Vasily Klyuchevsky

and his contribution to national history

Who is he?

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (January 16, 1841, the village of Voskresenskoye, Penza province - May 12, 1911, Moscow) - one of the largest Russian historians, ordinary professor at Moscow University; Ordinary Academician of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (over staff) in Russian History and Antiquities (1900), Chairman of the Imperial Society for Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University, Privy Councillor.

Biography of the historian.

Born on January 16, 1841 in the village of Voskresenskoye, Penza district. His father, a poor country priest and clergyman, became his first teacher. He taught his son to read, write and sing from music correctly and quickly.

After the death of his father in 1850, the family moved to Penza. Despite a semi-beggarly existence, Vasily Klyuchevsky continued his education, graduating from the parish and district schools in Penza, and then entered the Penza Theological Seminary. To earn at least some money, he gave private lessons, gaining teaching experience.

But Klyuchevsky refused to become a clergyman, and in 1861, at the age of 20, he entered the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University. Vasily Osipovich studied with enthusiasm, studied comparative philology, Roman literature, and, of course, Russian history, which he was fond of since school. He read a lot, knew perfectly the works of all Russian historians, worked with sources, was aware of all the historical news published in journals. In his last years he studied Russian history under the guidance of S.M. Solovyov, and for his final essay he chose a topic related to the history of Muscovite Russia in the 15th - 17th centuries. For the essay "The Tale of Foreigners about the Muscovite State" he was awarded a gold medal. After graduating from the university in 1865 with a candidate's degree, he was left at the university to prepare for a professorship in the department of Russian history.

In 1872, Klyuchevsky defended his master's thesis on the topic "Old Russian Lives of the Saints as historical source". He did a titanic work on the study of the texts of at least five thousand hagiographic lists. Studying the lists, Vasily Osipovich set himself purely source study tasks: dating the lists and determining the oldest of them, the place where this list appeared, determining the accuracy of the reflection of events and facts in it. In the course of working on his dissertation, Klyuchevsky wrote six more independent works. The brilliant defense of the dissertation became the recognition of Klyuchevsky not only by historians, but also by a large public. His dissertation was called "a masterpiece of source studies, an unsurpassed example of the analysis of narrative monuments." Having received a master's degree, Vasily Osipovich received the right to teach in higher educational institutions. He began teaching at the Alexander Military School, where he taught a course world history for 17 years, at the Moscow Theological Academy, at the Higher Courses for Women, at the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, reading Russian history. And in 1879, Klyuchevsky became a teacher at Moscow University, replacing the deceased historian, his teacher S.M. Solovyov, in the course of Russian history.

"The ascended luminary of Russian science"

While teaching courses, Vasily Osipovich worked on his own historical concept, which was facilitated by the work on his doctoral dissertation, which he devoted to the study of the Boyar Duma. According to the historian, Boyar Duma was "a governmental spring that set everything in motion, remaining invisible to the society that she ruled." Klyuchevsky bit by bit collected the necessary data from a variety of sources - in archives, private collections, in published documents, in the works of specialists. His research covered the entire period of existence of the Boyar Duma from Kievan Rus from the 10th century to the beginning of the 18th century, when it ceased its activities and was replaced by the Government Senate. The defense of his doctoral dissertation took place on September 29, 1882. It lasted almost four hours and went brilliantly. The newspaper Golos wrote the next day: “The impression made by Mr. Klyuchevsky's dispute was close to enthusiastic enthusiasm. The knowledge of the subject, the accuracy of the answers, the dignified tone of objections, all this testified that we were dealing not with an ascending, but already ascended luminary of Russian science.

While lecturing, Klyuchevsky continuously improved his general course Russian history, but was not limited to them. He created complete system courses - in the center is a general history course and five special courses around it. The most famous was the special course "History of estates in Russia".

Despite the great research work and teaching load, the historian gave speeches and public lectures free of charge, actively collaborated with scientific societies: the Moscow Archaeological Society, the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, the Society of Russian History and Antiquities, of which he was elected chairman in 1893. Noting the significant contribution of Klyuchevsky to the development historical science, The Russian Academy of Sciences in 1900 elected him an over-staff academician in the category of history and Russian antiquities, and in 1908 he became an honorary academician in the category belles-lettres Departments of the Russian language and literature.

Klyuchevsky happened to participate in a number of state events. In 1905, he was a member of the commission that worked out a project to weaken censorship. He was invited to the "Peterhof Meetings" on the drafting of the State Duma, at which he resolutely opposed elections based on the class principle.

History "in key"

The formation of Klyuchevsky's worldview took place under the influence of the scientific interests and concepts of a number of his predecessors. Klyuchevsky, like Solovyov, considered colonization to be the main factor in Russian history. Based on this, he divides Russian history into periods, primarily depending on the movement of the bulk of the population and on geographical conditions that have a strong effect on the course historical life. However, he turned more attention than its predecessors, on economic processes. The fundamental novelty of his periodization was that he introduced two more criteria into it - political (the problem of power and society) and economic. As a result, Klyuchevsky got four periods:

The first period is from the 8th to the 13th centuries. "Rus Dnieper, urban, commercial."

The second period - from the XIII to the middle of the XV century. "Rus of the Upper Volga, specific-princely, free-farming".

The third period - from the middle of the 15th century to the second decade of the 17th century. "Great Russia, tsarist-boyar, military-agricultural".

Fourth period - from the beginning of the XVII to half of XIX century. "All-Russian, imperial-noble, the period of serfdom, agricultural and factory."

Describing each period, Klyuchevsky wrote:

“The 1st period lasted approximately from the 8th to the 13th century, when the mass of the Russian population concentrated on the middle and upper Dnieper with tributaries. Russia was then politically divided into separate isolated regions; at the head of each Big city as a political and economic center. The dominant political fact of the period is the political fragmentation of the land under the leadership of the city. The dominant fact of economic life is international trade with the forestry, hunting and beekeeping caused by it.

The 2nd period lasts from the 13th to the middle of the 15th century. The main mass of the Russian population, among the general confusion and rupture, moved to the upper Volga with tributaries. This mass remains fragmented, but not into urban areas, but into princely destinies, which is already a different form of political life. Hence the dominant political fact of the period - the specific fragmentation of the Upper Volga Russia under the rule of the princes. The dominant economic fact is free peasant agricultural labor on the Aleunian loam (the name of the soil).

3rd period from the half of the 15th century. until the second decade of the seventeenth century, when main mass The Russian population spreads from the upper Volga region to the south and east along the Don and Middle Volga black earth, forming a special branch of the people - Great Russia, which, together with the local population, expands beyond the upper Volga region. The dominant political fact of the period is the state unification of Great Russia under the rule of the Moscow sovereign, who rules his state with the help of the boyar aristocracy, formed from the former appanage princes and appanage boyars. Dominant fact economic life- the same agricultural labor on the old loam and on the newly occupied Middle Volga and Don chernozem through free peasant labor; but his will is already beginning to be hampered as land ownership is concentrated in the hands of the service class, the military class, recruited by the state for external defense.

The last, 4th period from the beginning of the 17th to the half of the 19th century. The Russian people spread throughout the plain from the Baltic and White to the Black Seas, to the Caucasus Range, the Caspian and the Urals. Politically, almost all parts of the Russian nationality are united under one authority: Little Russia, Belorussia and Novorossia adjoin Great Russia one after another, forming the All-Russian Empire. But this gathering all-Russian power is no longer acting with the help of the boyar aristocracy, but of the military service class formed by the state in the previous period - the nobility. This political gathering and unification of parts of the Russian land is the dominant political fact of the period. The basic fact of economic life remains agricultural labor, which has finally become serf labor, to which manufacturing industry, factory and factory joins.

creative part

The main creative achievement of the scientist was the “Course of Russian History”, on which he worked until the end of his life, although he developed the main content and concept in the 70s and 80s, during the heyday of his work. Much attention in the "Course of Russian History" is given to the time and reforms of Peter I, the strengthening of serfdom under Catherine II. Recent Sections The course is devoted to the reigns of Paul I, Alexander I and Nicholas I. The analysis of the reign of Nicholas I ends the "Course of Russian History".

"The Course of Russian History" by Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky received worldwide fame. It has been translated into many languages, and according to foreign historians, this work has served as the basis and main source for the study of Russian history throughout the world.

Throughout its creative life the scientist was engaged in the development of issues of historiography and source studies. With excessive employment, Klyuchevsky found the opportunity to communicate with the artistic, literary and theatrical circles of Moscow. Scientists have written many historical and philosophical works devoted to the classics of Russian literature: Lermontov, Gogol, Chekhov, Dostoevsky, Goncharov. He helped Fyodor Ivanovich Chaliapin create stage images of Ivan the Terrible, and when Vasily Osipovich lectured on the Petrine era at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, the artist Valentin Serov created his famous sketch "Peter I" under the impression of what he heard.

"The Last Period"

The scientific and pedagogical activity of Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky lasted almost 50 years. During this time he published a large number major studies, articles, textbooks and teaching aids. The last lecture he gave was on October 29, 1910. Even while in the hospital, the scientist continued to work. It is said that he worked on the day of his death, which followed on May 12, 1911. Klyuchevsky was buried in Moscow at the cemetery of the Donskoy Monastery.

In recognition of the merits of the scientist in the year of his 150th birthday International Center on minor planets assigned his name to one of the planets. Now minor planet No. 4560 is called Klyuchevsky. Also, since 1994 the Presidium Russian Academy Sciences awards the Prize to them. V. O. Klyuchevsky for work in the field of national history.

Bibliography

« Tales of foreigners about the Muscovite state» (1866, Scan of the book)

« Economic activity of the Solovetsky Monastery in the White Sea Territory» (1867)

« New research on the history of ancient Russian monasteries» (review) (1869)

« Church in relation to mental development ancient Russia"(review of Shchapov's book) (1870)

« Old Russian Lives of the Saints» (1871)

« Pskov disputes» (1872)

« The Legend of the Miracles of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God» (1878)

« Boyar Duma of ancient Russia» (1880-1881)

« Russian ruble XVI-XVIII centuries. in relation to the current» (1884)

« The origin of serfdom in Russia» (1885)

« Poll tax and the abolition of servility in Russia» (1886)

« Eugene Onegin and his ancestors» (1887)

"The composition of the representation at the Zemsky Sobors of Ancient Russia" (1890)

The course of Russian history in 5 hours - (St. Petersburg, 1904−1922. - 1146 p.; Russian history. Full course of lectures - M., 1993.)

historical portraits. Figures of historical thought. / Comp., intro. Art. and note. V. A. Aleksandrova. - M.: Pravda Publishing House, 1991. - 624 p. - “The significance of St. Sergius for the Russian people and state”, “ Kind people Ancient Russia”, “Characteristics of Tsar Ivan the Terrible”, “Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich”, “Life of Peter the Great before the start of the Northern War”; I. N. Boltin, N. M. Karamzin, Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov.

“Aphorisms. historical portraits and sketches. Diaries." - M.: "Thought", 1993. - 416 p., 75,000 copies.

IV. PECHER ASPITALS. THE BEGINNING OF BOOK LITERATURE AND LEGISLATION

(continuation)

Origin of Russian Pravda. - Judicial Vira. - Differences in class. - Economy and trade. - Female. - Foreigners.

The era of Yaroslav, his sons and grandsons is a very important monument of the civil state of Russia in those days. This is the so-called Russian Truth, or the first recorded collection of our most ancient laws. Among the Russians, as elsewhere, established customs and relations served as the basis of legislation. The first collections of laws usually responded to the needs of the court and punishment as the most necessary conditions any arranged human society. The chief social need is to protect personal and property security; therefore, all ancient legislation is predominantly criminal in nature, i.e. first of all determines punishments and fines for murder, beatings, wounds, theft and other crimes against person or property.

The beginning of Russian Truth dates back to times more ancient than the reign of Yaroslav. Already under the first historically known prince of Kiev, under Oleg, there are indications of articles of the Russian law, namely in an agreement with the Greeks. The same instructions are repeated in Igor's contract. Yaroslav, known for his love for the zemstvo dispensation and book business, apparently ordered to collect together the rules and customs related to legal proceedings, and to draw up a written code to guide judges in the future. The first article of this code defines the penalty for the most important crime, for murder. This article presents a clear transition from a state of barbarism, almost primitive, to a more civil state. The Russians, like other peoples who were at low levels community development, personal safety was protected mainly by the custom of tribal revenge, i.e. obligation for the death of a relative to avenge the death of the killer. With the adoption of Christianity and the success of citizenship, this article, naturally, had to be softened or changed, which did not happen suddenly, but very gradually, because the custom of bloody revenge was so embedded in popular customs that it was not easy to eradicate it. Vladimir the Great, according to the chronicle, is already vacillating between the death penalty and vira. After his baptism, under the influence of the new religion, he apparently abolished death penalty and the right to bloody revenge, but put a fine, or vira, for the murder; then, when the robberies multiplied, on the advice of the bishops themselves, he began to execute the robbers by death; and in the end he again abolished the execution and ordered that vira be exacted.

Yaroslav in the first article of Russian Pravda allowed bloody revenge for the murder, but only to close relatives, namely, sons, brothers and nephews. If there were no locals (due to the lack of close relatives or their refusal to take bloody revenge), then the murderer must pay a certain vira. But even this exception for close degrees of kinship existed only before the sons of Yaroslav.

After him, Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod gathered for a general council on the structure of the zemstvo together with their main boyars; there were thousands, Kyiv Kosnyachko, Chernigov Pereneg and Pereyaslavsky Nikifor, in addition, the boyars, Chudin and Mikula. They revised Russian Pravda, supplemented it with new articles and, by the way, completely abolished the right of bloody revenge, replacing it with vira in all cases for free man. Vladimir Monomakh soon after his approval in Kyiv began a new revision of the Russkaya Pravda, caused, of course, by new circumstances and developing needs. In his country yard on Berestovo, he, according to custom, for advice on such an important matter, called on his thousands, Ratibor of Kiev, Procopius of Belgorod, Stanislav Pereyaslavsky, boyars Nazhir and Miroslav. In addition, Ivanko Chudinovich, the boyar of Oleg Svyatoslavich, was present at this council. The most important addition of Vladimir, it seems, related to the charter about cuts, or growth; let's not forget that after the death of Svyatopolk-Michael, the people of Kiev rebelled and plundered precisely the Jews, of course, who aroused hatred for themselves with their usual covetousness. Additions and changes in Russian Pravda continued after Monomakh; but its main parts remained the same.

Let us now see in what form they are before us social concepts and the relationship of our ancestors on the basis of Russian Truth.

At the head of the entire Russian land stands the Grand Duke of Kyiv. He takes care of the zemstvo system, establishes the court and reprisal. He is surrounded by boyars or senior squad with whom he consults about all important matters, confirms the old statutes or makes changes in them. In zemstvo affairs, he especially consults with thousands; their name indicates the once existing military division into thousands and hundreds; but in this era, by all indications, these were the main zemstvo dignitaries, appointed from the honored boyars and helping the prince in management; a thousand meant not so much a numerical division as a zemstvo or volost division. Sometimes the grand duke gathers elders between specific princes, as, for example, Izyaslav and Svyatopolk II. But Yaroslav and Vladimir Monomakh, who knew how to actually be the head of the princely house, issue charters for the entire Russian land, without asking the indispensable consent of the appanage princes.

Reading Russian Truth to the people in the presence of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise. Artist A. Kivshenko, 1880

The place for court is the court of the prince, and in the regional cities - the court of his governor; the court is carried out by the prince personally or through his tiuns. In the definition of different degrees of punishment, one can clearly see the division of the people into three states, or into three estates: the prince's retinue, smerds and serfs. The bulk of the population were smerds; It was common name for free residents of cities and villages. Another common name for them was people, in units. the number of people. Vira, or a fine, determined at 40 hryvnias, was paid for the murder of a person. supreme state constituted the military estate, or princely squad. But the latter also had different degrees. Simple combatants bore the names of children, youths, grids and swordsmen; for the murder of such a simple combatant, an ordinary vira was assigned, as for a merchant or other smerd, i.e. 40 hryvnia. Senior warriors were people close to the prince, his boyars or, as they are called in Russkaya Pravda, princely men. For the murder of such a husband, a double vira is assigned, that is, 80 hryvnias. Judging by this double line, Pravda also includes the main princes, or servants, who corrected the positions of judges, housekeepers, village elders, senior grooms, etc. to "princely men". Somehow, under Izyaslav Yaroslavich, the people of Dorogobuzh killed a stable tiun, who was with the herd of the Grand Duke; the latter imposed a double vira on them; this example is turned into a rule when similar cases and for the future.

Next to the free population in cities and villages lived not free people who bore the names of serfs, servants, slaves. The original source of slavery in ancient Russia, as everywhere, the war served, i.e. prisoners were turned into slaves and sold along with any other booty. Russkaya Pravda defines three more cases when a free person became a complete or white slave: who was bought in the presence of witnesses, who marries a slave without a row, or an agreement with her master, and who goes without a row into tiuns or keykeepers. The serf had no civil rights and was considered the full property of his master; for the murder of a serf or a slave, vira was not supposed; but if someone kills someone else's serf innocently, then he had to pay the master the cost of the murdered and the prince 12 hryvnias, so-called. sale (i.e. penalty or fine). In addition to full serfs, there was also a semi-free estate, hirelings, or purchases; they were workers hired for a certain period of time. If the worker, having taken the money in advance, ran away from the master, then he turned into a complete or white slave.

If the murderer escaped, then the verv had to pay the virus, i.e. community, and such a vira was called wild. Then fines for wounds and beatings are determined. For example, for cutting off a hand or other important injury - half a vire, i.e. 20 hryvnia, to the prince's treasury; and mutilated - 10 hryvnia; for hitting with a stick or naked sword - 12 hryvnias, etc. The offended person must first of all declare the theft at the auction; if he did not announce, then, having found his thing, he cannot take it himself, but must lead to the vault of the person from whom he found it, i.e. look for the thief, gradually moving on to everyone from whom the item was purchased. If the thief is not found and the rope, or the community, does not render all needed help then she must pay for the stolen item. A thief caught at the scene of a crime at night could be killed with impunity "instead of a dog"; but if the owner kept him until the morning or tied him up, then he should already be leading him to the prince's court, i.e. submit to court. To prove the crime, the plaintiff was obliged to present videos and rumors, i.e. witnesses; in addition to witnesses, a company, or oath, was required. If neither witnesses nor clear evidence of the crime were presented, then the test with red-hot iron and water was used.

For minor crimes, the guilty paid a sale, or penalty, to the prince's treasury; and more important ones, such as robbery, horse-drawn carriage and incendiary, led a stream, or imprisonment, and plunder of property. Part of the vir and sales were assigned to the princely servants, who helped to carry out the trial and reprisals and were called virniki, metelniks, yabetniks, etc. In the regions, during the trial and investigation, these princely servants and their horses were kept at the expense of the inhabitants. Cuts, or interest, are allowed monthly and third, the first only for loans for a short time; for too large cuts, the usurer could be deprived of his capital. Permissible cuts extended up to 10 kunas per hryvnia per year, i.е. up to 20 percent.

Along with agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting and beekeeping also played an important role in the Russian economy of that time. For theft or damage to any livestock, a special penalty is set, namely for a mare, an ox, a cow, a pig, a ram, a sheep, a goat, etc. Special care is visible for horses. The horse thief was issued to the prince for a stream, while the cage thief paid the prince 3 hryvnia fines. If someone just sits on someone else's horse without asking the owner, then he was punished with three hryvnia fines. For digging the boundary, side and rolled (arable land), 12 hryvnias of sale are assigned; the same amount for the felling of the boundary oak and for the chipping of the side sign. Beekeeping, obviously, was still primitive, forest, and the property was designated by special signs, hacked on the sides, i.e. on hollows that served as beehives. For damage to the advantage, the guilty paid the owner a hryvnia, and the prince a penalty of 3 hryvnia. Overweight was a net arranged in a clearing in a forest or in some other place with special devices for catching wild birds. The unthreshed rye was piled up on the threshing floor, and the threshed was hidden in the pits; for the theft of both, 3 hryvnias and 30 kunas of sale were charged, i.e. penny to the prince; and the offended was either returned the stolen, or a lesson was paid, i.e. its cost. For the burning of someone else's threshing floor or yard, the guilty person not only paid the victim for all his loss, but he himself was handed over to the prince for a stream, and his house - for robbery to the prince's servants.

Russkaya Pravda also testifies to the development of trade, which was quite significant at that time. It protects, for example, a merchant from final ruin in case of misfortune. If he lost the goods entrusted to him due to the wreck of the ship, due to war or fire, then he does not answer; but if he loses or spoils through his own fault, then the trustees do with him as they wish. Obviously, trade in Russia was then carried on to a large extent on faith, that is, on credit. In the case of presenting various debts on the merchant, first the guests or foreign merchants who trusted him were subject to satisfaction, and then, from the remnants of the property, their own, native ones. But if anyone has a princely debt, then the latter was satisfied first of all.

Corporal punishment, judging by the Russian Truth, in those days was not allowed for a free person; they existed only for serfs. From the latter, free people also differed in that they carried weapons with them, at least they had or could have a sword at their hips.

The rights of woman under this ancient legislation are not clearly defined; but her position was by no means powerless. Yes, for murder. free woman half a vira is paid, i.e. 20 hryvnias. The inheritance (ass) of a smerd who left no sons passes to the prince, and only unmarried daughters are given a certain part. But in the boyars and in general in the retinue class, if there are no sons, then the daughters inherit the parental property; with sons, they do not inherit; and brothers are only obliged to give their sisters in marriage, i.e. bear the associated costs. Children born of a slave do not inherit, but receive freedom along with their mother. The widow gets only what her husband has appointed her; however, she manages the house and the estate of young children, if she does not remarry; and the children are obliged to obey it.

Russian Truth partly divides the various populations of Ancient Russia into estates or occupations by regions. So, she distinguishes between Rusin and Slovenian. The first obviously means a resident Southern Russia, especially the Dnieper; and under the second - a resident northern regions, especially the land of Novgorod. In addition, Pravda mentions two foreign categories, namely the Varangians and the Kolbyags. For example, if a runaway serf hid with a Varangian or a kolbyag and the latter keeps him for three days without announcing, then he pays three hryvnias to the serf owner for the offense. On the charge of a fight, only a company was required from a Varangian or a kolbyag, i.e. oath; while the native had to present two more witnesses. In the case of a slanderous vira (accusation of murder) for a native, it was required total number witnesses, i.e. seven; and for the Varangian and the flask - only two. In general, the legislation shows an undoubted patronage or mitigation of conditions for foreigners. These articles confirm the constant presence of the Varangians in Russia in the 11th and 12th centuries, however, since the second half of the 11th century, more as merchants than hired soldiers. Who were the flasks, exactly has not yet been decided. The most probable is the opinion that they mean by the southeastern foreigners of Ancient Russia, known in part under the name of the Black Hoods.

The truth does not mention the custom that was known among medieval peoples under the name of the Judgment of God, i.e. about the duel. But this custom undoubtedly existed in Russia since ancient times and was completely in the spirit of the warlike Russian tribe. When two litigants were unhappy court verdict and could not come to any agreement, then with the permission of the prince they decided their lawsuit with a sword. Opponents entered the battle in the presence of their relatives, and the vanquished was given to the will of the winner.

Page of the Trinity List of Russian Pravda. 14th century

...Let's move on to the social division of ancient Kievan Rus. It should be noted that a society that is at the first stage of development always has the same social division: among all the peoples of the Aryan tribe, we meet the following three groups: 1) the bulk (people in Kievan Rus), 2) a privileged layer (old men, boyars) and 3) disenfranchised slaves (or serfs in the ancient Kievan language). Thus, the original social division was not created by some exclusive local historical condition, but the nature of the tribe, so to speak. Already before the eyes of history formed and grew local conditions. Evidence of this growth is Russkaya Pravda, almost the only source of our judgments about the social structure of Kievan Rus. It has come down to us in two editions: short and lengthy. The brief consists of 43 articles, of which the first 17 follow each other in a logical system. Novgorod Chronicle, which contains this text of Pravda, passes it off as laws issued by Yaroslav. The short edition of Pravda differs in many ways from the several lengthy editions of this monument. It is undoubtedly older than them and reflects the Kiev society in the most ancient time of its life. The lengthy editions of Pravda, already consisting of more than 100 articles, contain indications in their text that they arose as a whole in the 12th century, not earlier; they contain the legal provisions of the princes of the XII century. (Vladimir Monomakh) and depict us the society of Kievan Rus in its full development. The diversity of the text of different editions of Pravda makes it difficult to resolve the issue of the origin of this monument. Old historians (Karamzin, Pogodin) recognized Russkaya Pravda as the official collection of laws compiled by Yaroslav the Wise and supplemented by his successors. In later times, Lange, the researcher of Pravda, holds the same opinion. But most scholars (Kalachev, Duvernoy, Sergeevich, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, and others) think that Pravda is a collection compiled by private individuals who wished for personal needs to have a set of legislative rules in force at that time. According to V. O. Klyuchevsky, Russkaya Pravda arose in the church sphere, where there was a need to know worldly law; here and wrote down this law. The private origin of Russkaya Pravda is most likely because, firstly, in its text it is possible to indicate articles not of legal, but of economic content, which were important only for private life, and, secondly, the external form of individual articles and entire editions " Pravda" has the character of private records compiled, as it were, by outside spectators of the prince's law-forming activities.

Studying the composition of the ancient Kiev society, we can note its three oldest layers: 1) the highest, called the elders "city", "human elders"; this is the zemstvo aristocracy, to which some researchers rank the firemen. We have already spoken about the elders; As for the fires, there are many opinions about them. Old scholars considered them homeowners or landowners, deriving the term from the word fire (in regional dialects, it means a hearth or arable land on the outcrop, that is, in the place of a burned forest); Vladimirsky-Budanov says in his "Review of the History of Russian Law" that the senior combatants were first called "firemen", but then he adds that the Czech monument "Mater verborum" interprets the word fireman as "freed" ("libertus, cui post servitium accedit libertas"); The author thinks to hide the apparent contradiction by the consideration that the senior combatants could come from younger, involuntary servants of the prince. The word fire in ancient times really meant a servant, a servant, in this sense it is found in the ancient, 11th century, translation of the Words of Gregory the Theologian; therefore, some researchers (Klyuchevsky) see slave owners in fires, in other words, rich people in that ancient period in the life of society, when not land, but slaves were the main type of property. If you pay attention to the articles of the lengthy "Russian Pravda", which, instead of the "fireman" of the brief "Russian Truth", speak of a "prince's husband" or "fiery tyun", then you can consider the fireman to be precisely the prince of her husband, and in particular for the tiuna , head of princely serfs, i.e. for a person preceding the later courtiers or butlers. The position of the latter was very high at the princely courts, and at the same time they could be serfs themselves. In Novgorod, as it seems, not only butlers, but the entire princely court (later nobles) were called ognischans. So, therefore, it is possible to take firemen for noble princely husbands; but it is doubtful that the firemen were the highest class of zemstvo society. 2) Middle class were people (single number of people), men united in communities, ropes. 3) Kholops or servants - slaves and, moreover, unconditional, full, white (obly - round) were the third layer.

Over time, this social division becomes more complicated. At the top of society is already princely retinue, with which the former upper zemstvo class merges. The druzhina consists of the eldest (“thinking boyars and brave men”) and the youngest (youths, gridya), which also includes the prince's slaves. From the ranks of the squad, the princely administration and judges (posadnik, tiun, virniki, etc.) are appointed. The class of people is definitely divided into townspeople (merchants, artisans) and villagers, of which free people are called smerds, and dependent people are called purchases (for example, a rural agricultural laborer is called a role purchase). Purchases are not slaves, but they begin the class conditionally in Russia dependent people, a class that over time replaced full slaves. The squad and the people are not closed social classes: one could move from one to another. The main difference in their position was, on the one hand, in relation to the prince (some served the prince, others paid him; as for the serfs, they had their master as their master, and not the prince, who did not concern them at all), and on the other hand, in the economic and property relations of social classes among themselves.

We would make a big gap if we did not mention a completely special class of persons in Kiev society, a class that obeyed not the prince, but the church. This is a church society, consisting of: 1) hierarchy, priesthood and monasticism; 2) persons who served the church, clergymen; 3) persons cherished by the church - old, crippled, sick; 4) persons who have come under the care of the church - outcasts, and 5) persons dependent on the church - "servants" (serfs), who have passed as a gift to the church from secular owners. The church statutes of the princes describe the composition of the church society as follows:

"And here are the church people: the hegumen, the abbess, the priest, the deacon and their children, and the one who is in the wing: the priest, the black man, the blueberry, the marshmallow, the pilgrim, the sveshchegas, the watchman, the blind man, the lame man, the widow, the hermit (i.e., the one who received miraculous healing), a strangled person (i.e., a freedman under a spiritual will), outcasts (i.e., persons who have lost the rights of civil status); ... monasteries, hospitals, hotels, hospices, then church people, almshouses. "The church hierarchy is in charge of the administration and court of all these people:" Either the metropolitan, or the bishop, you know whether there is judgment or offense between them. "Outcasts and serfs and all their the church creates a solid social status, communicates the rights of citizenship, but at the same time removes them altogether from secular society.

The social division of Kievan society became so developed and complex by the 12th century. Previously, as we have seen, society was simpler in composition and dismembered already before the eyes of history...

S. F. Platonov. Lectures on Russian history

). Klyuchevsky's father was a priest. Since he served in the Penza diocese, the fate of his son was determined from the very early childhood: Vasily, obedient to the will of his parents, graduated from the Penza Theological School and the Penza Theological Seminary.

The family lived very hard, so the parents did not support the repeatedly voiced idea of ​​​​the son to become a historian. Meanwhile, Klyuchevsky was fond of history and, in between passing seminary exams, eagerly read various historical writings, books and research. By the end of the seminary, Vasily Osipovich no longer imagined himself as anyone else, linking his life only with historical science. We must pay tribute to Klyuchevsky's parents, who, realizing that their son was not enthusiastic about becoming a priest, showed themselves to be very understanding people. Realizing that the son was not going to follow in the footsteps of his father, they let him go to take the entrance exams to the Historical and Philological University of Moscow University, allowing him to leave the seminary. It was very difficult to overcome poverty: the Klyuchevsky family was going through difficult times. Subsequently, Klyuchevsky all his life gratefully remembered his parents and the opportunity given to him to do what he loved.

At the university, he listened to lectures by such outstanding researchers for his time as Leontiev, Buslaev, Chicherin, Solovyov, and even the Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod, Konstantin Pobedonostsev. Scientific interests Klyuchevsky was largely formed under their influence. Most of all, he was impressed by the lectures of Chicherin and Solovyov: excellent speakers, they, like no one else, knew how to inspire young listeners and had an almost hypnotic effect on the audience.

First works

Klyuchevsky owned several foreign languages, which helped him not to be limited to Russian sources when writing his works. His PhD thesis was called "Tales of foreigners about the Muscovite state." After graduating from the faculty, Klyuchevsky received a place at the university and began to study the lives of the saints. He pursued the goal of finding a fresh source in order to study the issue of the participation of ancient Russian monasteries in the colonization Northeast Russia. Klyuchevsky devoted the next few years of his life to further study of the lives of the saints. He spared no time and effort, researching and analyzing the most inaccessible sources, scattered across various book depositories. But after the expiration of the two-year term, Klyuchevsky, to his disappointment, was forced to admit that the result he had obtained did not at all live up to his expectations. As a result, Klyuchevsky wrote a master's thesis on the topic "Old Russian Lives of the Saints as a historical source." The work was devoted to hagiographic literature in many of its aspects - the source base, samples, techniques and forms.

Klyuchevsky, as a researcher, was generally characterized by self-criticism. He was very rarely satisfied with the results of his work and research. Most of Klyuchevsky's successors spoke of his work on the lives in the warmest terms. But for its time, the study was almost provocative. The fact is that for the middle of the 20th century, the strictly critical direction in which Klyuchevsky's works were sustained was something completely new for church history science, where such methods have not dominated until now.

After writing his master's thesis, Klyuchevsky continued to closely study the history of the church and socio-religious thought. The result was the writing of a number of articles and reviews that played huge role both for modern Klyuchevskoy time, and for all historical science as a whole. The largest of them were: "Pskov disputes", " Economic activity », « Western influence and church schism in the 17th century." Vasily Osipovich's inspiration was inexhaustible.

Professorship

When Solovyov, one of the teachers at Moscow University, died in 1979, Klyuchevsky took his place and began teaching a course in Russian history there. He became a professor at the same university in 1882 and continued to lecture for many years. Klyuchevsky was extremely self-disciplined: he managed to teach at the same time at the Moscow Theological Seminary. His friend Guerrier soon organized the famous Moscow Women's Courses, where he also invited Klyuchevsky to teach.

In the period from 1887 to 1889, Klyuchevsky was vice-rector of the Moscow Faculty of History and Philology. Thanks to his activities, the scientist received recognition not only among colleagues, but also in the "top". The emperor, impressed by the knowledge of Vasily Osipovich, invited him to give a course in Russian history to Grand Duke Georgy Alexandrovich.

Klyuchevsky really made an amazing career for his time. Starting with an ordinary teacher, he climbed to the top in just a decade: such a jump was not just the result of Klyuchevsky's innate talent, but also his amazing diligence. In 1905, the scientist took part in the work State Commission for revision of the press. He played an important role in the establishment of the first State Duma.

The main works of Klyuchevsky

Despite the fact that Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky was extremely versatile personality both as a researcher and as a person, his interests were still more connected with the history of the spiritual life of Russian society. Absolute majority his works (monographs, articles and books) were devoted to this topic. Several collections of articles by Klyuchevsky included unknown data and curious facts from the biographies of Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov, and many others. eminent figures of his era.

In 1899, Vasily Osipovich published " Quick guide on Russian history", which became the prologue to the voluminous work on similar topic. Just a few years later, four volumes of Russian history appeared in print. Klyuchevsky brought his story to the time of the reign of Catherine II.

Klyuchevsky's research, covering many years of Russian history, was not like the manuals that researchers are accustomed to using when writing own works and on which they were mainly oriented. Klyuchevsky from the very beginning refused to criticize other authors, did not raise sharp and controversial issues in his studies, did not want to argue with other historians of both his era and the previous one.

Klyuchevsky was the first Russian researcher to teach a course in Russian historiography.

Among the works of Vasily Osipovich devoted to highly specialized topics, it is worth highlighting the History of Estates in Russia, published on the basis of his special course, which the scientist read as a professor at Moscow University. The Terminology of Russian History was also quite popular. Many of Klyuchevsky's works were constantly published by the Literary Thought magazine. After the death of Vasily Osipovich, many of his students took part in compiling the collection Klyuchevsky, Characteristics and Memoirs. Among the most prominent students and followers of Klyuchevsky were the historians Milyukov, Bakhrushin, Barskov, Bogoslovsky and many others. Research activities Klyuchevsky made him an outstanding representative of the Moscow historical school.

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky died on May 25, 1911 in Moscow and was buried at the Donskoy cemetery.

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky, Russia, 16 (28). 01.1841-12.05.1911 The outstanding Russian historian was born on January 16 (28), 1841 in the village of Voskresenskoye (near Penza) in the family of a poor parish priest. His first teacher was his father, who died tragically in August 1850. The family was forced to move to Penza. Out of compassion for the poor widow, one of her husband's friends gave her a small house to live in. “Was anyone poorer than you and me at the time when we were left orphans in the arms of our mother,” Klyuchevsky later wrote to his sister, recalling the hungry years of childhood and adolescence. In Penza, Klyuchevsky studied at the parish theological school, then at the district theological school and at the theological seminary. Already on school bench Klyuchevsky knew well the works of many historians. In order to be able to devote himself to science (the authorities predicted for him a career as a clergyman and admission to a theological academy), in his last year he deliberately left the seminary and spent a year independently preparing for entrance exams to the university. With admission to Moscow University in 1861, new period in the life of Klyuchevsky. His teachers are F.I. Buslaev, N.S. Tikhonravov, P.M. Leontiev and especially S.M. Solovyov: “Soloviev gave the listener a surprisingly solid, harmonious thread drawn through a chain of generalized facts, a look at the course of Russian history, and you know what a pleasure it is for young mind beginner scientific study feel in possession of a holistic view of scientific subject". The training time for Klyuchevsky coincided with biggest event in the life of the country bourgeois reforms early 1860s. He was an opponent of extreme measures of the government, but did not approve of the political actions of the students. The subject of his graduation essay at the university on the topic: "Tales of foreigners about the Muscovite state" (1866) Klyuchevsky chose the study of about 40 legends and notes of foreigners about Russia 15-17 centuries. For this essay, the graduate was awarded a gold medal and left at the department “to prepare for a professorship.” Klyuchevsky’s master’s (candidate’s) dissertation “Old Russian Lives of the Saints as a historical source” (1871) is devoted to another type of medieval Russian sources. The topic was proposed by Solovyov, who probably expected to use the secular and spiritual knowledge of the novice scientist to study the issue of the participation of monasteries in the colonization of Russian lands. Klyuchevsky did a titanic work on the study of at least five thousand hagiographic lists. During the preparation of his dissertation, he wrote six independent studies, including such a major work as "The Economic Activity of the Solovetsky Monastery in the White Sea Territory" (1866-1867). But the effort expended and the result did not justify the expected - the literary monotony of the lives, when the authors described the life of the characters in a cliché, did not allow us to establish the details of "the situation, place and time, without which there is no historical fact for the historian." Since 1879, Klyuchevsky taught at Moscow University, where he replaced the deceased Solovyov at the Department of Russian History. 36 years of life (1871-1906) Klyuchevsky gave to this educational institution, first as a Privatdozent, and since 1882 as a professor. At the same time he lectured on Russian civil history at the Moscow Theological Academy (in Sergiev Posad), as well as (at the request of his friend Professor V.I. Guerrier) at the Moscow Women's Courses ( lecture work Klyuchevsky on Guerrier's courses lasted 15 years). Klyuchevsky also taught at the Alexander Military School, at the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture ... Teaching activity brought Klyuchevsky well-deserved fame. Gifted with the ability of figurative penetration into the past, a master of the artistic word, a famous wit and author of numerous epigrams and aphorisms, in his speeches the scientist skillfully built entire galleries of portraits. historical figures long remembered by listeners. The auditorium of Moscow University, in which he taught his course, was always crowded. The doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia" (1880) was a famous stage in the work of Klyuchevsky. The subject of subsequent scientific works of Klyuchevsky clearly indicated this new direction - “The Russian ruble of the 16th-18th centuries. in its relation to the present" (1884), "The origin of serfdom in Russia" (1885), "The poll tax and the abolition of servility in Russia" (1886), "Eugene Onegin and his ancestors" (1887), "The composition of the representation on the zemstvo cathedrals of ancient Russia "(1890) and others. In 1893-1895. on behalf of Emperor Alexander III, Klyuchevsky read a course in Russian history to Grand Duke Georgy Alexandrovich. The most famous treatise Klyuchevsky, which received worldwide recognition - "Course of Russian History" in 5 parts. The scientist worked on it more three decades, but decided to publish it only in the early 1900s. Klyuchevsky called colonization the main factor in Russian history around which events unfold: “The history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized. The area of ​​colonization in it expanded along with its state territory. Falling, then rising, this age-old movement continues to this day. Based on this, Klyuchevsky divided Russian history into four periods. The first period lasts approximately from the 8th to the 13th century, when Russian population concentrated on the middle and upper Dnieper with tributaries. Russia was then politically divided into separate cities, foreign trade dominated the economy. Within the framework of the second period (XIII century - the middle of the XV century), the bulk of the population moved to the interfluve of the upper Volga and Oka. The country was still fragmented, but no longer into cities with adjacent regions, but into princely destinies. The basis of the economy is free peasant agricultural labor. The third period continues from the middle of the 15th century. until the second decade of the 17th century, when the Russian population colonized the southeastern Don and Middle Volga chernozems; in politics, the state unification of Great Russia took place; in the economy began the process of enslavement of the peasantry. The last, fourth period mid-nineteenth in. (more late time"Course ..." did not cover) - this is the time when "the Russian people spread across the entire plain from the Baltic and White seas to the Black Sea, to the Caucasus Range, the Caspian Sea and the Urals." Formed Russian empire led by the autocracy, based on the military service class - the nobility. In the economy, the manufacturing factory industry joins the serf agricultural labor. “In the life of a scientist and writer, the main biographical facts are books, major events– thoughts,” wrote Klyuchevsky. The biography of Klyuchevsky himself rarely goes beyond these events and facts ... In 1900, Klyuchevsky became an academician, and since 1908 - honorary academician Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1905, Klyuchevsky participated in a special meeting on the fundamental laws. In 1906, in Paris, he was admitted to the Cosmos Scottish Rite Lodge, together with historians, Professor A.S. Trachevsky, E.V. Anichkov and a number of other well-known Russian public figures, mainly belonging to the Kadet Party. In 1905, Klyuchevsky was officially instructed to participate in the work of the Commission for the revision of laws on the press and in meetings (in Peterhof, chaired by Nicholas II) on the project of establishing the State Duma and its powers ... Klyuchevsky died in Moscow on May 12, 1911. He was buried in the cemetery of the Donskoy Monastery. S.V., Bental, 05/24/2007

IN. Klyuchevsky

"In the life of a scientist and writer, the main biographical facts are books, the most important events are thoughts." (V.O. Klyuchevsky)

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky was born in the village of Voskresensky near Penza in the family of a poor parish priest, who was the boy's first teacher, but who tragically died when Vasily was only 9 years old. The family moved to Penza, where they settled in a small house given by one of the priest's friends.

He graduated first from the Penza Theological School, and then from the Theological Seminary.

In 1861 he entered the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University. His teachers were N.M. Leontiev, F.M. Buslaev, K.N. Pobedonostsev, B.N. Chicherin, S.M. Solovyov, whose lectures were young historian big influence. “Soloviev gave the listener a surprisingly solid, harmonious thread drawn through a chain of generalized facts, a look at the course of Russian history, and you know what a pleasure it is for a young mind starting a scientific study to feel in possession of a whole view of a scientific subject,” Klyuchevsky wrote later.

Museum of Klyuchevsky in Penza

Career

After graduating from the university, Klyuchevsky stayed here to teach and began work on ancient Russian saints, which became his master's thesis. Along the way, he writes several works on the history of the church and Russian religious thought: “The economic activity of the Solovetsky Monastery”, “Pskov disputes”, “Contribution of the church to the successes of Russian civil order and law”, “The significance of St. Sergius of Radonezh for the Russian people and state”, “Western influence and church split in Russia XVII century, etc.

Klyuchevsky devotes a lot of energy to teaching: in 1871 he was elected to the department of Russian history at the Moscow Theological Academy, where he worked until 1906; then he began teaching at the Alexander Military School, as well as at the higher courses for women. His scientific and teaching career quickly goes up: in September 1879 he was elected associate professor of Moscow University, in 1882 - extraordinary, in 1885 - ordinary professor.

IN. Klyuchevsky

In 1893 - 1895, he taught a course in Russian history to Grand Duke Georgy Alexandrovich (son of Alexander III); taught at the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture; in 1893 - 1905 he was chairman of the Society of History and Antiquities at Moscow University.

He was an academician and honorary academician of a number of scientific societies.

For Klyuchevsky, the glory of a brilliant lecturer was established, who knew how to capture the attention of the audience with the power of analysis, the gift of depiction, and deep reading. He shone with wit, aphorisms, epigrams, which are still in demand today. His work has always caused controversy, in which he tried not to interfere. The themes of his works are exceptionally diverse: the situation of the peasantry, zemsky cathedrals Ancient Russia, the reforms of Ivan the Terrible ...

He was concerned about the history of the spiritual life of Russian society and its prominent representatives. This topic includes a number of articles and speeches by Klyuchevsky about S.M. Solovyov, Pushkin, Lermontov, N.I. Novikov, Fonvizina, Catherine II, Peter the Great. He published a "Short Guide to Russian History", and in 1904 he began to publish full course. In total, 4 volumes were published, brought up to the time of Catherine II.

V. Klyuchevsky sets out a strictly subjective understanding of Russian history, eliminating review and criticism and without entering into polemics with anyone. He bases his course on facts not in terms of their actual significance in history, but in terms of their methodological significance.

"Course of Russian History"

The most famous scientific work of Klyuchevsky is the "Course of Russian History" in 5 parts. He worked on it for more than 30 years, but decided to publish it only in the early 1900s. Klyuchevsky considers the colonization of Russia to be the main factor in Russian history, and the main events unfold around colonization: “The history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized. The area of ​​colonization in it expanded along with its state territory. Falling, then rising, this age-old movement continues to this day.

Klyuchevsky divided Russian history into four periods:

I period - approximately from the 8th to the 13th century, when the Russian population concentrated mainly on the middle and upper Dnieper with tributaries. Russia was then politically divided into separate cities, and foreign trade dominated the economy.

II period - XIII - the middle of the XV century, when the bulk of the people moved to the interfluve of the upper Volga and Oka. It is still a fragmented country, but into princely destinies. The basis of the economy was free peasant agricultural labor.

Monument to Klyuchevsky in Penza

III period - from the half of the XV century. until the second decade of the 17th century, when the Russian population colonized the Don and Middle Volga chernozems; there was a state unification of Great Russia; in the economy began the process of enslavement of the peasantry.

IV period - until the middle of the XIX century. (the Course did not cover later time) - the time when “the Russian people spread throughout the plain from the seas

Baltic and White to Black, to the Caucasus Range, the Caspian and the Urals. The Russian Empire is formed, the autocracy is based on the military service class - the nobility. The manufacturing industry joins the serf agricultural labor.

“In the life of a scientist and writer, the main biographical facts are books, the most important events are thoughts,” Klyuchevsky wrote. The life of Klyuchevsky himself rarely goes beyond these events and facts. By conviction he was moderate conservative, his political speeches are extremely few. But if they were, they were always distinguished by originality of thinking and were never to please someone. He had his own position. For example, in 1894 he uttered the “Eulogy” to Alexander III, which caused indignation among the revolutionary students, and was wary of the revolution of 1905.

"Historical portraits" by V. Klyuchevsky

His "Historical portraits" include a number of biographies of famous people:

First Kiev princes, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Ivan III, Ivan Nikitich Bersen-Beklemishev and Maxim Grek, Ivan the Terrible, Tsar Fedor, Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I, Vasily Shuisky, False Dmitry II, Tsar Mikhail Romanov, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Peter the Great, Catherine I, Peter II , Anna Ioannovna, Elizabeth I, Peter III, Catherine II, Paul I, Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II.
The creators of the Russian land
Good people of Ancient Russia, Nestor and Sylvester, Sergius of Radonezh, Ivan Nikitich Bersen-Beklemishev and Maxim Grek, Nil Sorsky and Joseph Volotsky, K. Minin and D.M. Pozharsky, Patriarch Nikon, Simeon Polotsky, A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin, Prince V.V. Golitsyn, Prince D.M. Golitsyn, N.I. Novikov,
MM. Speransky, A.S. Pushkin, Decembrists, H.M. Karamzin, K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, S.M. Solovyov,
T.N. Granovsky.

Grave of Klyuchevsky in the Donskoy Monastery

Aphorisms of V. Klyuchevsky

• Being happy means not wanting what you can't get.
• A great idea in a bad environment is perverted into a series of absurdities.
• In science, lessons must be repeated in order to remember them well; in morality, one must remember mistakes well so as not to repeat them.
• It is much easier to become a father than to remain one.
• An evil fool gets angry at others for his own stupidity.
• Life teaches only those who study it.
• He who loves himself very much is not loved by others, because out of delicacy they do not want to be his rivals.
• Whoever laughs does not get angry, because to laugh means to forgive.
• People live in idolatry of ideals, and when ideals are lacking, they idealize idols.
• People are looking for themselves everywhere, but not in themselves.
• There are people who can speak but cannot say anything. These are windmills that constantly flap their wings but never fly.
• Thought without morality is thoughtlessness, morality without thought is fanaticism.
• It is necessary not to complain about the fact that there is not enough smart people and thank God for what they are.
• A man usually loves women whom he respects: a woman usually respects only men whom she loves. Therefore, a man often loves women who are not worth loving, and a woman often respects men who are not worth respecting.
• Science is often confused with knowledge. This is a gross misunderstanding. Science is not only knowledge, but also consciousness, that is, the ability to use knowledge properly.
• Youth are like butterflies: they fly into the light and fall into the fire.
• The past must be known not because it has passed, but because, when leaving, it is not skillful to remove its consequences.
• A thinking person should only fear himself, because he should be the sole and merciless judge of himself.
• The smartest thing in life is still death, for only it corrects all the mistakes and stupidities of life.
• A proud person is one who values ​​the opinion of others about himself more than his own. So, being proud means loving yourself more than others and respecting others more than yourself.
• The most faithful and almost the only way to be happy is to imagine yourself that way.
• Freedom of conscience usually means freedom from conscience.
• Strong passions often hide only a weak will.
• Selfish people love power, ambitious people love influence, haughty people seek both, thoughtful people despise both.
• A good person is not one who knows how to do good, but one who does not know how to do evil.
• Friendship can do without love; love without friendship is not.
• The mind perishes from contradictions, but the heart feeds on them.
• Character is power over oneself, talent is power over others.
• Christs rarely appear like comets, but Judas are not translated like mosquitoes.
• Man is the greatest animal in the world.
• In Russia there are no average talents, simple craftsmen, but there are lonely geniuses and millions of worthless people. Geniuses can't do anything because they don't have apprentices, and nothing can be done about millions because they don't have masters. The former are useless because there are too few of them; the latter are helpless because there are too many of them.