CRIMEAN KHANATE, a state on the territory of the Crimean peninsula (from 1475 - on most of its territory) and adjacent lands in the 15-18th century [until the middle of the 15th century, these territories constituted the Crimean yurt (ulus) of the Golden Horde]. The capital was Crimea (Kirim; now Old Crimea), from about 1532 - Bakhchisaray, from 1777 - Kef (Kaffa).

Majority Russian historians they attribute the emergence of the Crimean Khanate to the beginning of the 1440s, when the founder of the Girey dynasty, Khan Hadji-Girey I, became the ruler of the Crimean peninsula with the support of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV Jagiellonchik. Turkish historiography denies the existence of Crimean statehood until the 1470s.

The main population of the Crimean Khanate was Crimean Tatars Along with them, significant communities of Karaites, Italians, Armenians, Greeks, Circassians and Gypsies lived in the Crimean Khanate. At the beginning of the 16th century, part of the Nogais (Mangyts) came under the authority of the Crimean khans, who roamed outside the Crimean peninsula, moving there during periods of drought and lack of food. The majority of the population professed Hanafi Islam; part of the population - Orthodoxy, Monothelitism, Judaism; in the 16th century there were small Catholic communities. Tatar population Crimean peninsula was partially exempted from paying taxes. The Greeks paid jiziya, the Italians were in a more privileged position thanks to partial tax breaks made during the reign of Mengli Giray I. By the middle of the 18th century, the population of the Crimean Khanate was about 500 thousand people. The territory of the Crimean Khanate was divided into kaymakanstvos (governorships), which consisted of kadylyks, covering a number of settlements. The borders of large beyliks, as a rule, did not coincide with the borders of kaymakans and kadylyks.

In the mid-1470s, the Ottoman Empire began to exert a decisive influence on the internal and external political position of the Crimean Khanate, whose troops captured South coast Crimean peninsula with the fortress of Kaffa (Kefe, taken in June 1475). From the beginning of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate acted as a kind of instrument of Ottoman policy in the Eastern European region, and its military forces began to take regular part in the military campaigns of the sultans. During the 16-17 centuries, there was a cooling of relations between the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire, which was associated both with internal political instability in the Crimean Khanate itself (which entailed the refusal of the khans to participate in the military campaigns of the sultans, etc.) and the foreign policy failures of the khans (for example, with the failure of the Turkish-Crimean campaign against Astrakhan in 1569), and with the political struggle in the Ottoman Empire. In the 18th century, there were no military confrontations between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire, however, increased political instability in the center and regions of the Ottoman Empire led to a more frequent change of khans on the Crimean throne than in the 17th century.

The state structure of the Crimean Khanate finally took shape in the late 15th - early 16th century. supreme power belonged to a khan - a representative of the Girey dynasty, who was a vassal of the Turkish sultan (officially fixed in the 1580s, when the name of the sultan began to be pronounced before the name of the khan during Friday prayers, which in the Muslim world served as a sign of vassalage).

The suzerainty of the Sultan consisted in the right to approve the khans on the throne with a special berat, the obligation of the Crimean khans, at the request of the Sultan, to field an army to participate in the wars of the Ottoman Empire, the refusal of the Crimean Khanate from allied relations with states hostile to the Ottoman Empire. In addition, one of the sons of the Crimean Khan was supposed to be in Constantinople (Istanbul) as a hostage. The sultans paid the khans and members of their families a monetary allowance, provided military support in campaigns when they met the interests of the Ottoman Empire. To control the khans, since 1475, the sultans had at their disposal the Kefe fortress with a strong garrison (under Mengli-Girey I, its governors were the sons and grandsons of the sultans, in particular the grandson of Sultan Bayazid II, the future Sultan Suleiman I Kanuna), Ozyu-Kale (Ochakov ), Azov and others.

The heir to the Crimean throne (kalga) was appointed by the khan. The new khan had to be approved by the heads of 4 clans of the Crimean Khanate (Karachi-beks) - Argynov, Barynov, Kipchaks and Shirinov. In addition, he had to receive an act (berat) from Istanbul on his approval.

Under the Khan, there was a council of the nobility - a divan, which mainly decided foreign policy issues. Initially, the main role in the sofa, in addition to members of the khan's family, was played by Karachi-beks of 4 (from the middle of the 16th century - 5) clans - Argyns, Barynovs, Kipchaks, Shirinovs, Sedzhiuts. Then important role representatives of the nobility, nominated by the khans, began to play. The composition of the divan included the heads of the surnames, who were hereditary "amiyats", that is, intermediaries in the diplomatic relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Russian state (the genus Appaka-Murza, later beks, in the Russian service - the princes Suleshevs), as well as Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( ON) (since 1569 they united into the Commonwealth) [genus of Kulyuk-Murza, later beks of the Kulikovs (Kulyukovs)]. Representatives of these families and their relatives, as a rule, were appointed ambassadors to Moscow, Krakow and Vilna. In addition, the composition of the divan included Karachi-beks of the Crimean Mangyts (Nogays who recognized the power of the Crimean Khan) - the Diveev beks (the family of one of the descendants of Edigei - Murza Timur bin Mansur). During the reign of Mengli Giray I the greatest influence in the divan was possessed by Karachi-beks Shirinov Eminek and his son Devletek. The predominance of the Shirins (who claimed descent from Genghisids) in the divan as a whole persisted until the end of the 18th century. From the end of the 16th century, the bash-aga (vizier), who was appointed by the khan, began to play an important role in the sofa.

The basis of the military forces of the Crimean Khanate was the cavalry (up to 120-130 thousand horsemen), exhibited for the period of military campaigns by the khan himself, other Gireys, the Crimean nobility and Crimean legs, as well as garrisons of fortresses. Distinctive feature The Crimean Tatar cavalry was the absence of a convoy and the presence of a spare horse for each rider, which ensured the speed of movement on a campaign and maneuverability on the battlefield. If the army was led by a khan, in the Crimean Khanate, as a rule, a kalga remained to ensure stability.

The economic situation of the Crimean Khanate throughout the entire period of its existence was unstable, as regularly repeated droughts led to mass loss of livestock and famine. Until the middle of the 17th century, one of the main sources of income for the Crimean Khanate was booty (mainly prisoners) captured during the raids of the Crimean khans. Khan was considered the supreme owner of the land of the Crimean Khanate. The Gireys had their own domain (erz mirie), which was based on fertile lands in the Alma river valley. The khans also owned all the salt lakes. The Khan distributed land to his vassals as inalienable possessions (beyliks). The owners of most of the cultivated land and livestock, along with the khan, were large feudal lords - the bey families, medium and small feudal lords - murzas and oglans. The land was leased on the terms of paying a 10th share of the harvest and working off 7-8 days of corvée per year. key role in the use of land by free villagers, the community (dzhemaat) played, in which collective land ownership was combined with private ownership. There were also waqf lands belonging to various Islamic institutions.

The leading position in the economy of the Crimean Khanate was occupied by animal husbandry. Farming was practiced only on part of the peninsula (the main crops were millet and wheat). The Crimean Khanate was one of the main suppliers of wheat to the Ottoman Empire. Viticulture and winemaking, horticulture and horticulture were also developed. Salt mining brought large incomes to the Khan's court. Handicraft production, which was largely regulated by guild associations, was dominated by leather processing, the manufacture of woolen products (mainly carpets), blacksmithing, jewelry and saddlery. In the steppe territories, nomadic animal husbandry was combined with agriculture, handicraft production, local and transit trade. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, traditions of trade exchange with neighboring countries developed, the practice of simultaneous circulation of Turkish, Russian, Lithuanian and Polish money was established when the Crimean khans minted their coins, the procedure for collecting duties by the khans, etc. In the 16th century, Christians formed the basis of the merchants of the Crimean Khanate. In the 17-18 centuries, the economy of the Crimean Khanate gradually reduced the share of income from military production, and from the 2nd half of the 18 century, the use of slave labor in agriculture and handicraft production sharply decreased.

Domestic politics. After the death of Hadji-Girey I in 1466, his eldest son, Nur-Devlet-Girey, inherited the throne. His power was disputed by his brother Mengli Giray I, who around 1468 managed to take the Crimean throne. Nur-Devlet-Girey managed to escape from the Crimean Khanate, and in the subsequent struggle for the throne, both applicants were actively looking for allies. Nur-Devlet-Girey tried to enlist the support of the khans of the Great Horde and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV, and Mengli-Girey I in the early 1470s began negotiations on an anti-Horde alliance with the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich. By 1476, Nur-Devlet-Girey took possession of the entire Crimean Khanate, but in 1478/79 Mengli-Girey I, sent from Istanbul by Sultan Mehmed II with Ottoman troops, reasserted himself on the throne.

The second reign of Mengli Giray I (1478/79 - January 1515) and the reign of his son Muhammad Giray I (1515-23) was a period of strengthening of the Crimean Khanate. In April 1524, the throne of the Crimean Khanate, with the support of the Ottoman troops, was taken by the brother of Mohammed-Girey I Saadet-Girey, who lived in Istanbul. At the same time, the sultan appointed Gazi-Girey I as a kalga under his uncle, however, at the moment he took the oath of allegiance, Saadet-Girey I ordered to kill his nephew, which marked the beginning of the tradition of physical elimination of pretenders to the throne, which continued throughout further history Crimean Khanate. During the reign of Saadet-Girey I (1524-32), the military-political activity of the Crimean Khanate decreased, and a large fortification construction began on Perekop in order to protect the Crimean peninsula from Nogai attacks. The dependence of the khan on the Ottoman Empire sharply increased, the most characteristic signs of the weakness of the khan's power in the Crimea appeared: a split in the Girey family and uncertainty in the succession to the throne (5 kalgas were replaced). In May 1532, the khan abdicated in favor of his nephew Islam Giray, who was supported by the majority of the nobility, and left the Crimean Khanate (he died around 1539 in Istanbul).

The active position of the new khan Islam-Giray I displeased the Turkish sultan Suleiman I Kanuni, who in September 1532 appointed Sahib-Giray I, who had ruled earlier in Kazan (September 1532 - early 1551), as khan. By the summer of 1537, he managed to defeat the forces of the displaced Islam Giray I, north of Perekop, who died in the process. Despite the victory, the position of the new khan did not become stable, since he had opponents among the members of the Girey dynasty, and among the Crimean nobility, and among the Nogai nobility, who organized a conspiracy against him. In the summer of 1538, during a campaign against Moldavia, Sahib-Giray I almost died in a skirmish with the Nogai, who were "led" to him by conspirators from among the nobility of the Crimean Nogai. In the 1540s, the Khan carried out a radical reform in the Crimean Khanate: the inhabitants of the Crimean peninsula were forbidden to lead a nomadic lifestyle, they were ordered to break up the wagons and live settled in auls. Innovations contributed to the planting of a settled agricultural way of life in the Crimean Khanate, but caused discontent among a significant part of the Crimean Tatars.

The pretender to the throne was the grandson of Mengli-Girey I, Devlet-Girey I, who fled from the Crimean Khanate to the Ottoman Empire, who arrived in Kef and proclaimed himself Khan. Most of the nobility instantly went over to his side. Sahib-Giray I, who at that time was on another campaign against Kabarda, hastily returned to the Crimean Khanate, but was captured and died along with his sons. In the spring of 1551, the sultan recognized Devlet Giray I as khan (reigned until June 1577). The heyday of the Crimean Khanate fell on his reign. The new Khan exterminated the entire family of the deposed Khan, gradually eliminated all representatives of the dynasty, except for his own children. He skillfully played on the contradictions between the various clans of the Crimean nobility: the Shirins (in the person of his son-in-law, Karachi-bek Azi), the Crimean Nogai (in the person of Karachi-bek Divey-Murza) and the Appak clan (in the person of Bek Sulesh) were loyal to him. Khan also provided refuge to emigrants from the former Khanate of Kazan and Circassian princes from Janiya.

After the death of Devlet-Girey I, his son Mohammed-Girey II (1577-84) ascended the throne, whose reign was marked by an acute internal political crisis. Part of the nobility supported his brothers - Adil-Girey and Alp-Girey, and the Sultan - uncle Mohammed-Girey II Islam-Girey. Khan's attempt to strengthen his position by establishing the position of the second heir (nuradin) further aggravated the situation. As a result failed attempt to suppress the performance of the kalga Alp-Girey Mohammed-Girey II was killed.

The position of the new khan Islam Giray II (1584-88) was also precarious. In the summer of 1584, the sons of Mohammed-Girey II Saadet-Girey, Safa-Girey and Murad-Girey invaded the Crimean peninsula with detachments of the Crimean Nogays and occupied Bakhchisarai; Saadet Giray was proclaimed khan. Islam Giray II with the military support of the Sultan Murad III retained nominal power. The rebellious princes of Girey asked for the "arm" of the Russian Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, who recognized Saadet-Girey (died in 1587) as the Crimean Khan, and his brother Murad-Girey received Astrakhan. The fall in the prestige of the khan's power increased the discontent of the Crimean nobility, who were subjected to repressions after the 1584 rebellion. Her flight began to the rebellious princes and to Istanbul to the Sultan. Of the nobility, only individual representatives clans Shirinov and Suleshev. The military potential of the Crimean Khanate fell sharply, which was attacked by the Dnieper Cossacks.

The internal political situation of the Crimean Khanate stabilized during the first reign of the brother of Mohammed-Girey II - Gazi-Girey II (May 1588 - the end of 1596). Under him, his brother Feth-Girey became Kalga, Safa-Girey, who returned to the Crimea along with part of the previously emigrated murzas, became Nuradin. Upon arrival in the Crimean Khanate, Gazi Giray II immediately reached an agreement with the majority of representatives of the Crimean nobility. The khan's entourage was made up of supporters of the children of Mohammed-Girey II - beks Kutlu-Girey Shirinsky, Debysh Kulikov and Arsanai Diveev. Individual supporters of Islam Giray II were forced to flee to Kef, and then to Istanbul. By the mid-1590s, Gazi-Girey II faced a new threat of destabilization in the Crimea: his main support in the Girey family, Safa-Girey, died, Arsanai Diveev died, and relations with the Kalga Feth-Girey deteriorated. As a result, representatives of the ruling elite of the Ottoman Empire, dissatisfied with the khan, persuaded Sultan Mehmed III to appoint Feth Giray as khan.

Feth-Girey I (1596-97), upon arrival in the Crimean Khanate, sought to protect himself from the revenge of his brother by appointing his nephews Bakht-Girey and Selyamet-Girey, the sons of Adil-Girey, as Kalga and Nuradin, but his position remained unstable. Soon, as a result of the political struggle in Istanbul, the Sultan issued a berat (decree) to restore Gazi-Girey II to the Crimean throne and provided him with military support. After the trial, Feth Giray was captured and killed along with his family.

During the years of his second reign (1597-1608), Gazi-Girey II dealt with the recalcitrant members of the Girey family and the murzas who supported them. Nuradin Devlet-Girey (son of Saadet-Girey) and Bek Kutlu-Girey Shirinsky were executed. The Khan's nephew Kalga Selyamet Giray managed to escape from the Crimean Khanate. After that, Gazi-Girey II appointed his sons Tokhtamysh-Girey and Sefer-Girey as Kalga and Nuradin.

From the beginning of the 17th century, changes of khans on the Crimean throne became more frequent, only individual representatives of the Girey dynasty tried to provide real opposition to the comprehensive control of the government of the Ottoman Empire over the Crimean Khanate. So, Mohammed-Girey III (1623-24, 1624-28) and his brother Kalga Shahin-Girey in 1624 refused to obey the decree of Sultan Murad IV on the removal of the Khan and by force defended their right to power and the autonomous status of the Crimean Khanate as part of the Ottoman Empire . Khan refused to participate in the Turkish-Persian war of 1623-39, became close to the Commonwealth, which opposed the Ottomans, and in December 1624 concluded an agreement with the Zaporozhian Sich, directed against the Ottoman Empire. However, in 1628 a new armed clash between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire ended in the defeat of the united Crimean-Zaporozhye troops and led to the expulsion of Mohammed-Girey III and Shahin-Girey from the Crimean Khanate. Separatist tendencies in the relations between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire also manifested themselves under Mohammed-Girey IV (1641-44, 1654-66) and Adil-Girey (1666-71). In the 18th century, the authority and powers of the khans decreased, the influence of the beys and heads of the nomadic Nogai hordes increased, centrifugal tendencies developed on the part of the Nogai.

Foreign policy. The main foreign policy opponent of the Crimean Khanate at the beginning of its existence was the Great Horde, which was defeated by the Crimeans in the 1490s - 1502. As a result, part of the Nogai tribes came under the authority of the Crimean khans. The Crimean khans positioned themselves as the successors of the khans of the Golden Horde. In 1521 Mohammed-Girey I succeeded in placing his brother Sahib-Girey on the Kazan throne, and in 1523, after a successful campaign against the Astrakhan Khanate, he placed Kalga Bahadur-Girey on the Astrakhan throne. In 1523, Sahib-Girey was forced to leave for the Crimean Khanate, and the Kazan throne was taken by his nephew, Safa-Girey (1524-31). In 1535, with the support of his uncle Safa-Giray, he managed to regain the Kazan throne (he ruled until 1546 and in 1546-49). The military-political activity of the Crimean Khanate in this direction sharply decreased after the accession of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to the Russian state.

The active actions of Mengli Giray I in the Volga region led to conflicts with the Nogai Horde that was being formed at that time. Nogai during the 16-18 centuries played an important role in the history of the Crimean Khanate, in particular, some of them were part of the army of the Crimean Khanate. In 1523, the Nogai killed Khan Mohammed-Girey I and Bahadur-Girey, and then, having defeated the Crimean troops near Perekop, invaded the Crimean peninsula and ravaged it. From the middle of the 16th century, the Lesser Nogai Horde (Kaziev ulus) fell into the orbit of influence of the Crimean Khanate.

Other important direction The foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate was relations with the Circassians, both "near" and "far", that is, with Western Circassia (Zhania) and Eastern Circassia (Kabarda). Zhania, already under Mengli Giray I, firmly entered the zone of Crimean influence. Under Mengli-Girey I, regular campaigns against Kabarda began, led either by the khan himself or by his sons (the largest took place in 1518). This direction of the foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate retained its significance until the end of its existence.

During the reign of Mengli Giray I, the important role of the Crimean Khanate in international relations in Eastern Europe. Diplomatic relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Russian state, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Mengli Giray I were intensive and regular. The practice of concluding allied treaties with them (bringing the so-called sherti), the tradition of receiving “commemoration” (“reminders”; in cash and in the form of gifts), which were considered by the khans as a symbol of the former rule of the Chinggisids over Eastern Europe, was established. In the 1480s - early 1490s foreign policy Mengli Giray I characterized a consistent course towards rapprochement with the Russian state in order to create a coalition against the Great Horde and the Jagiellons. At the beginning of the 16th century, after the collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian-Horde alliance, there was a slow but steady increase in the hostility of the Crimean Khanate towards the Russian state. In the 1510s, an alliance was formed between the Crimean Khanate and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the raids of the Crimean khans on the Russian state also belongs to this period. Relations between the Crimean Khanate and the Russian state sharply escalated under Devlet-Girey I, the reason for which was the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, as well as the strengthening of its position in the North Caucasus (the construction of the Terki fortress in 1567 at the confluence of the Sunzha River with the Terek). In 1555-58, under the influence of A.F. Adashev, a plan was developed for coordinated offensive operations against the Crimean Khanate; in 1559, Russian troops under the command of D.F. Adashev acted directly on the territory of the Khanate for the first time. However, the need to concentrate military forces on the theater of the Livonian War of 1558-83 forced Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible to abandon the further implementation of the Adashev plan, which opened up the possibility of revenge for Devlet Giray I. Attempts by the government of Tsar Ivan IV to solve the problem by diplomatic means (the embassy of A.F. Nagogoi in 1563-64) were not successful, although on January 2, 1564, a Russian-Crimean peace treaty was concluded in Bakhchisarai, which was violated by the khan six months later. The intensity of the Crimean raids decreased only after the defeat of the troops of the Crimean Khanate in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. At the same time, from the 1550s, raids were also made on southern lands ON, which was associated with the participation of the Dnieper Cossacks in the military operations of Russian governors. Despite the allied obligations of Devlet-Girey I to Sigismund II Augustus, the raids of the Crimean khans on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland continued into the 1560s (the largest in 1566). Muhammad Giray II, in the conditions of an acute domestic political crisis in the Crimean Khanate, refrained from interfering in Livonian War 1558-83. In 1578, through the mediation of the Turkish Sultan Murad III, alliance treaty Crimean Khanate with the Commonwealth, but at the same time diplomatic relations with Moscow were resumed. At the beginning of 1588, Islam-Girey II, on the orders of Murad III, undertook a campaign against the Commonwealth (as a response to Cossack attacks). In 1589, the Crimeans made a major raid on the Commonwealth. However, against the background of the strengthening of Moscow's position in the Caucasus (due, among other things, to the fact that Astrakhan was given to Murad-Girey) and the dissatisfaction of the Ottoman Empire with the friendly relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Russian state, the aggressiveness of the Crimean Khanate towards the Russian state intensified at the beginning of 1590- x years. In 1593-98 Russian-Crimean relations stabilized and acquired a peaceful character, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries they again became complicated, but after 1601 they were settled. With the beginning of the Time of Troubles, the Polish king Sigismund III unsuccessfully tried to provide support for the actions of False Dmitry I from the Crimean Khan, however, Gazi-Girey II, with the approval of the Sultan, took a hostile position towards the Commonwealth, considering it as an ally of the Habsburgs. In 1606-07 the Crimeans attacked the southern lands of Poland.

The gradual weakening of the Crimean Khanate led to the fact that in the 17-18 centuries it pursued a less active foreign policy. The relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Russian state throughout the 17th century developed in line with the already established forms and traditions of diplomatic relations. The practice of an annual exchange of embassies continued, until 1685 inclusive, the Russian government paid the Crimean khans an annual tribute (“commemoration”), the amount of which reached 14,715 rubles (finally abolished by a special clause of the Treaty of Constantinople in 1700). Correspondence with the tsar in the Tatar language was conducted by khan, kalga and nuradin.

In the first half of the 18th century, the Crimean khans were generally on friendly terms with Russia. However, separate raids of the 1730s and the 1735 campaign of Khan Kaplan Giray I to Persia through the territories Russian Empire led to hostilities Russian army to the Crimean Khanate during the Russo-Turkish War of 1735-39.

Accession of the Crimean Khanate to Russia. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, after the first victories of the Russian army, the Yedisan horde and the Budzhak (Belgorod) horde in 1770 recognized the suzerainty of Russia over themselves. The Russian government unsuccessfully tried to persuade the Crimean Khan Selim Giray III (1765-1767; 1770-71) to accept Russian citizenship. 14 (25) .6.1771 Russian troops under the command of General-in-Chief Prince V. M. Dolgorukov (from 1775 Dolgorukov-Krymsky) launched an assault Perekop fortifications, and by the beginning of July they took the main strategically important fortresses of the Crimean peninsula. Khan Selim Giray III fled to the Ottoman Empire. In November 1772, the new Khan Sahib-Giray II (1771-75) concluded an agreement with Russia on the recognition of the Crimean Khanate independent state under the auspices of the Russian Empress. According to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace of 1774, which fixed the independent status of the Crimean Khanate, Ottoman sultan reserved the right of a spiritual guardian (caliph) of the Crimean Muslims. Despite the gravitation of a part of the Tatar elite towards Russia, pro-Turkish sentiments dominated in the Crimean society. The Ottoman Empire, for its part, tried to maintain political influence in the Crimean Khanate, the northwestern Black Sea region, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the North Caucasus, including the Caucasian coast of the Black Sea. On 24.4 (5.5). 1777, Shagin-Girey, who was loyal to Russia, was elected as the Crimean Khan with the right to inherit the throne. The tax policy of the new Khan, the abuse of taxpayers and an attempt to create a court guard on the Russian model provoked in October 1777 - February 1778 popular unrest throughout the Crimean Khanate. After the unrest was suppressed due to the continued threat of a Turkish landing on the peninsula, the Russian military administration withdrew all Christians from Crimea (about 31 thousand people). This measure had a negative impact on the economy of the Crimean Khanate and caused, in particular, a reduction in tax revenues to the khan's treasury. The unpopularity of Shahin-Girey led to the fact that the Crimean nobility elected Bahadur-Girey II (1782-83), a protege of the Ottoman Empire, as Khan. In 1783, Shagin Giray was returned to the Crimean throne with the help of Russian troops, but this did not lead to the desired stabilization of the situation in the Crimean Khanate. As a result, on 8 (19) April 1783, Empress Catherine II issued a manifesto on the annexation of Crimea, Taman Peninsula and lands up to the Kuban River to Russia.

The accession of the Crimean Khanate to Russia significantly strengthened the position of the Russian Empire in the Black Sea: there were prospects economic development Northern Black Sea, the development of trade in the Black Sea and the construction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet.

Lit .: Matériaux pour servir à l'histoire du Khanate de Crimée - Materials for the history of the Crimean Khanate. St. Petersburg, 1864 (text in Tatar); Kurat A. N. Topkapi Sarayi Müzesi arsivindeki Altin ordu, Kinm ve Türkistan hanlarma ait yarlikl ve bitikler. Ist., 1940; Le Khanat de Crimé dans les archives du Musée du palais de Topkapi. R., 1978; Grekov I. B. Ottoman Empire, Crimea and countries of Eastern Europe in the 50-70s of the XVI century. // The Ottoman Empire and the countries of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe in the XV-XVI centuries. M., 1984; From the history of the regions: Crimea in the geopolitical faults of Eastern Europe. Legacy of the Golden Horde // Patriotic history. 1999. No. 2; Trepavlov V. V. History of the Nogai Horde. M., 2001; Khoroshkevich A.L. Rus and Crimea. From alliance to opposition. M., 2001; Faizov S. F. Letters of Khans Islam-Girey III and Mohammed-Girey IV to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and King Jan Kazimir: 1654-1658: Crimean Tatar diplomacy in political context post-Pereyaslav time. M., 2003; Smirnov V.D. The Crimean Khanate under the rule of the Ottoman Porte. M., 2005. T. 1: Until the beginning of the XVIII century.

A. V. Vinogradov, S. F. Faizov.

Map published in Vienna around 1790 with the boundaries of the Yedisan Horde

From Kuban to Budzhak

Part 1

The Crimean Khanate was one of the most powerful states in Eastern Europe. Its borders covered a fairly vast territory. In addition to the Crimean peninsula itself as the center of the country, the khanate included lands on the continent: in the north, immediately after Or-Kapy, East Nogai was located, in the north-west - Yedisan, in the west - Budzhak, and in the east - Kuban.

The boundaries of the khanate are fixed in many written sources of the 15th-18th centuries. In other words, if you look at a modern map and compare the available maps of past centuries, you can see that the borders of the independent Crimean Tatar state included the modern Odessa, Nikolaev, Kherson, partly Zaporozhye regions of Ukraine and most of the modern Krasnodar region of Russia.

Eastern Nogai

Immediately behind the city-fortress of Or-Kapy, endless steppes began. This was it historical area, called East Nogai. In the southwest it was washed by the Black Sea, and in the southeast by the Sea of ​​Azov. In the north, the Nogai lands bordered on the Wild Field, and later on the lands of the Zaporozhian Sich. Its natural boundary was the rivers Shilki-Su (Horse waters) and Ozyu-Su (Dnieper). The inhabitants of this steppe were two large Nogai hordes. The south belonged to the Dzhambuluks, and the north belonged to the Yedichkuls. Each of them was divided into separate clans. The Swedish historian Johann Erich Thunmann, who visited the khanate in the second half of the 18th century, named the most noble families: Chazlu, Kangli-Argakli, Ivak, Kazai-Murza, Iguri, Ismail-Murza, Irkhan-Kangli, Badraki, Jegal-Boldi, Boyatash and Bayutai. And another traveler, the German Ernst Kleeman, who visited the Crimea in 1768-1770, provided no less important information about the number of inhabitants of Eastern Nogai, namely about 500,000 Nogai families.

At the head of each clan was a Murza, who, in turn, was under the rule of the Crimean Khan. As you know, there was no regular army in the Crimean Khanate. But the Crimean Khan could always rely on his faithful Nogais. At the first notification from Bakhchisaray about a military campaign, askers gathered in the steppes and joined the khan's army, which was marching from Or. As a rule, over each of the five largest Nogai hordes was one of the princes of the Giray dynasty in a high position - a seraskir, in other words, a military leader, or minister of war. It was the seraskir who could command the Nogai askers during the military campaign.

According to the established tradition, the heads of noble Nogai clans were obliged on the eve of major Muslim holidays to send to Bakhchisaray, to the court of the Crimean Khan, four murzas with gifts and wishes of happiness and a long reign.

The rest of the Nogais were free people. The steppe dwellers had their own way of life, convenient for them in their usual area of ​​residence. It cannot be said that there were no cities, fortresses and large settlements in the steppe. Of course they were. That's just what the population was in the cities, now it's hard to say. However, they prospered and grew rich thanks to commodity-market relations. In Eastern Nogai, such cities as Alyoshki are known (today it is small town in the Kherson region, renamed Tsyurupinsk), Aslan is a city on the Dnieper, about which very little information has been preserved, Yeniche is the modern city of Genichesk on the shores of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and Kinburun or Kyl-Burun, which can no longer be found on modern map. Of the fortified towns-fortresses, information has been preserved about Kyzy-Kermen on the Dnieper, Islam-Kermen (now the city of Kakhovka), the fishing settlement of Ali-Agok (now the city of Skadovsk).

In addition, there were settlements and fortifications throughout the Eastern Nogai steppe. As a rule, they were of the same type in plan: solid houses, large yards, between which there were always empty gaps of 50 or 60 steps. In the middle of each village there was a vast space - a square where young Tatars could practice martial arts, and in another square, in the center of the village, a mosque was sure to rise. Despite the fact that the Nogais were Muslims, they still retained customs for a long time, dating back to the times when the Turks professed Tengrism.

Travelers in their descriptions of Tataria spoke of the Nogais of the steppe as friendly and hospitable people, calling them brave warriors. During the hostilities, the Nogais were the best archers. In addition to the bow, most of them were armed with a saber, a long javelin called a sungu, a dagger, and leather ropes. And only a few carried firearms.

AT Peaceful time The Yedichkulians and Dzhambuluks were engaged in pasture cattle breeding and agriculture. Since the soil in the steppe was fertile, wheat, red and yellow millet, barley, buckwheat, asparagus, garlic and onions were grown here. Surpluses were exported, their Nogais, as a rule, were taken to the Crimean port cities. The main objects of sale were cereals, meat, oil, honey, wax, wool, skins, etc.

Eastern Nogai is territorially quite extensive and was a plain with rare hills. There was a lack of fresh water due to the small number of rivers, especially in the central part of this region. However, they saved the wells that the Nogais built everywhere. True, in the south it was still the only lake Sut-Su (Milky Waters) with fresh water. Shrubs grew everywhere, there were no forests here either.

As Tunmann notes, fragrant herbs grew in the steppe, and the air here was saturated with a very pleasant, intoxicating, strong smell. And tulips were the most common flowers here.

The climate in the steppe is harsh and damp. The cold began at the end of September. The summer is hot, but because of the winds constantly blowing in the steppes, the heat was tolerated quite tolerably.

There were many wild animals in the Nogai steppes: wolves, foxes, marmots, martens, wild boars and goats, hares, hazel grouses, partridges, and also wild horses. It is about this unusual breed of horses that you can read in the writings of many travelers who visited the Crimean Khanate. One of the earliest references is found in 1574 by the Polish chronicler Jan Krasinsky.

These wild horses were distinguished by the fact that they were born with a reddish coat, which over the years became gray, mouse-colored, and the mane, tail and stripe along the rump remained black. They were famous for their temper and endurance, they were difficult to catch and very difficult to tame. As a rule, these wild "mustangs" walked in herds led by the strongest stallions.

It is impossible to ignore one more feature of the Nogai steppes. These are mounds over the graves of noble Turks once buried in the Northern Black Sea region. Many of these burial mounds date back to Scythian times. Many travelers who visited here during the Khan period could still observe stone statues on the tops of mounds with a face always turned to the east.

Yedisan, or Western Nogai

The borders between the Khan's regions on the continent were mainly rivers. So, the lands of the Yedisans - Edisan or Western Nogai - stretched between the Ak-Su (Bug) and Turla (Dniester) rivers, bordering Badzhak in the west. In the south, the lands of Yedisan were washed by the Black Sea, and in the north-west they bordered on Poland (later on the Hetmanate) in the area of ​​​​the river and the settlement of the same name Kodyma.

All this territory was originally under the rule of the Crimean khans. In 1492, on the Black Sea coast, near the mouth of the Dnieper, the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray founded the Kara-Kermen fortress. But in 1526 the fortress passed into the possession of the Ottomans and from that year it became known as Achi-Kale. But the rest of the territory of Edisan still remained with the Crimean rulers, and it was inhabited by the Nogais of the Edisan horde.

The historian and traveler Tunmann wrote that the Yedisan Horde was formed as part of the Great Nogai Horde in the steppes between the Volga and Yaik (now the Ural River). But after the 16th century, it migrated to the Kuban, and from there to the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region under the protection of the Crimean Khan, who secured the lands for them to live in, which became known as Edisan. These lands were already part of the Crimean Khanate and were inhabited by the Nogai, with whom, perhaps, the Edisans later mixed. Thunmann notes that this horde was quite strong, it was she who in 1758 rebelled against the Crimean Khan Khalim Giray and brought the Khan of Crimea Giray to power.

AT social order and way of life, the Edisans differed little from the eastern Nogais. And the historical fate of this country was similar to the Eastern Nogai and the Crimea.

nature and climatic conditions here they are quite similar to the Eastern Nogai. However, in its northern and eastern parts there are mountains and valleys. But in the south, by the sea, there are plains and rarely found sandy hills. The vegetation in these places was sparse, only tall grass, where herds of sheep, cattle, horses and camels were pastured. Game was found here in abundance. The soil was as fertile as in neighboring East Nogai. Good varieties of wheat grew here, which brought considerable income to the locals. Several salt lakes in the south of Yedisan were also profitable. And if in the inner regions of the Eastern Nogai there was a shortage of water, then the rivers Ak-Su, Turla, Kodyma, Chapchakly, Bolshaya and Malaya Berezan, Ulu, Kuchuk-Deligel and many small rivers flowed through the Western Nogai.

The historical centers of the region were the Tatar cities: Balta, a border town on the Kadyma River, Dubassary, a town on the Turla (Dniester) River; Yeni-Dunya - a city on the Black Sea coast with a harbor and a fortress; Vozia is a coastal city and Khadzhibey by the Black Sea, not far from the mouth of the Turla. The inhabitants of the cities of Yedisan, as a rule, were engaged in trade. The main objects of trade were grain and salt.

To be continued…

Prepared by Gulnara Abdulaeva

Crimean Khanate in 1600.

Capitals of the Khanate

The main city of the Crimean Yurt was the city of Kyrym, also known as Solkhat (modern Old Crimea), which became the capital of Oran-Timur Khan in 1266. According to the most common version, the name Kyrym comes from the Chagatai qIrIm- pit, trench, there is also an opinion that it comes from the Western Kipchak qIrIm- "my hill" ( qIr- hill, hill -Im- affix belonging to the I person singular).

When a state independent of the Horde was formed in the Crimea, the capital was transferred to the fortified mountain fortress Kyrk-Er, then to Salachik, located in the valley at the foot of the Kyrk-Era, and, finally, in 1532 to the newly built city of Bakhchisarai.

Story

background

The multinational population of Crimea at that time consisted mainly of Kypchaks (Polovtsy), Greeks, Goths, Alans, and Armenians living in the steppe and foothill part of the peninsula, living mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of mixed Kypchak-Mongol origin.

Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the current Crimean peninsula, as a whole, was painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly staged punitive campaigns in the Crimea, when local population refused to pay tribute. Nogai's campaign in 1299 is known, as a result of which a number of Crimean cities suffered. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to appear in the Crimea.

There are legends that in the XIV century Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd defeated the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then invaded the Crimea, devastated Chersonese and seized valuable church objects here. A similar legend also exists about his successor named Vitovt, who in 1397 reached Kaffa itself in the Crimean campaign and again destroyed Chersonese. Vitovt in the Crimean history is also known for the fact that during the Horde turmoil late XIV centuries, provided refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and the Grodno region of Belarus. In 1399, Vitovt, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla by Tokhtamysh's rival Timur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by Emir Yedigey, and made peace.

gaining independence

Vassalage to the Ottoman Empire

Wars with Lithuania, Poland, the Russian kingdom in the early period

From the end of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate made constant raids on Lithuania and Poland, and after the collapse of the Russian-Crimean union after the death of Ivan III, on the Russian Kingdom.

17th - early 18th century

Prince V. M. Dolgorukov, who was in charge of the second Russian army, entered the Crimea, defeated Khan Selim III in two battles, and within a month took possession of the entire Crimea, and captured a Turkish seraskir in Kef. Bakhchisaray lay in ruins. Dolgorukov's army devastated the Crimea. A number of villages were burned, killed civilians. Khan Selim III fled to Istanbul. The Crimeans laid down their arms, bowed to the side of Russia and presented Dolgorukov with a sworn list with the signatures of the Crimean nobility and a notification of the election of Sahib II Giray to the khans, and his brother Shahin Giray to the kalgi.

The Crimean Khanate included the Crimean Peninsula itself and lands on the continent: the territories between the Dniester and the Dnieper, the Sea of ​​Azov and part of the Kuban.

Most of the lands outside the Crimea were sparsely populated steppes, on which cavalry could move, but where it would be difficult to build fortresses required for constant control of the occupied territories. Urban settlements were located in the Volga region and on the Crimean coast and were influenced by other khanates and ottoman empire. All this significantly limited the growth of the economy and the political influence of the khanate.

The Crimean khans were interested in the development of trade, which gave significant profit to the treasury. Among the goods exported from the Crimea are raw leather, sheep's wool, morocco, sheep's coats, gray and black smushkas. A significant role was played by the slave trade and ransoms for those captured in the lands of the Commonwealth and the Russian Kingdom. The main buyer of slaves was the Ottoman Empire.

• Bakhchisaray kaymakanism
• Ak-Mechet Kaymakanism
• Karasubazar kaymakanism
• Gezlevskoe or Evpatoria kaymakanstvo
• Kafa or Feodosia kaymakanism
• Perekop kaymakanism

Kaymakanstvo consisted of 44 kadylyks.

Army

Military activity was mandatory for both large and small feudal lords. Specificity military organization Crimean Tatars, which fundamentally distinguished it from the military affairs of other European nations, was of particular interest to the latter. Fulfilling the tasks of their governments, diplomats, merchants, travelers sought not only to establish contacts with the khans, but also tried to get acquainted in detail with the organization of military affairs, and often their mission was to study the military potential of the Crimean Khanate.

Long time there was no regular army in the Crimean Khanate, and in fact all the men of the steppe and foothill part of the peninsula who were able to carry weapons took part in military campaigns. From an early age, the Crimeans were accustomed to all the hardships and hardships of military life, learned to wield weapons, ride a horse, endure cold, hunger, and fatigue. Khan, his sons, individual beys made raids, got involved in hostilities with their neighbors, mainly only when they were sure of a successful outcome. Intelligence played an important role in the military operations of the Crimean Tatars. Special scouts went ahead in advance, clarified the situation, and then became the guides of the advancing army. Using the element of surprise, when they could catch the enemy by surprise, they often got relatively easy prey. But almost never did the Crimeans act on their own against the regular, numerically predominant troops.

The Khan's Council established the norm, according to which the Khan's vassals were to supply warriors. Some of the inhabitants remained to look after the property of those who had gone on a campaign. These same people were supposed to arm and support the soldiers, for which they received part of the military booty. In addition to military service, in favor of the khan was paid sauga- the fifth, and sometimes most of the booty that the Murzas brought with them after the raids. The poor people who participated in these campaigns hoped that the campaign for prey would allow them to get rid of everyday difficulties, make their existence easier, therefore they were relatively willing to follow their feudal lord.

In military affairs among the Crimean Tatars, two types of marching organization can be distinguished - a military campaign, when the Crimean army, led by a khan or kalga, takes part in the hostilities of the warring parties, and a predatory raid - besh-bash(five-headed - a small Tatar detachment), which was often carried out by individual murzas and beys with relatively small military detachments in order to obtain booty and capture prisoners.

According to the descriptions of Guillaume de Beauplan and Marsiglia, the Crimeans equipped themselves quite simply - they used a light saddle, blankets, and sometimes covered the horse with sheepskin, did not put on a bridle, using a rawhide belt. Indispensable for the rider was a whip with a short handle. The Crimeans were armed with a saber, a bow and a quiver with 18 or 20 arrows, a knife, they had a steel for making fire, an awl and 5 or 6 fathoms of belt ropes for knitting captives. The favorite weapons of the Crimean Tatars were sabers made in Bakhchisarai,

Crimean Khanate(1441/1443–1783), a medieval state in the Crimea. It was formed on the territory of the Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde during its collapse. The founder of the Crimean Khanate - Hadji Giray (1441/1443-1466). The borders of the Crimean Khanate during the period of its power (mid-15th century) included the territories of the Northern Black Sea region from the mouth of the Dniester in the West to the right bank of the Don in the East, to the Vorskla River in the North.

The administrative division of the Crimean Khanate was traditional for the medieval Turko-Tatar states and consisted of four large possessions of the Argyn, Baryn, Kipchak and Shirin families. The nomadic possessions of Yedisan, Budzhak, Small Nogai depended on the Crimean Khanate. During its heyday, the khanate was divided into beyliks, which united the lands of several settlements and were ruled by representatives of various Tatar clans.

The capital - the city of Bakhchisaray - is a major religious, political and commercial center. There were other large cities: Solkhat (Iski-Crimea), Kafa, Akkerman, Azak (Azov), Kyrk-Er (Chufut-Kale), Gyozlev, Sudak. All of them were the centers of beyliks and the center of administrative power, crafts, trade, religious life.

Tatars, Greeks, Armenians, Karaites, Krymchaks lived on the lands of the Crimean Khanate; in port cities also Italian merchants.

The nobility called themselves Tatars, sometimes with the addition of "Krymly" (that is, Crimean), and the main population most often identified itself on a religious basis - Muslims.

The main language in the Crimean Khanate was Turkic, it also carried out office work, diplomatic correspondence and literary creativity; from the 16th century, numerous Ottomanisms began to penetrate into it.

The economic occupations of the population of the Crimean Khanate were strictly regionalized: agriculture, horticulture and viticulture were cultivated in the southern foothill part, semi-nomadic cattle breeding in the steppe part of Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Wheat, barley, millet, rice, lentils were grown. Peaches, pears, apple trees, plums, cherries, and nuts were bred in orchards. The population was engaged in beekeeping, fishing and hunting. Cities, especially port cities, were centers of highly developed crafts such as ironworking, weapons, weaving, leather, woodworking, pottery, jewelry, and construction. have been developed trade relations with Turkey, Russia, Poland, with the countries of Transcaucasia. The main export items from the Crimean Khanate were wheat, honey, and slaves; import - weapons, fabrics, spices, luxury goods. Famous trade fairs are in Cafe, Gozlev, Sudak and Or-Kapu (Perekop).

The supreme power in the Crimean Khanate belonged to the khans from the Girey family, descendants of Khan Jochi. The tamga (emblem) of the Crimean Khanate was a sign in the form of a trident comb, and the tugra was a calligraphically written tamga, preserved in various forms in the diplomatic correspondence of the Crimean khans. After the establishment in 1475 of the vassalage of the Crimean Khanate from Turkish Empire here another system of government was formed. The real ruler of the Crimea was the Turkish sultan, who had the right to remove and appoint khans, control everything international connections khanates, as well as to call the Crimean troops on a campaign. Formally, the khans of the Crimean Khanate were sovereign monarchs, but in reality their power was limited by Turkish sultans and ruling clans. The khans sealed all the laws of the country with their seal and performed other representative functions. The basis of the Khan's wealth was his ulus, located in the valleys of the Alma, Kacha and Salgir rivers. The residence of the khans from the end of the 15th century was located in Bakhchisarai. The second most important representative of the Gireys was the heir to the throne - kalga, usually the eldest representative of the family after the khan. His residence and administration were located in Ak-Mechet. The possession of kalga - kalgalyk was not inherited, but was state property. Since 1578, another heir to the throne appeared in the Crimean Khanate - Nuraddin, the third most important; his possessions were located in the Alma valley in Kachi-Saray. In fact, the power in the Crimean Khanate belonged to the Tatar nobility, in which 4 ruling clans stood out: Shirin, Argyn, Baryn and Kipchak (Yashlav). Later, the Nogai clans Mangyt (Mansur) and Sidzheut joined them. In the 16th-18th centuries, there was probably a rotation of clans, when the Mangyts ousted the Argyn, Kipchak or Baryn clans from power structures. The form of influence of the aristocracy on state affairs was the council under the khan - divan. It consisted of Kalga, Nuraddin, Shirin Bey, Mufti, representatives of the highest Tatar nobility, headed by Karachibeks from four ruling clans, rulers - serakesirs of three nomadic hordes (Budzhak, Edisan, Nogai). The sofa was in charge of everyone state affairs, and also solved complex court cases that were not subject to the jurisdiction of estate and local courts; was engaged in the determination of public expenditures, including the maintenance of the khan and his court.

The highest administrative and military power was exercised by Ulug Karachibek from the Shirin clan, the residence was in Solkhat. Or-bek, the residence in Perekop, was engaged in ensuring the external security of the state. financial affairs and taxes were in charge of khan-agasy (vizier), as well as various officials: kazandar-bashi, aktachi-bashi, defterdar-bashi, killarji-bashi. After the establishment of dependence on the Turkish Empire, the representative of the Sultan began to play an important role in the life of the Crimea.

social organization The nobility in the Crimean Khanate had a hierarchical system associated with the rights to land ownership or the collection of a certain tax, for which the owners were obliged to serve their overlord. Ownership was divided into conditional - ikta, suyurgal and unconditional - tarkhan (exemption from all or part of taxes and duties). The highest stratum of the nobility was made up of the descendants of the Gireys - kalga, nuraddin, sultans, murzas, beks and minor service nobility - emeldashi and sirdashi. The army of the Crimean Khanate consisted of the khan's guard (kapy-kulu) and the militias of the Tatar clans, as well as the troops of nomadic tribes with a total number of 4 thousand to 200 thousand soldiers. The basis of the army was the service nobility, which made up the cadres of military leaders and professional soldiers, mainly heavily armed cavalrymen, total strength which reached 8-10 thousand people. AT early XVI century, under the khan, a permanent professional army began to form, similar to the Turkish one, consisting of detachments of infantrymen armed with muskets (janissry and tyufenkchi), as well as field artillery (zarbuzan). Artillery was used in field battles and in the defense of fortifications. For crossings and battles on the rivers, the combat and transport fleet was used. In the 16th-18th centuries, the detachments of the Crimean Khan most often acted as part of the Turkish troops. In field combat, operational maneuvers, flank coverage, and false retreats were used. During the battle, the Tatars tried to keep their distance, hitting the enemy with arrows.

The bulk of the population consisted of a taxable class that paid taxes to the state or the feudal lord, the main of which was the traditional yasak for the Tatar states. There were other taxes, fees and duties: the supply of provisions to the troops and authorities (anbar-maly, ulufa-susun), yam duty (ilchi-kunak), taxes in favor of the clergy (gosher and zakat). Large receipts the treasury of the Crimean Khanate was provided with payment for the participation of the military contingents of the Crimean Tatars in the campaigns of the Turkish sultans, monetary contributions from Poland and Russia, issued to prevent raids on their territory, as well as military booty.

state religion Islam was in the Crimean Khanate. The head of the clergy was a mufti from the family of Sayyids. Muftis and sayyids actively participated in the political life of the country, and were also involved in legal proceedings. The clergy were also in charge of religious educational institutions - mektebs and madrasahs. In them, the bulk of the country's population was taught to read and write and the basic canons of religion. Data have been preserved on the existence of manuscript libraries and copyists of books at the madrasah and the court of the khan. The literacy and culture of the population is evidenced by preserved items with inscriptions, tombstones with epitaphic inscriptions, documents on office work. Literature developed rapidly. The collection of poems and poems "The Rose and the Nightingale" by Khan Gazi Giray has been preserved. Khans Bogadyr-Girey and Selim-Girey were also poets. There was an official historiography in the Crimean Khanate. In the 16th-17th centuries, the "History of Khan Sahib-Girey" by Remmal-Khoja, the anonymous "History of Dasht-i Kipchak", about 1638, "The History of Khan Said-Girey" by Haji Mehmed Senai appeared. The well-known fundamental work of the 18th century "Seven Planets" by Seyyid Muhammad Riza. The main motive of these works is the desire to prove the inherent value of the Tatar history, to determine the role and place of the Crimean khans in the history of Turkey.

Construction and architecture were at a high level of development, for example, the white-stone Bakhchisaray was famous for its mosques - Tahtali-Jami (1704), Eshel-Jami (1764), Hiji-Jami (1762-1769). In Evpatoria, the Jumi-Jami mosque (XVI century) was created. Mausoleums (durbe) of the Crimean khans and khan-bike were also built - Turabek-khanum, Mengli-Girey, Muhammad-Girey. High level reached the art of stone carving, tombstones with floral ornaments were made. Music developed, some representatives of the Girey family, who were educated in Turkey, were famous musicians: Sahib-Girey, Gazi-Girey.

The population of the Crimean Khanate became the basis for the formation of the modern Crimean Tatar nation, laying its main political, cultural and language traditions.

The Crimean Khanate pursued an active foreign policy. Having strengthened the internal position in the state, Hadji Giray and his immediate descendants fought with the khans of the Great Horde, often entered into an alliance with the Russian state. However, during this period, the influence of the Ottoman Empire sharply increased, which extended its power to the entire Black Sea coast. On June 1, 1475, the Turkish fleet captured Kafa and other Italian colonies and Gothic fortresses. Since that time, the Crimean Khan became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. In the first third of the 16th century, as Turkey became stronger and Russia began to expand in the Volga region, Russian-Crimean contradictions escalated. They sharply intensified after the deposition of the Russian protege Shah Ali in Kazan and the enthronement of Khan Sahib Giray. The elevation of Sahib-Girey to the Kazan throne, and then his younger brother Safa-Girey, caused a series of conflicts and wars between Moscow and the Crimean Khanate. Russian military campaigns became more frequent after the death of Safa Giray in 1546 and ended with the conquest of Kazan (1552). The wars of the Crimean Khanate with Russia began, in which the main demand of the Crimean Khan was the return of khans from the Girey family to Kazan. In these wars, the Crimean Khanate was supported by Turkey, which, in an effort to expand its influence in the North Caucasus, undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Astrakhan (1569). In 1571, Khan Devlet Giray approached Moscow and burned it down, but in 1572 he was defeated in the Battle of Molodi, which forced him to sign peace with Moscow. All attempts to liberate Kazan from Russian rule were unsuccessful. In the XVII-XVIII centuries, the Crimean Khanate participated in all the military enterprises of the Turkish Empire: in the wars against Hungary, the Commonwealth, Russia, Austria and Iran. The territories of Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Wallachia were subjected to repeated attacks by the Crimean troops.

At the end of the 17th century, during the war with Turkey, Russia launched Crimean campaigns (1687, 1689), which ended in vain. In 1711, the troops of the Crimean Khanate participated in the war with Russia, which ended with the Treaty of Prut, which ensured the preservation of the Crimean Khanate. AT late XVIII century, the aggressive policy of the Russian Empire led to a series of Russian-Turkish wars. According to the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi peace treaty of 1774, the Crimean Khanate ceased to be a vassal of Turkey and passed into the sphere of influence of Russia. The policy of Khan Shagin Giray (1777-1783) caused discontent among the population and the aristocracy and provoked an uprising. Under the pretext that the new khan was not approved by Russia, Russian troops were brought into the Crimea. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to the Russian Empire. On April 8, 1783, Empress Catherine II issued a manifesto, according to which Crimea, Taman and Kuban became Russian regions. For the population, the former rights were formally retained, they were provided peaceful life and justice. A new era began for Crimea - the period of Russian colonization and the gradual displacement of the Tatars.

• Hadji Giray (1443-1466)
• Nur-Devlet (1466-1469, 1474-1477)
• Mengli Giray I (1469-1515, with a break in 1474-1478)
• Janibek-Girey I (1477-1478)
• Muhammad Giray I (1515-1523)
• Gazi Giray I (1523–1524)
• Saadet Giray I (1524-1532)
• Islam Giray I (1532)
• Sahib Giray I (1532-1551)
• Devlet Giray I (1551-1577)
• Muhammad Giray II (1577-1584)
• Islam Giray II (1584–1588)
• Gazi Giray II (1588–1597, 1597–1608)
• Fath Giray I (1597)
• Selamet Giray I (1608-1610)
• Janibek-Girey II (1610-1622, 1627-1635)
• Muhammad Giray III (1622-1627)
• Inet Giray (1635–1638)
• Bahadur Giray (1638-1642)
• Muhammad Giray IV (1642-1644, 1654-1665)
• Islam Giray III (1644–1654)
• Adil Giray (1665–1670)
• Selim Giray I (1670-1677, 1684-1691, 1692-1698, 1702-1604)
• Murad Giray (1677–1683)
• Hadji Giray II (1683–84)
• Saadet Giray II (1691)
• Safa Giray (1691–92)
• Devlet Giray II (1698–1702, 1707–13)
• Gazi Giray III (1704–07)
• Kaplan-Girey I (1707, 1713–16, 1730–36)
• Kara-Devlet-Girey (1716–17)
• Saadet Giray III (1717–24)
• Mengli Giray II (1724–30, 1737–39)
• Fath Giray II (1736–37)
• Selim Giray II (1743–48)
• Arslan Giray (1748–56, 1767)
• Maksud Giray (1767–68)
• Halim Giray (1756–58)
• Krym-Girey (1758–64, 1767–69)
• Selim Giray III (1764–67, 1770–71)
• Devlet Giray III (1769–70, 1775–77)
• Kaplan-Girey II (1770)
• Maksud-Girey II (1771–72)
• Sahib Giray II (1772–75)
• Shagin-Giray (1777–83)

Crimean Khanate: history, territory, political structure

The Crimean Khanate arose in 1441. This event was preceded by turmoil in the Golden Horde. In fact, a separatist then ascended the throne in Crimea - Khadzhi Giray, distant relative Janike Khanym, wife of the Golden Horde Khan Edigey. Khansha did not want to take the reins of government into her own hands sometime powerful state and went to Kyrk-Or, assisting in the promotion of Haji Giray. Soon this city became the first capital of the Crimean Khanate, which occupied the territory from the Dnieper to the Danube, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, almost the entire modern Krasnodar Territory.

Further history of the new political education- this is a relentless struggle with representatives of other Golden Horde clans who tried to conquer the possessions of the Gireys. As a result of a long confrontation, the Crimean Khanate managed to win final victory when in 1502 the last Horde ruler Sheikh-Ahmed died. At the head of the Crimean yurt then stood Mengli Giray. Having removed his political enemy, the khan appropriated his regalia, title and status, but all this did not save him from the constant raids of the steppe dwellers, who now and then took root in the Crimea. Modern historians are inclined to believe that the Crimean Khanate never intended to seize foreign territories. It is likely that all the actions taken by the Crimean khans were aimed at maintaining and asserting their power, at fighting against the influential Horde family of Namagans.

All this can be traced even in individual historical episodes. So, after the death of Khan Akhmat, the Crimean Khanate decided to establish relations with his sons and hospitably sheltered them. But the heirs of the Horde throne decided to leave the khan's capital, for which Mengli Giray took one of them prisoner. The second - Sheikh Ahmed - fled. The third son - Seid-Ahmed II - who at that time became the Khan of the Horde, organized a campaign against the Crimea. Having freed Murtaza, Seid-Ahmed II took Eski-Kyrym, and then went to Kefe.

At that time, Turkish heavy artillery was already standing in the Cafe, which forced the Horde to flee without looking back. This is how the friendly gesture of the Crimean Khan served as a pretext for another devastation of the peninsula, and the Turks showed that they could defend the territories under their influence. Then Mengli Giray caught up with the offenders and took away the property and captives stolen in the khanate.

The relationship of the khanate with the Ottoman Empire special place in the history of Crimea. In the second half of the 15th century, Turkish troops occupied the Genoese possessions of the peninsula and the territory of the Principality of Theodoro. The Crimean Khanate also found itself in Turkish dependence, but from 1478 the khan became a vassal of the padishah and continued to rule the interior regions of the peninsula. At first, the sultan did not interfere in the issues of succession to the throne in the Crimean Khanate, but a century later everything changed: the Crimean rulers were appointed directly in Istanbul.

It is interesting that a specific for that time acted in the yurt. political regime. Something like democracy. On the peninsula, there were elections for the khan, during which the votes of the local nobility were taken into account. However, there was one limitation - future ruler khanate could only belong to the Girey family. The second political person after the khan was the kalga. Kalgoy, most often, was appointed brother of the ruler of the khanate. Representative power in the khanate belonged to the Big and Small sofas. The first included murzas and respected people of the area, the second - officials close to the khan. Legislature was in the hands of the mufti, who made sure that all the laws of the khanate were in accordance with Shariah. The role of modern ministers in the Crimean Khanate was played by viziers, they were appointed by the khan.

Few people know that the Crimean Khanate contributed to the liberation of Russia from gold Horde yoke. It happened even under the father of Sheikh-Ahmed. Then the Horde Khan Akhmat withdrew his troops without engaging in battle with the Russians, because he did not wait for the Polish-Lithuanian reinforcements, which were held back by the Crimean Tatar soldiers. Contrary to popular belief, relations between the Khan's Crimea and Moscow were friendly for a long time. Under Ivan III, they had a common enemy - Sarai. The Crimean Khan helped Moscow get rid of the Horde yoke, and then he began to call the king "his brother", thereby recognizing him as an equal, instead of imposing tribute on the kingdom.

Rapprochement with Moscow shook the friendly relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Lithuanian-Polish principality. Casimir found a common language with the Horde khans, quarreling with the Crimea for a long time. Over time, Moscow began to move away from the Crimean Khanate: the struggle for the lands of the Caspian and Volga regions led to the fact that the king was looking for support among the very Namagans with whom the Gireys could not share power for a long time. Under Ivan IV the Terrible, Devlet I Girey wanted to restore the independence of Kazan and the Caspian Sea, the Turks volunteered to help the khan, but he did not allow interference in the sphere of influence of the Crimean Khanate. At the end of the spring of 1571, the Tatars burned Moscow, after which the Moscow sovereigns until late XVII in. were forced to pay the Crimean Khan regular "commemoration".

After the formation of the Ukrainian Hetman State, the Crimean Khanate cooperated with the rulers of the Cossack state. It is known that Khan Islam III Giray helped Bogdan Khmelnitsky during liberation war with Poland, and after the battle of Poltava, the Crimean troops went to Kyiv along with the people of Pylyp Orlyk, Mazepa's successor. In 1711, Peter I lost the battle with the Turkish-Tatar troops, after which the Russian Empire was forced to forget about the Black Sea region for several decades.

Between 1736 and 1738 The Crimean Khanate was swallowed up by the Russian-Turkish war. As a result of the hostilities, many people died, some of whom were crippled by the cholera epidemic. The Crimean Khanate sought revenge, therefore, contributed to the ignition new war between Russia and Turkey, which began in 1768 and lasted until 1774. However, the Russian troops again won and forced the Crimeans to submit, electing Sahib II Gerai as khan. Soon uprisings began on the peninsula, the local population did not want to come to terms with the new authorities. the last khan there was Shahin Giray on the peninsula, but after he abdicated, in 1783 Catherine II finally annexed the lands of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire.

Development of agriculture, crafts, trade in the Crimean Khanate

The Crimean Tatars, like their ancestors, greatly appreciated animal husbandry, which was a way of earning money and getting food. Among domestic animals, horses were in the first place. Some sources claim that the Tatars preserved two different breeds that have long lived in the Northern Black Sea region, preventing them from mixing. Others say that it was in the Crimean Khanate that a new type of horse was formed, which was distinguished by endurance unprecedented at that time. Horses, as a rule, grazed in the steppe, but the herdsman, who is also a veterinarian and breeder, always looked after them. A professional approach was also seen in the breeding of sheep, which were the source of dairy products and rare Crimean astrakhans. In addition to horses and sheep, the Crimean Tatars raised cattle, goats and camels.

The Crimean Tatars did not know settled agriculture even in the first half of the 16th century. For a long time, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate plowed the land in the steppes in order to leave from there in the spring and return only in the fall, when it would be necessary to harvest. In the process of transition to a settled way of life, a class of Crimean Tatar feudal lords appeared. Over time, territories began to be distributed for military merit. At the same time, the Khan was the owner of all the lands of the Crimean Khanate.

The crafts of the Crimean Khanate were originally domestic in nature, but closer to the beginning of the 18th century, the cities of the peninsula began to acquire the status of large craft centers. Among these settlements were Bakhchisaray, Karasubazar, Gezlev. AT last century the existence of the khanate, handicraft workshops began to appear there. The specialists working in them united in 32 corporations, which were headed by usta-bashi with assistants. The latter monitored production and regulated prices.

Crimean artisans of that time made shoes and clothes, jewelry, copper utensils, felt, kilims (carpets) and much more. Among the craftsmen there were those who knew how to process wood. Thanks to their work, courts, beautiful houses, inlaid chests that can be called works of art, baby cradles, tables and other household items appeared in the Crimean Khanate. Among other things, the Crimean Tatars knew a lot about stone cutting. This is evidenced by the dyurbe tombs and mosques that have partially survived to this day.

The basis of the economy of the Crimean Khanate was trading activity. This Muslim state is hard to imagine without Kafa. The port of Kafa received merchants from almost all over the world. People from Asia, Persia, Constantinople and other cities and powers regularly visited there. Merchants arrived in Kefa to purchase slaves, bread, fish, caviar, wool, handicrafts, and more. They were attracted to the Crimea, first of all, by cheap goods. It is known that wholesale markets were located in Eski-Kyrym and in the city of Karasubazar. The internal trade of the khanate also flourished. Bakhchisaray alone had a bread, vegetable and salt market. In the capital of the Crimean Khanate, there were entire blocks set aside for trading shops.

Life, culture and religion of the Crimean Khanate

The Crimean Khanate is a state with good developed culture represented mainly by examples of architecture and traditions. The largest city of the Crimean Khanate was Kafa. About 80,000 people lived there. Bakhchisaray was the capital and the second largest settlement of the Khanate, where only 6,000 people lived. The capital differed from other cities in the presence of the khan's palace, however, all the Crimean Tatar settlements were built with soul. The architecture of the Crimean Khanate is amazing mosques, fountains, tombs ... The houses of ordinary citizens, as a rule, were two-story, built of wood, clay and buta.

Crimean Tatars wore clothes made of wool, leather, homespun and acquired overseas materials. The girls braided their braids, decorated their heads with a velvet cap with rich embroidery and coins, and wore a marama (white scarf) over it. An equally common headdress was a scarf, which could be woolen, thin or colored patterned. Of the clothes, the Crimean Tatars had long dresses, shirts below the knees, trousers and warm caftans. Women of the Crimean Khanate were very fond of jewelry, especially rings and bracelets. Black lambskin hats, fezzes or skullcaps flaunted on the heads of men. They tucked their shirts into trousers, wore sleeveless jackets that looked like a vest, jackets and caftans.

The main religion of the Crimean Khanate was Islam. Important government positions in Crimea belonged to the Sunnis. However, Shiites and even Christians lived quite calmly on the peninsula. Among the population of the khanate were people who were brought to the peninsula as Christian slaves, and then converted to Islam. After a certain period of time - 5-6 years - they became free citizens, after which they could go to their native territories. But not everyone left the beautiful peninsula: often the former slaves remained to live in the Crimea. Boys kidnapped in Russian lands also became Muslims. Such youths were brought up in a special military school and after a few years they joined the ranks of the Khan's guard. Muslims prayed in mosques, near which there were cemeteries and mausoleums.

So, the Crimean Khanate was formed as a result of the split of the Golden Horde. This happened around the 40th year of the 15th century, possibly in 1441. Its first khan was Haji Giray, he became the founder of the ruling dynasty. The end of the existence of the Crimean Khanate is associated with the annexation of Crimea to the Russian Empire in 1783.

The khanate included lands that previously belonged to the Mongol-Tatars, including the principality of Kyrk-Or, conquered in the second half of the 14th century. Kyrk-Or was the first capital of the Gireys, later the khans lived in Bakhchisarai. The relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Genoese territories of the peninsula (then Turkish) can be described as friendly.

With Moscow, the khan either allied or fought. The Russian-Crimean confrontation escalated after the coming of the Ottomans. Since 1475, the Crimean Khan became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. Since then, Istanbul has been deciding who will sit on the Crimean throne. According to the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji Treaty of 1774, all Turkish possessions in the Crimea, except for Kerch and Yeni-Kale, became part of the Crimean Khanate. The main religion of the political entity is Islam.