A new direction was taken by E.'s policy in the Jewish question in 1791, when, following complaints from the Moscow and Smolensk merchants, E. recognized that Jews did not have the right to join the merchants in the inner provinces, since this right belongs to them only within Belarus; at the same time, the empress extended the right of "citizenship" to the Yekaterinoslav governorship and to the Tauride province. This law established the so-called "Pale of Settlement", although the name itself did not yet exist. Three years later, for unknown reasons, the Jews were taxed (high decree on June 23, 1794) with a double tax compared to the rest of the population (there is an assumption that E. wanted to encourage the Jews in this way to settle New Russia). An exception was made for the Karaites, so that Jews known as "rabbis" would not enter their society; at the same time, the Tauride Governor-General was granted other relief to the Karaites. Somewhat later, E. approved the limitation of Jews in the estate-city self-government introduced in the Minsk province. - It should be noted that with the transition of the Jews to Russian citizenship in the acts emanating from the Empress, the word "Jew" disappears. - Archival materials relating to the life of the Jews in the era of E., have not yet been developed at all, and this circumstance, in connection with the contradictions that E. discovered as a sovereign and as a thinker, does not make it possible to fully clarify her personal attitude towards the Jews. - Cf .: Golitsyn, "History of Russian laws. About Jews"; Gradovsky, "Trade and other rights of the Jews" (the text of the manifesto on the accession of Belarus is given); Orshansky, "Russian Law. About Jews"; Gessen, "Jews in Russia"; Buchholtz, Geschichte der Juden in Riga; "On the History of Western Russian Hebrew", "Jewish Library", IV.

(Heb. enc.)

Catherine II

As a writer, she is a representative of that noble didactics, which is especially characteristic of the Russian 18th century. She understood her writing as a tool for popularizing the ideas of enlightened absolutism, which she defended during the first, "liberal" period of her reign. Most of her works are satires. Expressing the aspirations of the large aristocratic nobility, E. directs the edge of his satire, on the one hand, against the middle and small nobility, ridiculing the lack of culture and blind imitation of the French, and, on the other hand, against attempts self analysis public issues emerging bourgeois intelligentsia. Knowledge of the life of the urban and provincial nobility was transferred to E. by the writers around her, in cooperation with whom she wrote her compositions. In general, the authorship of E. is not completely covered by her name. Initially, she acted as a journalist, founding in 1769 the magazine "Vssakaya Vsyachina", where she wrote several notes ("Letter of Patr. Pravdomyslov", etc.). Since 1772, E. wrote a number of comedies, among which it should be noted: "Oh, time", "Name day of Mrs. Vorchalkina", "Mrs. V.estnikova with her family", "Think like this, but do it differently." In 1783, E. takes a close part in the journal Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word, published by Prince. Dashkova "dependant of the Imperial Academy of Sciences", in which E. was essentially an unspoken editor. Here her articles are published under the general title "There were also fables" - satirical notes on various topics, mainly about the mores of that time, partly directed against the courtiers around her (I. Shuvalov, Choglokov). She also wrote comic operas ("The Unfortunate Hero", "Novgorod Hero"), utopian tales ("Chlorine", "Fevey"), in which she expounded her views on the tasks of education, "historical ideas" (about Rurik, Oleg, Igor). It should be noted the struggle of E. with Freemasonry [comedies - "Deceiver", "Seduced", "Shamai Siberian", also parodies of Masonic Lodge- "The secret of the anti-absurd society (Anti-absurde), discovered by the uninvolved on it"]. Poorly understanding the essence of the doctrine and classifying both the shaman and Cagliostro among his followers, E. feels his connection with the "left" currents, with which she later, frightened by the French revolution, will fight with more effective means (Radishchev's exile to Siberia, Novikov's imprisonment in Shlisselburg ).

E.'s purely literary works should be distinguished from her works of a historical-journalistic nature and translations (Instruction, Notes on Russian History, Velizar, Mémoires, and others). Not representing great literary value, E.'s comedies are of interest to Ch. arr. contained in them journalistic content and a light satirical depiction of the then noble customs. Building on normal type Comedies of the 18th century, with their uncomplicated love affair, exaggeratedly comic characters and dexterous servants ("confidants"), uttering moralizing maxims, they ridicule hypocrisy, gossip, superstition, stinginess, panache, imitation of the French, etc. The most successful types are: bigots - Khanzhakhina, gossip - Vestnikova, projector - Nekopeikin, petimeter - Firlyufyushkov, etc. Despite the participation of Russian writers in the work on E.'s comedies, the language of the latter is not always correct; however, it is close to colloquial. She herself stubbornly defended the simplification of speech ("Testament" in "Interlocutor": "Short and clear expressions should be preferred to long and round ones ... whoever writes, think in Russian, do not take up words from foreign languages, do not use eloquence anywhere. .." etc.). Authorship E. for a long time hidden from the public.

Bibliography: I. Sochin. E. based on original manuscripts and with explanatory notes by A. N. Pypin (after his death, edited by A. Barskov) published by the Academy of Sciences in 1901-1908, in 12 vols. This edition includes many previously unpublished works by E., autobiographical notes and detailed notes are given on individual plays and translations into foreign languages.

P. Pypin A., History of Russian literature, vol. IV, ed. 4th, St. Petersburg, 1913 (Ch. I - II, here is the bibliography, ed. 1st, St. Petersburg, 1889).

III. Neustroev A., Historical search for Russian time-based editions and collections for 1703-1802, St. Petersburg, 1874; his own, "Index" to the named work, St. Petersburg, 1898; Golitsyn N., book., Bibliographic dictionary of Russian writers, St. Petersburg, 1889; Mezier A., ​​Russian literature from the 11th to the 19th centuries. inclusive, part 2, St. Petersburg, 1902; Vengerov S., Sources of the Dictionary of Russian Writers, vol. II, St. Petersburg, 1910.

(Lit. Enz.)

Big biographical encyclopedia. - THE GREAT (1729 1796), Russian Empress, born Sophia Frederick August Anhalt Zerbst. She was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in Stettin (Prussian Pomerania). The daughter of the ruler of the small Anhalt of the Zerbst principality, Christian Augustus and ... ... Collier Encyclopedia

The Great Empress, whose reforms are compared with the activities of Peter. Writer and publisher. Patron and collector. A subtle psychologist and a ruler who brutally suppressed riots. What was she really like? A selection of books about Catherine 2 (the Great) will tell about her personality, reign time, and reforms. Their authors, based on reliable sources: documents and letters stored in the archives of different countries, make up a portrait of the Empress and describe the era of her reign, the life of the nobility and serfs. Among the books about Catherine 2 (the Great) there are many fiction novels, the authors of which offer the reader their own view on the activities and personality of the empress.

Catherine the Great — N. Ivanov, P. N. Krasnov, E. A. Salias
The book, which includes 2 historical stories and a novel, the main character of which was the great Empress Catherine II. They describe the difficult time before her accession to the throne, marked by conspiracies, overt struggle for power and military campaigns.

Catherine the Great - Virginia Rounding
A book that tells about the childhood, youth and family of Princess Fike, her great desire to become the Empress of Russia, marriage, life in a foreign country, the birth of her son. Personal life and emotions, experiences are not Grand Empress, a ordinary woman. The book contains excerpts from personal letters.

Empress' mistake. Catherine and Potemkin - Pisarenko K.A.
Empress Catherine - a wise and prudent ruler, an imperious and demanding woman - in this novel appears before the reader in an unusual way. Doubting and careless, jealous and dependent on her men, she surprises and makes you empathize.

Illustrated history of Catherine II - Brikner Alexander Gustavovich
The book of the Russian historian Brikner, containing a large number of engravings, images of wood ornaments and excerpts from letters, consists of 3 volumes that tell about the path of the future empress to the throne, her domestic and foreign policy. Was published in 1885.

Catherine the Great - Caroly Erickson
A book based on the memoirs of Catherine II. A peculiar artistic biography of the Great Russian Empress, in which much attention is paid to her childhood, marriage and personal life, her favorites, tells about the extraordinary ability to surround herself with the right people.

Catherine II the Great: encyclopedia - Volpe M.L.
A popular encyclopedia aimed at a wide readership and collected all the most significant and interesting studies of Russian historians about the Great Empress Catherine, who strengthened the statehood, expanded the territory of the country, and the difficult era of her reign.

Catherine the Great. Heart of the Empress - Maria Romanova
Without claiming historical authenticity, the author creates a multifaceted, vibrant world \" gallant age\", telling about the life and reign amazing woman, who loved life very much, and the people she loved, and describing everyday pictures of court life.

The truth about the "golden age" of Catherine - Andrey Burovsky
The reverse side of the medal of the reign of Catherine II. Here you will not find praise for the empress, on the contrary, the author notes her mistakes and incompetence in some matters, talks about the falsification of documents, as well as the meanness and intrigues of the nobility and the lack of rights of serfs.

Catherine the Great - Olga Eliseeva
Biographical novel about the life and reign of Catherine II. The heyday of the nobility, the expansion of the territories of Russia, the strengthening of power, reforms and at the same time mysterious death Perth III, the seizure of power, the brutal suppression of riots and conspiracies of high-ranking nobles. Contradictory and mysterious era.

Around the throne of Catherine the Great - Zinaida Chirkova
The novel is dedicated to the immediate environment of the Empress. Catherine II distributed almost all important positions to her favorites and true friends. Despite this, there were always people around her who tried to manipulate the queen through her men, but she always remained loyal to Russia.

Catherine the Great - Nikolai Pavlenko
Book famous historian N. Pavlenko is devoted to the study of the history of the reign of Empress Catherine, who ruled autocratically in Russia for 34 years. Her plans and accomplishments, personal life, relationships with courtiers and nobility, as well as the fate of the entire Empire in this turbulent time.

Passion of Northern Messalina — Elena Arsenyeva
The personal life of the Empress comes to the fore in this book. Unfulfilled dreams and hopes of young Fike and disappointment in the men of Catherine II. In the center of the story is the crazy love of the Empress and Alexander Lanskoy and her experiences after his death.

Catherine the Great. Romance of the Empress - Kazimir Valiszewski
A historical novel by the Polish historian Waliszewski about the Great Empress, about whom odes were composed during her lifetime. French philosophers were good friends with her, and soldiers went into battle with her name on their lips. Catherine II is an ambiguous personality which causes a lot of controversy among researchers.

The last love of Catherine the Great - Natalia Pavlishcheva
A historical novel that tells about the relationship of the Great Empress with her last favorites: Lansky, whom she truly fell in love with, Dmitriev-Mamonov, who was burdened by their relationship, Platon Zubov, who turned out to be the most cunning and prudent of her lovers.

Catherine the Great and her family - Voldemar Balyazin
Catherine takes the throne, having made a palace coup with the help of the Orlov brothers. Having become the empress, she rules harshly, but fairly. After her death, power passes to her son, Paul I, who knows how to make enemies. His reign lasted 5 years. He was killed by conspirators

Favorites of Catherine the Great - Nina Matveevna Sorotokina
Educated, strong-willed, with an easy character and a good sense of humor, Catherine did a lot for the development of Russia. Both Russian and foreign historians have always written about this. But now books devoted to the personal life of the Empress and the whole army of her favorites have become very popular.

Catherine II without retouching
A publication that includes memories of the Great Empress of her loved ones, confidants, based on personal correspondence and little-known testimonies. It will show what Catherine was like in everyday life, evaluate her actions with an open mind and see the results of her reign in a new way.

Naval commanders and navigators of Catherine the Great - Mikhail Tsiporukha
The Great Empress Catherine favorably treated research activities to study the seas located in remote regions of Russia. During her reign, the fleet, shipbuilding developed, much attention was paid to the training of naval commanders.

Catherine the Great. Biography — Gina Kaus
Biographical novel by the Austro-American writer Gina Kaus (Regina Wiener), describing the main milestones in the life of Catherine II. Reliable facts in it are intertwined with fiction. Vivid pictures of the life of the Russian state are drawn, people who surrounded the empress are described.

Great Catherine - Sergey Petrovich Alekseev
Stories for children of the famous Russian writer S.P. Alekseev about the life and work of the Russian Empress Catherine II, consisting of 5 parts, telling about her childhood, arrival in Russia, political and economic reforms, development of the army and navy.

Seven mysteries of Catherine 2, or Mistakes of youth - Nina Moleva
The reign of this great woman was marked by major transformations in politics, economics, architecture and art. But at the same time Catherine's age left behind many mysteries, to this day unsolved by scientists.

Voyage of Catherine II, or Lieutenant in Love - Nina Moleva
Grigory Potemkin introduced the Empress to the works of the portrait painter Borovikovsky. Personally, they never met, but Catherine favored him. Vasily Kapnist, who suspected the artist in connection with his wife, did everything so that the monarch would stop patronizing him.

Catherine II - Alexander Bushkov
The book is a study of the reign of Catherine the Great. The flourishing of statehood, culture, art. This is a time filled with the most important events in Russian history, which made our state one of the most powerful powers.

Catherine the Great - Olga Tchaikovskaya
One of the best books about Catherine the Great, telling about the achievements of her reign (economic reforms, expansion of territories, development of the army and navy, culture, etc.) and its shortcomings (enslavement of peasants, brutal suppression of riots, illiteracy, favoritism).

Catherine II in the memoirs of contemporaries, assessments of historians - Morgan Rakhmatullin
A book consisting of real memories of the Empress by her contemporaries and people who personally knew Catherine. Derzhavin, Shcherbatov, Rulier, Klyuchevsky, Bilbasov and others gave their assessments of the activities of the empress, her ability to govern the country, as well as her personality as a whole.

Empress of love. There were also tales about Catherine II - Mikhail Volpe
This book is more entertaining than historical. It consists of stories about the personal life of the Great Empress Catherine (curious and not at all funny cases). Some of them are confirmed by various historical sources while others are fictional.

Secrets of the era of Catherine II - A. V. Shishov
The book tells about the empress's path to power, the reforms carried out during her reign, describes the wars that were waged during these years, paying attention to little-known ones (the redistribution of Poland, the Persian campaign), talks about the personality of Catherine and her faithful companions. Catherine II and her world. Articles from different years - David Griffiths
We bring to your attention a beautifully illustrated collection of articles by Griffiths (popular, little known and published for the first time), in which the author analyzes the change over time in the political and diplomatic views of Empress Catherine II.

Legislation of Empress Catherine II. 1783-1796 - Vladimir Tomsinov
This book is a great help to students and teachers of history or Faculty of Law. It contains the most important laws and decrees issued by the Empress, for example, the decree "On the establishment of the Russian Academy" or "On the rules for the production of civil ranks".

Empress Catherine II. Her Life and Reign - Brikner A.
The historical study of the scientist, historian A. Brikner will introduce you to the life of Catherine the Great. This woman incomprehensibly combined a cruel ruler, a subtle psychologist, a wise politician and legislator, and a passionate, loving woman with a very difficult fate.

Secrets of the golden age of Catherine II. Courtiers, Freemasons, Favorites - Nina Moleva
Catherine's era keeps many mysteries. Palace intrigues, a mysterious Masonic order, guards loyal to the Empress... This book lifts the veil of mystery, telling about this time on behalf of Fyodor Rokotov, who personally knew Catherine II, her husband and son

Works of Catherine II - Catherine II
A creative person who loves to write, educated - Catherine left behind a huge number of memoirs, fairy tales, comedies, essays, the Project of a New Position she personally compiled, letters that she wrote to Voltaire, Potemkin and others. This book includes her selected works.

Secret notes about Russia during the reign of Catherine II and Paul I - C. Masson
A unique book of memoirs of a Frenchman who lived for several years in Russia. Before the reader is an inside look at court life, which the author characterizes vividly and often impartially, and the images of an enlightened ruler and her unbalanced son.

Catherine II. A novel about the Russian empress - Pavel Muruzi
A documentary novel about the Russian Empress Catherine II. The German princess marries Peter III, comes to power as a result of a coup and, thanks to her activities, becomes the most famous ruler of the Russian Empire.

Catherine II and Louis XVI. Russian-French relations, 1774-1792 - Cherkasov P.P.
The book tells how relations between Russia and France developed at the end of the 18th century, about the "Russian" policy of Louis XVI and the "French" policy of Catherine II, as well as the similarities and differences in the positions of the two great powers on political issues and the attitude of the empress to the revolution in France.

The history of the reign of Catherine II - M. Lyubavsky
The book is a course of lectures by the historian M. Lyubavsky on the history of the Catherine era, recommended to students and teachers. The appendix to the book contains short story on the reign of Paul I, the activities of Prince Konstantin and the development of relations between Russia and Poland

The Black Sea Fleet during the reign of Catherine II. Volume 1 - Galina Grebenshchikova
The first volume of the monograph devoted to the study of the origin of the fleet in the Catherine era. It is based on archival documents carefully studied by the author. The book describes the tasks that were set for the fleet, and the problems that arose during its construction.

Catherine II in 90 minutes - Medvedko Yu.
A book from the \"In 90 minutes\" series, which simply and clearly tells about the important stages in the development of our country in different periods stories. This book is dedicated to the most famous Empress of Russia. Curriculum vitae, reforms, foreign and domestic politics and the people surrounding Catherine.

Testament of Catherine II - Mikhail Safonov
There is a version that after the death of Catherine the Great, Paul I and the Chief Chamberlain found a will, which stated that her grandson Alexander should become the heir. But the future king with his assistant destroyed him. So was there a will, and what are people ready for for the sake of power?

Catherine II - Helen Carrer d\'Encausse
Catherine II - german princess, wife of Peter lll - as a result palace coup becomes the Empress. During her reign, she managed to make Russian empire one of the most powerful states. She fell in love with Russia with all her heart and always acted in her interests.

\"It was time: Catherine's age ...\". Catherine II and the Crimea. According to the pages of documents - Malenko A. Yu.
The Crimean issue was at first undeservedly underestimated, but over time, attitudes towards it began to change. A book based on authentic historical documents, allows you to see these changes and follow the activities of Catherine associated with this peninsula.

Empress Catherine II and her hunting lodge - Grigory Shenkman
Catherine II was not only a prudent politician and a wise ruler, but also a very passionate woman. There are legends about her favorites, but few people know that it was she who instilled in the Russian court a love of hunting. The author introduces us to her hunting lodge, which has survived to this day.

Empress Catherine the Great: Encyclopedia
In this book, you can find answers to any questions regarding the biography and activities of Catherine the Great, who during her reign strengthened the power of the state, concluded the most important treaties that were fateful for the country and increased Russia's political influence on other states.

Catherine the Great - Orlova Nina Vasilievna
Children's book about Catherine II from the series "History of Russia". It is written in easy-to-understand language artwork, complemented by beautiful illustrations and contains famous and little known facts about the life and reign of the Great Empress.

Catherine the Great - Henri Troyat
Book French writer of Russian origin from the series \"Russian biographies\", repeatedly published in several languages ​​of the world. It tells in detail about the life and work of Empress Catherine the Great, who made Russia a developed and powerful state.

Empress Catherine the Great - Anisimov E.
People who perceived themselves as one generation: old people who remembered Perth, young men, peers last favorite empresses, girls who had just come out into the world ... A special Catherine's generation, whose name was given by an extraordinary woman, wise and tough, who sincerely loved Russia.

Catherine the Great. The Secret Life of the Empress - Olga Eliseeva
During the reign of Empress Catherine, the most important treaties for the country were concluded, Russia's influence on its neighbors increased significantly, art and architecture developed, the fleet and army became invincible. All this is the political life of Catherine II, and there was also a personal one ...

Catherine the Great - Mikhail Volkonsky
Few people know that the path to the Russian throne for Catherine the Great was predetermined even before her wedding with Peter. An amazing man, Count Saint-Germain paved the way to the throne of the future empress. Who is he? What was the purpose of helping a German princess become the queen of Russia?

Catherine the Great: A Novel - Ivanov V.N.
The young German princess, having arrived in Russia, not only studied Russian, she tried to learn how to be Russian. For the sake of the throne, she sacrificed her dreams of female happiness and motherhood, and was able to become a ruler who opened the golden age of Russian history.

Age of Catherine the Great - Gennady Obolensky
She was considered the heiress of Peter I, who not only continued his undertakings, but managed to bring Russia to the level of development European states. Strengthening of power, development of the army, navy, culture ... How she achieved this and who helped her, the book of G. Obolensky will tell.

Catherine the Great. Personality and Age - Erich Donnert
The author of the book, German historian Erich Donnert, talking about Catherine, focuses on her love for Russian culture. During her reign, much attention was paid to painting, theater, architecture. The Empress personally supported the talented people of her era, developing the culture as a whole.

We bring to your attention the section of the article about Catherine the Great from the site www.rusempire.ru, which tells about this little-known talent of the Russian Empress.

Gifted with literary talent, receptive and sensitive to the phenomena of life around her, Catherine took an active part in the literature of her time. The literary movement she initiated was devoted to the development of enlightenment ideas of the 18th century. Thoughts on education, briefly outlined in one of the chapters of the "Order", were subsequently developed in detail by Catherine in allegorical tales: "About Tsarevich Chlor" (1781) and "About Tsarevich Fevey" (1782) and, mainly, in "Instructions to Prince N . Saltykov, "given when he was appointed tutor of the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich (1784).

The pedagogical ideas expressed in these works, Catherine mainly borrowed from Montaigne and Locke: from the first she took a general view of the goals of education, the second she used in developing particulars. Guided by Montaigne, Catherine puts forward the moral element in the first place in education - the rooting in the soul of humanity, justice, respect for the laws, indulgence towards people. At the same time, it requires that the mental and physical aspects of education receive proper development.

Personally leading the upbringing of her grandchildren up to the age of seven, she compiled an entire educational library for them. For the Grand Dukes, Catherine also wrote Notes on Russian History.

In purely fictional writings, to which a magazine article and dramatic works belong, Catherine is much more original than in writings of a pedagogical and legislative nature. Pointing to the actual contradictions to the ideals that existed in society, her comedies and satirical articles were to greatly contribute to the development of public consciousness, making more understandable the importance and expediency of the reforms she was undertaking. The beginning of Catherine's public literary activity dates back to 1769, when she was an active collaborator and inspirer of the satirical magazine Vsyakaya Vsyachina.

The patronizing tone adopted by "Vsyaskaya Vsyachina" in relation to other journals, and the instability of its direction, soon armed almost all the journals of that time against it; her main opponent was the bold and direct "Drone" N.I. Novikov. The latter's sharp attacks on judges, governors, and prosecutors strongly displeased Vsyakaya Vsyachina; who conducted the controversy against Trutnya in this journal cannot be said positively, but it is reliably known that one of the articles directed against Novikov belongs to the empress herself.

Between 1769 and 1783, when Catherine again acted as a journalist, she wrote five comedies, and between them her best plays: "On Time" and "Name Day of Mrs. Vorchalkina."

The purely literary merits of Catherine's comedies are not high: there is little action in them, the intrigue is too simple, the denouement is monotonous. They are written in the spirit and model of contemporary French comedies, in which the servants are more developed and intelligent than their masters. But at the same time, in Catherine's comedies, purely Russian social vices are ridiculed and Russian types appear. Bigotry, superstition, bad education, the pursuit of fashion, blind imitation of the French - these are the topics that Catherine developed in her comedies. These themes had already been outlined earlier by our satirical magazines of 1769 and, among other things, by Vsyakoy Vsachina; but what was presented in the magazines in the form of separate pictures, characterizations, sketches, in Catherine's comedies received a more solid and vivid image.

The types of the miserly and heartless hypocrite Khanzhakhina, the superstitious gossip Vestnikova in the comedy "On Time", the petimeter Firlyufyushkov and the projector Nekopeikov in the comedy "Name Day of Mrs. Vorchalkina" are among the most successful in Russian comic literature XVIII century. Variations of these types are repeated in the rest of Catherine's comedies. By 1783, Catherine was actively involved in the Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word, published at the Academy of Sciences, edited by Princess E.R. Dashkova. Here Catherine placed a number of satirical articles, entitled by the common name "Tales and Fables".

Initially, the purpose of these articles was, apparently, a satirical depiction of the weaknesses and ridiculous aspects of the society of the contemporary empress, and the originals for such portraits were often taken by the empress from among those close to her. Soon, however, "There were Fables" began to serve as a reflection of the magazine life of the "Interlocutor". Ekaterina was the unspoken editor of this magazine; as can be seen from her correspondence with Dashkova, she was still reading in manuscript many of the articles sent for publication in the journal. Some of these articles touched her to the core: she entered into polemics with their authors, often making fun of them.

For the reading public, Catherine's participation in the magazine was not a secret; Articles and letters were often sent to the address of the writer of "Tales and Tales" in which rather transparent hints were made. Catherine tried as much as possible to keep her composure and not betray her incognito; only once, enraged by Fonvizin's "impudent and reprehensible" questions, did she so vividly express her irritation in "Facts and Fables" that Fonvizin found it necessary to hasten with a letter of repentance.

In addition to "Tales and Tales", Catherine placed in the "Interlocutor" several small polemical and satirical articles, for the most part ridiculing the pompous writings of random collaborators of the "Interlocutor" - Lyuboslov and Count S.P. Rumyantsev. One of these articles ("The Society of the Unknowing Daily Note"), in which Princess Dashkova saw a parody of the meetings of the Russian Academy, which, in her opinion, had just been founded, served as the reason for the termination of Catherine's participation in the magazine.

In subsequent years (1785-1790), Catherine wrote 13 plays, not counting dramatic proverbs in French intended for the Hermitage theatre.

Masons had long attracted the attention of Catherine. According to her, she thoroughly familiarized herself with the vast Masonic literature and found nothing in Freemasonry but "folly". The stay in St. Petersburg (in 1780) of Cagliostro, whom she called a scoundrel worthy of the gallows, armed her even more against the Masons. Receiving disturbing news about the ever-increasing influence of Moscow Masonic circles, seeing among her close associates many followers and defenders of Masonic teachings, Catherine decided to fight this "folly" with a literary weapon and within two years (1785-86) wrote three comedies (" Deceiver", "Seduced" and "Siberian Shaman"), in which she ridiculed Freemasonry. Only in the comedy "Seduced" are there life features reminiscent of Moscow Freemasons. "Deceiver" directed against Cagliostro. In The Siberian Shaman, Ekaterina, obviously unfamiliar with the essence of Masonic teachings, did not hesitate to reduce it to the same level as shamanic tricks.

Catherine's satire did not have much effect: Freemasonry continued to develop, and in order to deal him a decisive blow, the Empress no longer resorted to meek methods of correction, as she called her satire, but to harsh and decisive administrative measures.

In all likelihood, Catherine's acquaintance with Shakespeare, in French or German translation, also belongs to the indicated time. She remade "Windsor Gossips" for the Russian stage, but this reworking turned out to be extremely weak and very little resembles a genuine Shakespeare. In imitation of his historical chronicles, she composed two plays from the life of Rurik and Oleg. The main significance of these "Historical Representations", which are extremely weak in literary terms, lies in the political and moral ideas that Catherine puts into the mouths of the characters. Of course, these are the thoughts of Catherine herself.

In comic operas, Catherine did not pursue any serious goal: these were situation plays in which the main role was played by the musical and choreographic side. Plots for operas are taken, for the most part, from folk tales and epics known to her from manuscript collections. Only "Unfortunate Hero Kosometovich", despite its fabulous character, contains an element of modernity: this opera put the Swedish king Gustav III in a comic light, who at that time opened hostile actions against Russia, and was removed from the repertoire immediately after the conclusion of peace with Sweden. Catherine's French plays, the so-called "proverbs" - small one-act plays, the plots of which were, for the most part, episodes from modern life. They are not of great importance, repeating the themes and types already introduced in other comedies by Catherine.

Catherine herself did not attach importance to her literary activities. “I look at my writings,” she wrote to Grimm, “as if they were trifles. I like to make experiments in all kinds, but it seems to me that everything I wrote is rather mediocre, why, apart from entertainment, I did not attach any importance to it.”

Catherine's literary works were published twice in 1893, edited by V.F. Solntsev and A.I. Vvedensky. complete collection Catherine's essay in 12 volumes was published by the Academy of Sciences in 1901-1908, first edited by A.N. Pypin, and after his death - Ya. Barskova. This edition includes many previously unpublished works by Catherine and her autobiographical notes.

The literary activity of Catherine II lasted for about a quarter of a century and was unusually plentiful, more plentiful than the writings of Frederick II, with whom Catherine competed both as a “philosopher on the throne” and as a monarch-writer. In this rivalry, she, no doubt, had an advantage also because she wrote her works mostly by herself, without significant outside help, in contrast to Friedrich, and because she wrote them in the vast majority in the language of her subjects, while prussian king, himself a natural German, openly despised German culture and German and wrote his works in French. Catherine wrote down a truly monstrous amount of paper in her life. She herself, not without boastful coquetry, spoke of her inherent graphomania. At the same time, one should not forget about the huge amount of official documents and business papers, as well as private letters that came out from under her pen. She wrote laws, extremely long laws, whole volumes of legislative

regulations, she herself wrote rescripts to nobles, generals, clerics, with her own hand she wrote a huge number of letters to her employees, friends, girlfriends, lovers and many, many others. Most of her letters to Russian people are written in Russian. She wrote to her acquaintances and correspondents abroad in French, less often in German. Of all these languages, she was, of course, the most fluent in German. She lived in Russia for more than fifty years, all this time she spoke and wrote in Russian, but she never learned to speak Russian correctly. She was not only primitively illiterate in Russian (she wrote “ischo” instead of “still”, “zaut” instead of “name”, etc.), but she also could not

assimilate Russian declension names, did not know how to correctly apply agreement, got confused in the genders of nouns, etc. Meanwhile, with great aplomb, she undertook to talk about Russian and did not even hesitate to correct the style of Russian writers, for example, Vasily Petrov. And this was not simply a consequence of her intoxication with her power; she really possessed both taste and a general lively sense of language. She knew well the elements of live colloquial Russian speech, remembered and knew how to apply many Russian proverbs, sayings, idiomatic expressions, characteristic everyday words and phrases. Therefore, her Russian language is a strange mixture, on the one hand, of difficult and irregular constructions and forms, on the other hand, of lively colors, not devoid of richness and colloquial character. It goes without saying that obvious errors in her language, as well as spelling, were corrected for publication by her secretaries (as in the writing of rescripts and other official papers), who generally assisted her in her literary work. Such employees and editors of Catherine were: first I. P. Elagin and G. V. Kozitsky, then A. V. Khrapovitsky, all three were prominent Russian writers. French texts Catherine was corrected by her close Count A.P. Shuvalov, who himself wrote French poetry, which was highly valued even in Paris. For all that, the cooperation of these assistants never replaced the authorial work of the Empress herself and did not extend beyond editing her manuscripts - and then editing almost exclusively grammatical - or further selecting materials for her works of an allegedly scientific nature, or for editing excerpts of other people's poems included in her operas. .

Catherine II - Legislator in the Temple of Justice

Catherine's literary work was very diverse in character, in genres, although it was united in its ideological orientation, according to the political tendency sharply expressed in all her works. She wrote magazine articles and feuilletons for the press, published under her more or less direct supervision; she also appeared in "foreign" magazines; so, she placed an article and a letter to the editor in N. I. Novikov's "The Painter" hostile to her. She wrote the most extensive quasi-scientific work on the history of Russia, wrote children's fairy tales and essays on pedagogy, intended for the education of her grandchildren Alexander and Konstantin, but, of course, had a wider purpose, addressed to the reader in general. She wrote to in large numbers dramatic works, comedies, historical dramas, comic operas. In her literary heritage, dramaturgy occupies central location both quantitatively and in terms of the attention that Catherine herself paid to her. In total, 25 finished (or almost finished) of her theatrical plays and individual excerpts from 7 plays have come down to us; at the same time, it was established that several more plays were not preserved. She did not write at all and could not, Catherine did not know how to write poetry, but she had a real passion for prose.

Catherine's works in all these genres are written in Russian. In addition, she owns many works written in French. Among them, the most famous were Western Europe and in Russia, her letters to the philosophers of the Enlightenment, first and foremost to Voltaire, then to Diderot, Grimm, and others. These are not just private letters, but a kind of literary works, essays and feuilletons, which are given only the form of private letters. They make judgments about current political events and phenomena. cultural life, autobiographical sketches, sketches of Russian life, mostly courtly, cheerful chatter about this and that, witticisms, skits, etc. Catherine's correspondence with Voltaire after the death of both correspondents was published repeatedly both in the original and in Russian translation.

Catherine's polemical works were also written and published in French: her great work"Antidote" (Antidote) and "The Secret of the Anti-Absolute Society". The first of these books is a detailed polemical exposé of the French astronomer Abbé Chappe d'Autroche's Journey to Siberia (1768), which contained a sharp and unfair attack on Russia, Russian society and the people, as well as just attacks on the feudal and despotic way of the Russian state. Refuting Chappe, Catherine defended both the Russian people and herself personally. Her book combines informative and rich in facts essays on Russian life, everyday life, geography, economics, culture with rather unceremonious lies in proving the bliss of Russia under the scepter of its monarchs, the presence in Russia of all kinds of freedoms, etc. The Antidote was published anonymously in 1770 (second time 1771-1772).

"The secret of the anti-absurd society, revealed to the uninvolved on it" - a satirical pamphlet directed against Freemasonry, Masonic organizations and containing a parody of the rites, emblems and teachings of the Masons. It was published not only in French, but also in German and Russian in 1780. A Russian translation from the French original, made by A. V. Khrapovitsky, was published with a false mark - 1759. Finally, Catherine wrote in French his unfinished memoirs and rather numerous memoir passages. The memoirs of Catherine, brought to the point of her accession to the throne, are written vividly and not without observation, and constitute, perhaps, the most interesting part of all that she wrote. They were not intended to be published, at least not during her lifetime, nor soon after her death; therefore, Catherine in them is more simple, natural and truthful than in her other works.

The French writings of Catherine II do not, in fact, belong to the history of Russian literature. Perhaps her Russian works would not have taken any noticeable place in it if the empress had not been their author. Catherine's passion for writing did not in the least correspond to her literary talent, about the degree of which there can be no two opinions. Catherine did not have writing talent, did not even have serious abilities. Big literary experience helped her in the end to write a tolerable play, but no more than that. Her plays and other works rarely reach even the average level of ordinary literary production of that time. Nevertheless, Catherine's work is not without a peculiar interest both for the history of literature and for the history of Russian society in general. Firstly, it is interesting precisely because it is the work of the Empress, that it is the real and official literary policy of the government, that it is the sum of works containing, so to speak, royal directives, both of a general ideological and specifically literary nature. This circumstance gave the works of Catherine a special significance and relevance for their present, explaining the great interest in them with

the side of both readers, and spectators, and writers of the 1760-1790s. People who supported power and revered it, caught every word of the empress as an indication and instruction; the advanced elements of society, opposed to the government, carefully looked at the work of the queen, as if studying the enemy, honing the weapon of attack on him; but everyone was interested in everything that the queen would write and publish. It should be pointed out that, despite the anonymity of all the speeches of Catherine II in print and on stage, contemporaries knew very well who the author of these works was. Generally speaking, in the XVIII century. the very widespread anonymity of literary publications did not in the least interfere with the awareness of the reading public about the authorship of anonymous works. Catherine, except for isolated cases, did not at all seek to hide her authorship and, on the contrary, flaunted it somewhat, which could only contribute to public interest in her works. As for the plays of the Empress, interest in them and even their success was increased by the splendor of their theatrical performances, beautiful music in operas and historical dramas, excellent acting by actors who, of course, did everything to saturate the pale text artistic images. All this led to the fact that Catherine herself was convinced that her works were a colossal success. However, she needed a little in order to deceive herself. She was surrounded at every step by such shameless flattery that she generally firmly believed in her genius in all areas. With complete calmness and not embarrassed by boasting, she wrote to her correspondents about the general enthusiasm for her writings, she herself praised them with all her might, easily compared herself with Molière, etc.

The second reason for the historical and literary interest in the works of Catherine is their polemical sharpness. They give us a glimpse of the literary, and even more generally ideological, battles of this era, sometimes very serious, politically saturated and state-important battles. Finally, the third feature of Catherine's works, which gives them historical and literary interest, is their artistic and stylistic typicality for that time. Not being a talented writer, Catherine II looked very sensitively and listened to what was being done in the field of literature both in the West and in Russia. She quickly perceived and caught the latest trends and novelties of literary life and immediately reacted to them. At the same time, Catherine not only assimilated each of the new and latest literary discoveries, trends, forms, but also tried to apply it to her own ideological tasks, that is, to adapt it to the goals of propaganda of the Russian landlord and police autocracy and court culture, to the goals of apologia for the existing regime . As a result, the main literary currents, which replaced each other in the 1760s-1790s, were consistently presented in the work of Catherine, although in a distorted, simplified, internally rebuilt form. Consequently, the literary heritage of Catherine presents a picture of the evolution of styles, artistic manners from classicism through early sentimentalism of various shades to the first trends of pre-romanticism, characteristic of this period, in a form typical of official government perception. literary processes. In this sense, the literary heritage of Catherine not only expressively represents one of the moments literary history XVIII century, but also fills in our ideas about it a gap that must inevitably appear if we do not take into account in the literature of that time that government orientation against which the progressive writers of the era fought.

Catherine appeared for the first time in print in 1767-1768. The first publication of her work was the publication of "Instruction", a book not so much journalistic as having the character of an official state act, however, purely declarative, and not practical, but still not individual literary. In 1767, during her trip along the Volga, Catherine organized with her close associates a collective translation of Marmontel's book Belisarius, which had just been published in France, a book that caused persecution by the French authorities. This translation was supposed to demonstrate to the whole of Europe the educational love of freedom of the “Semiramide of the North”. The translators of Belisarius were nobles - Count Z. G. Chernyshev, Count G. G. Orlov, S. Kozmin, A. I. Bibikov, Count V. G. Orlov and others - and writers close to the court - And P. Elagin, A. V. Naryshkin, G. V. Kozitsky, all three are students and friends of Sumarokov. Catherine herself translated the ninth chapter of the book. In 1768, the translation was published as a separate book with the title: “Velizer, the works of Mr. Marmontel, a member of the French Academy, translated on the Volga” and a dedication to Bishop Gabriel of Tver (written by Count A.P. Shuvalov). The dedication of a disgraced book to such a person was to demonstrate before Europe religious tolerance of the Russian government and the enlightening free-thinking of the Russian church - in contrast to the church authorities of France, who attacked "Belisarius" and its author. The book was then reprinted.

However, Catherine systematically took up Russian literature and took direct part in it a little later, precisely when the question arose of the need for government guardianship over the minds, government leadership social movement and open pressure on him both by measures of administrative influence, and by measures of persuasion, through the press. Thus, Vsyakaya Vyachina, a weekly magazine published in 1769 under the editorship and with the active participation of Catherine, whose assistant, most likely technical, was her secretary, the writer and philologist G.V. Kozitsky, arose. This journal arose as a kind of literary continuation of the debate in the Commission for the composition of a new code. A year and a half of the work of the Commission fully proved to Catherine that thoughts dangerous for her regime were firmly planted in the minds of her subjects. The Empress decided to influence public opinion - in order to "sober up" it - with the help of the press. She decided to take up this matter herself and, by her example, direct the criticism of reality in the direction that was acceptable to the government. At the same time, she was going to "siege" the presumptuous freethinkers.

Catherine did not hide the official nature of her journal. In the text of "All sorts of things" the reader was given quite clear hints on this score. At the same time, "Vsyakaya Vsyachina" was extraordinarily boastful. She posted many letters to the publisher, praising the magazine in every way, obsequious, shamelessly flattering. According to the assignment declared by "Vsyakaya Vsyachinoy", it was supposed to be a satirical magazine for the most part. But Catherine understood satire in her own way. She needed to fight the dissatisfied, and this had to be done in two ways: on the one hand, to condemn the claims of the opposition that were undesirable for the government, on the other, to set an example of “good-natured” satire.

"Vskhodyaschina" adheres to moderately moralistic views; she loves to moralize "in general"; political and social issues she avoids, except when she defends the government and attacks those who are dissatisfied with it. Yes, she placed sharp article against free-thinking women engaged in literature and science, i.e., against the mistresses of the salons, a kind of committees of the opposition. She attacked the "old men", detractors of modernity, committed, according to the magazine, to everything outdated, past times. "Vsyakaya Vsyachina" mocked the Moscow "projectors" and "talkers", by which they meant the liberals who were grouping precisely in Moscow, far from the government's eye. Here are the projects that these people make up, in the presentation

Collected works presented

material taken from sites http://feb-web.ru/feb/irl/il0/il4/il4-3642.htm

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekaterina_II