Synonyms are divided into absolute(full) and relative(partial).
Absolute (full) synonyms are called synonymous words that are identical in meaning to the word and in stylistic coloring. Absolute synonyms have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. For example: abstract - abstract, spelling - spelling, linguistics - linguistics, bucks - greens - green. Such synonyms are most often completely interchangeable. .
Relative (partial) synonyms (quasi-synonyms) such words are called synonyms that have semantic and stylistic differences. There are three types of relative synonyms:
· semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of values ( key - spring: key - a spring where the water gushes with pressure, spring- water leaks semantic synonyms may point to varying degrees manifestation of a sign or action: run away And rush;(bonfire) burned- (bonfire) glowing, fast(step) - impetuous(step), anxiety - confusion, hot(air) - sultry(air), etc.
· stylistic synonyms differ in their stylistic affiliation, i.e. used in different functional styles speech. For example, synonyms eyes - eyes, beauty - beauty differ from each other only in a stylistic sense: the first words are stylistically neutral, the second ones are bookish. IN synonymous series run away - run away the first word is stylistically neutral, the last word is colloquial.
· semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in shades in meaning and stylistic affiliation. For example, synonymous adjectives interesting And amusing differ in shades of meaning: the word interesting used in the sense of ‘exciting attention with something significant’, and amusing– ‘exciting only external interest’. Besides, interesting- the word is stylistically neutral, and amusing- colloquial. ( Walk - drag, cough - thump, breathe).
Synonyms are divided into occasional And general language.
Common language (usual) synonyms synonyms are called, which are characterized by relative independence from the context, sufficient frequency of use. These synonyms are reflected in modern dictionaries and, as a rule, lend themselves to literal translation into another language (if they do not indicate special, nationally limited concepts, phenomena, realities, etc.). For example, cheerful - joyful.
occasional (usual,contextual speech, contextual, situational, individual, author's ) synonyms such words-synonyms are called, which, taken separately, are not synonyms, but, lined up in a row by the speaker in a certain context, seem to converge in a common sense, tk. become expressions of the author's intention. For example, " They are tired of dual power, polyarchy, to be more precise - anarchy "(Ros. newspaper. 1994). Dual power and multiple power are equated to anarchy only in this context.
Contextual synonyms converge their meanings only in context. hallmarks such synonyms are a clearly expressed contextual conditioning and fixation, a single (as a rule, individual) nature of semantics (and often word formation), irreproducibility, i.e. obvious limited use, absence in dictionaries and difficulty literal translation into another language.
IDEOGRAPHIC AND STYLISTIC SYNONYMS: LEXICOGRAPHIC ASPECT © Mukhamadyarova A.F. Kazansky (Privolzhsky) federal university, Kazan The article analyzes three synonymic rows with the same dominants in German and Russian (geizig – stingy, beharrlich – persistent, engherzig – soulless, selfish). Keywords: synonym, synonymic series. Practice shows that when working with texts in a foreign language, translators face difficulties in choosing the right synonyms. The difficulty lies in the fact that it is necessary to accurately and fully express by means of one language what is already expressed by means of another language, while taking into account the expressive-stylistic marking of the word. In our study, we analyzed the synonymous series of adjectives that denote the character of a person, with the same dominants in German and Russian, and identified semantic differences and common features. For analysis, we took three synonymic rows with the same dominants in German and Russian (geizig - stingy, beharrlich - persistent, engherzig - soulless, callous, petty, selfish). Consider a synonymic series with the dominant geizig. Let us give this synonymic series geizig - filzig (ugs.) - knauserig (ugs.) - knickerig (ugs.) - schäbig (abw.) - popelig (ugs., abw.) - schofel (ugs., abw.) - sparsam. Also, such words as raffgierig, knorzig, hartleibig, gnietschig, mickerig (landsch.) are marked as members of the synonymic series. When compared with the synonymic next to the dominant stingy (stingy - greedy - stingy (colloquial) - tight-fisted (colloquial) - tight-fisted (colloquial), we came to the conclusion that in German Schäbig has next value: petty-stingy and emphasizes that stinginess causes a feeling of shame, and in Russian there is no synonym with such a connotation. One more difference should be noted, namely: in Russian skvalyzhny (simple) with the meaning of very greedy, whose stinginess is disgusting, disgust is not a synonym for the word greedy, and in German the meaning of this word corresponds to the adjective filzig. Next difference lies in the fact that in the Russian language all members of the synonymic series have a negative connotation, while the synonymic series with the dominant geizig is characterized by a neutral connotation and the word sparsam with the meaning of economical, that is, economically spending something, observing economy, is a member of synonymy- Institute of Philology and Arts. Scientific director: Kolpakova G.V., Associate Professor of the Institute of Philology and Arts, Doctor of Philology. 98 INTELLECTUAL POTENTIAL OF THE XXI CENTURY: STAGES OF KNOWLEDGE of a series and, thus, characterizes a person from a positive point of view and has positive meaning. When comparing, we revealed the differences between the members of the synonymous series with the dominants geizig - stingy. This can be explained by the fact that the worldview of the German and Russian peoples was formed differently, as a result of which there are differences in the differentiation of synonyms. Now consider the synonymic series with the dominant beharrlich (aus-dauernd (hardy, patient, stubborn) - fest - geduldig - hartnäckig - unbeirrt - unentwegt (persistent, unshakable) - ungebrochen (persistent, unbroken) - unverdrossen - unverwüstlich (strong, indestructible , iron) - krampfhaft (tense) - verbissen - verzweifelt - entschlossen (resolute) - zäh (stubborn) - fleißig - standhaft (steadfast, unshakable) - zielstrebig). As synonyms for the dominant, Persistent Dictionary, ed. A.P. Evgenieva leads following words(stubborn - stubborn - assertive - stubborn (simple, disapproved) - stubborn (simple). It should be noted that in the synonymous series with the dominant persistent there are no such words as purposeful and diligent, it is only noted that in the meaning the words stubborn and stubborn emphasize the special perseverance and perseverance with which someone strives for something, achieves something.It should also be noted that patient is not a synonym for the word persistent, but in German geduldig with the meaning - the term "able to endure, persevering, stubborn in some business, work" is a member of the synonymic series with the dominant beharrlich. The next difference is that unverdrossen, which means resilient, indefatigable, is a member of the synonymic series and has no analogue in the Russian synonymic row with the dominant persistent.Now consider the following synonymous row with the dominant engherzig.It has the following members engherzig - kleinlich - unduldsam - intolerant - spießbürgerlich (abw.) - kleinbürgerlich - kleinständlisch - spießig - provinziell - hinterwäldlerisch (in the dictionary under general guidance O.I. Moskalskaya 2002 marked as colloquial) – krähwinklig – ehrpusselig (in the dictionary under the general supervision of O.I. Moskalskaya 2002 marked as colloquial) – ehrpusslig – muckerhaft – muffig – plüschen – philiströs – pedantisch – kleinkariert (abw.) – pinslig – pingelig – übergenau. Let's move on to the synonymic row with the dominant soulless, which contains such terms as soulless (deprived of sensitivity, responsiveness, capable of being cruel) - unresponsive - insensitive - callous (one who is little touched by the sorrows and joys of others) - dry - cold . It should be noted that the dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language, in 2 volumes of 1970, gives the following members: ruthless, heartless, cruel, hard-hearted and hard-hearted. When comparing the synonymic rows engherzig - soulless, we found that in the Russian synonymous row there are no adjectives with the meanings petty, picky, intolerant, philistine, petty-bourgeois, provincial, provincial, plush, philistine, petty-bourgeois, ignorant, grouchy, dissatisfied, which are present in a synonymic row with the indifferent synonym engherzig. And in German, words such as kleinlich meaning petty, picky, intolerant - intolerant (to something), irreconcilable, spießbürgerlich - philistine, kleinbürgerlich - petty-bourgeois, philistine, kleinständlisch, spießig - provincial, provincial, provinziell - provincial, hinterwäldlerisch - provincial, ignorant, krähwinklig - provincial, ehrpusslig - philistine, having misrepresentation about honor, plüschen - plush, philiströs - philistine, philistine, philistine, limited, pedantisch - pedantic, petty. When comparing the synonymic rows engherzig - soulless, we revealed sharp differences in members. This is due to the mentality of the German people, which is very different from the Russian mentality. The word petty-bourgeois with the meaning of petty, purely personal interests, with a narrow outlook and underdeveloped tastes, indifferent to the interests of society is not a synonym for the word soulless, which has the following meaning: without a sympathetic, lively attitude towards someone, something, indifferent to people, heartless, devoid of living feeling, brightness, sharpness. Members of the synonymic series soulless express for the most part category of feeling, for example, cold, dry, ruthless with the meaning of not feeling and not showing pity for the suffering and grief of others, as well as the word heartless, which means “deprived of spiritual softness, responsiveness”, while in the members of the synonymous next to the dominant engherzig, the category of intellect and reason prevails. To prove it, let us cite such words as philiströs (philistine), that is, with a narrow philistine outlook and hypocritical behavior, hinterwäldlerisch (ignorant) with the meaning of poorly educated, poorly cultured, poorly versed. The next difference is that in the synonymous series with engherzig there are members unduldsam and intolerant with the meaning "intolerant to anything, implacable", also pedantisch, that is, pedantic, petty, and kleinlich with lexical meaning"petty, picky." In a synonymous row with the dominant, soulless members with the meanings “devoid of tolerance, not considering other people's views”, “not allowing any reconciliation, conciliation”, “giving importance to trifles, trifles”, “inclined to find fault, containing nit-picking” are absent. Muffig, denoting a grouchy, peevish, discontented person, has no analogue in the synonymic series with the soulless dominant. Thus, we have identified the differences between the synonymic rows engherzig - soulless. It should be noted that the discrepancies between them are quite substantial. This can be explained by the difference in the psychological structure of the German and Russian peoples. The analysis of synonymic rows with the same dominants of the German and Russian languages allows us to conclude that there are no synonyms that are completely identical in meaning in interlingual synonymy. We can only talk about a significant similarity in the meanings of words despite their semantic differences. References: 1. German-Russian synonymic dictionary: approx. 2680 rows / I.V. Rakhmanov, N.M. Minina, D.G. Maltseva, L.I. Rakhmanov. – M.: Rus. yaz., 1983. 2. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language IL RAS / Ed. A.P. Evgenyeva. - M .: Astrel Publishing House LLC, 2002. 3. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language: in 2 volumes - 1970. 4. Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language: 70,000 words / Ed. N.Yu. Swedish. - 22nd ed., Sr. – M.: Rus. yaz., 1990. 5. Duden. Sinn-und Sachverwandte Wörter Synonymwörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Duden Verlag, Mannheim; Leipzig; Vienna; Zürich, 1997. 6. Synonymwörterbuch. Sinnverwandte Ausdrücke der deutschen Sprache. Herausgeben von Herbert Görner und Günter Kempche. VEB Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig, 1978. THE PRINCIPLE OF POLITICAL CORRECTNESS IN MODERN COMMUNICATION © Romashchenko E.A., Chekalova V.Yu. Kostanay branch of Chelyabinsk state university, Republic of Kazakhstan, Kostanay Western countries and in the post-Soviet space. The authors note the contradictions in the perception of this phenomenon by the linguistic and cultural communities of Kazakhstan and Russia and come to the conclusion that it is necessary to further comprehensively study political correctness, taking into account the specifics of the cultural and historical situation. Key words: political correctness, language policy, intercultural communication, euphemism, tolerance. Department of Philology. Scientific adviser: Kotlyarova T.Ya., associate professor Department of Philology, Candidate of Philology.
- SYNONYMS
(from the Greek synonymos - the same name) - the words of the same part of speech (and also, in more broad sense, phraseological units, morphemes, ... - SYNONYMS
(Greek synonymos - the same name). Words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing ... - SYNONYMS in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
- (from the Greek synonymos - of the same name) - words that are identical or very close in meaning, but not of the same root, for example: enemy, ... - SYNONYMS
(from the Greek synonymos - the same name) words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic and grammatical ... - SYNONYMS
(from the Greek. synonymos - the same name), words related to one part of speech, the meanings of which contain identical elements; the differing elements of these values... - SYNONYMS
Synonyms - words of close, adjacent, almost the same meaning. The process of creating new forms, new, differentiated categories in thought corresponds to the creation of new ones in language ... - SYNONYMS in Modern encyclopedic dictionary:
(from the Greek synonymos - the same name), words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic and grammatical ... - SYNONYMS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
[from the Greek of the same name] words that are different in sound form, but identical or very close in meaning, used to distinguish those or ... - SYNONYMS
SYNONYMS (from the Greek syn?nymos - the same name), words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic. And … - IDEOGRAPHIC in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
IDEOGRAPHIC DICTIONARIES, dictionaries, in which words are arranged not alphabetically, but thematically. … - SYNONYMS
? words of close, adjacent, almost the same meaning. The process of creating new forms, new, differentiated categories in thought corresponds in language to the creation ... - SYNONYMS in the New Dictionary of Foreign Words:
(gr. synonymos of the same name) words that are identical or close in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing or shades ... - SYNONYMS in the Dictionary of Foreign Expressions:
[ words that are identical or close in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic ... - SYNONYMS in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
(from the Greek synonymos - the same name), words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic and grammatical ... - IDEOGRAPHIC DICTIONARIES in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
dictionaries, dictionaries in which words are arranged according to thematic feature. See Dictionaries... - ALPHABET in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
open orthodox encyclopedia"TREE". This article contains incomplete markup. Alphabet, from the names of the first 2 letters of the Greek. alphabet - "alpha" ... - ENZYME DEFICIENCY in the Medical Dictionary.
- ENZYME DEFICIENCY in the big medical dictionary.
- EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
so peculiar that it still cannot be included in any of the language groups. According to its internal structure ... - WINDELBAND in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Windelband) Wilhelm (1848-1915) German philosopher, head of the Baden school of neo-Kantianism. He defined philosophy as the doctrine of value ("Preludes"). He divided the sciences into nomothetic, ... - JAPANESE LETTER in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
writing, a writing system consisting of characters (up to 15 thousand), denoting a morpheme or a number of synonymous morphemes (Japanese or borrowed from Chinese), ... - DICTIONARY in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- HIEROGLYPHS (TYPE OF WRITING) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(from the Greek hieros - sacred and glyphe - what is carved), the most ancient figurative signs of Egyptian writing, used from ... - WINDELBAND WILHELM in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(Windelband) Wilhelm (May 11, 1848, Potsdam - October 22, 1915, Heidelberg), German idealist philosopher, head of the Baden school of neo-Kantianism. Professor in Zurich (1876), Freiburg (1877), ... - SYRIA in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
(Turkish S?ria, Suristan, Arabic Eshsham, Biblical Aram, Latin-Greek Syria, German Syrien, French Syrie) is a region of Asian Turkey in the east. shore ... - PICTOGRAPHY in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
Pictography or figurative writing is the transfer of images, impressions, events, thoughts with the help of a drawing. On the one hand, such "figurative letters" are sometimes indistinguishable from ... - PICTOGRAPHY in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
or figurative writing - the transfer of images, impressions, events, thoughts with the help of a drawing. On the one hand, such "figurative writing" is sometimes indistinguishable... - inscriptions in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron.
- WINDELBAND in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
VINDELBAND (Windelband) Wilhelm (1848-1915), it. philosopher, head of the Baden school of neo-Kantianism. He defined philosophy as the doctrine of value ("Preludes"). Divided the sciences into... - SYRIA in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
(Turkish S û ria, Suristan, Arabic Eshsham, Biblical Aram, Latin-Greek Syria, German Syrien, French Syrie) ? region of Asian Turkey on ... - PICTOGRAPHY in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
or figurative letter, ? transfer of images, impressions, events, thoughts with the help of a drawing. On the one hand, such "figurative letters" are indistinguishable... - inscriptions in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron.
- PAPER AND OTHER WRITING MATERIALS: THE FIRST WRITING MATERIALS in Collier's Dictionary:
To the article PAPER AND OTHER WRITING MATERIALS Stone. Probably the first of the materials on which people first began to carve ideographic images, ... - JURCHZZN LETTER in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- hieroglyphic writing used for the Jurchen language and invented in the 12th century. on the model of the Khitan script (see Khitan language) and ... - TANGATA LANGUAGE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- one of the languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch Sino-Tibetan family(see Tibeto-Burmese languages). There was an official the language of the state Xi Xia (10-13 centuries), which occupied ... - DICTIONARY in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary.
- MAYA LETTER in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- original hieroglyphic Mayan writing (see Maya-Kiche languages). Monuments of the first centuries AD are known. e. It is assumed that M. p. originates from ... - Sino-Tibetan languages in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Sino-Tibetan languages) - one of the largest language families peace. Includes St. 100, according to other sources, several hundred languages, from tribal ... - IDEOGRAPHIC LETTER in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
see letter ideographic (in the article letter ... - KEEP
-n "yu, -n" ish, nsv. ; save, sov. 1) (what) Keep something somewhere, keeping it from spoilage, damage, damage. Store milk ... - HEAVY
- SOLID in the Popular explanatory-encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language.
- SOLID in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-th, -th; -den, -dna 1) Strong, strong, thoroughly made. Solid building. New house culture - a solid stone building with a large … - WEAK in the Popular explanatory-encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language.
Synonymy- one of the brightest manifestations systemic relations in vocabulary. Words that are similar in their emerging associations and the proximity of the designated concepts enter into synonymous relations. This feature is not inherent in all words of the Russian language. So, do not enter into similar relationship proper names, names of countries, cities, towns and their inhabitants, many specific names of household items, word terms (although there are many exceptions in this area).
Lexical synonyms (rp. synonymas - the same name) - these are words that are close or identical in meaning, which call the same concept differently. Synonyms differ from each other either by a shade of meaning (close), or stylistic coloring(unambiguous, i.e. identical), or both signs at the same time. For example: ruddy - pink, rosy-cheeked, pink-faced, red-cheeked; neighborhood - circle, districts (colloquial); premature - early, timeless (raised, bookish with the words death, death, death, etc.). The former differ mainly in shades of meaning. In the next two synonymic rows, along with semantic differences, there are also stylistic (see the litters colloquial and bookish), as well as stylistic (see the litter raised).
Depending on the semantic or functional-stylistic differences, three main types of synonyms are conventionally distinguished:
1) ideographic(gr. idea - concept + graph? - record), or actually semantic, 2) style(according to one of the functional styles (see the above-mentioned lit. colloquial and bookish, 3) actually stylistic(i.e. those in the meaning of which there are additional evaluative and expressive shades, see the litter raised). The last two types are usually closely related (cf., for example, synonyms for interstyle and stylistically neutral word life: razg. life, obih.-razg., fam. life-life and obih.-razg., advantages. neglected being). Consequently, belonging to a style is often clarified by indicating an additional appraisal or connotation, i.e. actually stylistic characteristic. Such synonyms are often also called semantic-stylistic, since they all have differences in meaning. (Note that this also explains the relative conventionality in the selection specified types synonyms.)
The emergence of synonyms of the above types in the language is due to a number of reasons. One of them is the desire of a person to find some new features in an object or phenomenon of reality and designate them with a new word, similar in meaning to the already existing name for this object, phenomenon, quality (cf., for example, the use of the words hearing, rumor, news, news, message and others to refer to one concept).
Synonyms appear in the language in connection with the penetration of borrowed words that are close or identical in meaning to Russian (cf., for example: conductor - guide, chicherone; germ - embryo; introduction - preamble, etc.).
Sometimes words that are close in meaning appear in the language due to the fact that in various expressive-stylistic groups of words, in various styles speech one and the same object, one and the same phenomenon can be called differently. So, the words eye, hand, go, this one, in vain and others are common. In lofty speech, poetic speech their synonyms may be obsolete for the modern Russian words eyes, hands, coming, this, in vain. For example, A.S. Pushkin, we observe the use of synonyms eyes - eyes: No, not agate in her eyes, but all the treasures of the East are not worth the sweet rays of her midday eye ...
To reduce the style, some of them in colloquial everyday speech are replaced by synonyms of a colloquial or dialectal nature: eyes - peepers, eyeballs, balls, etc .; hands - paws; goes - stomps. For example, F.I. We find Panferov: Markel pointed to his eyes with his finger: - He has a peeper himself.
Separate commonly used words can have as synonyms word combinations that convey their meaning phraseologically, for example: died - ordered to live long, departed to another world, left this vale, etc. See A.S. Pushkin:
- Is your bear healthy, Father Kirila Petrovich?
- Misha ordered to live long, - answered Kirila Petrovich.
- He died a glorious death.
Synonyms also arise when an object, sign or phenomenon of reality is given a different emotional assessment (cf. cruel - ruthless, heartless, inhuman, fierce, ferocious, etc.)
Synonymous in the modern Russian language are not only individual words, but also individual phraseological turns.
Synonymy is closely related to the phenomenon of polysemy. For example, the word quiet has several meanings, and each of them can have its own synonyms. So, in the phrase quiet sleep, its synonyms are calm, serene, but these words cannot replace the word quiet in combination with the word man. Synonyms for it in the phrase quiet person is - inconspicuous, modest; in the phrase, a quiet voice is weak, barely audible; in the phrase quiet ride, the adjective quiet is synonymous - slow, calm, etc. The word profit also has several synonyms: profit, profit, profit. However, it is not always possible to replace this word with any of the indicated synonyms. So, in the phrase, Prokhor Petrovich, meanwhile, made a semi-annual calculation of turnovers. The balance showed profit (Shishk.) The word profit cannot be replaced, for example, with the words profit, profit or benefit, since the meaning of the whole phrase will be distorted; the word profit in this context is stylistically the most appropriate and accurate.
In context, words can be interchangeable with synonyms (for example, gaze - look; pedestal - pedestal; calm - calmness; giant - giant, colossus, giant, titan, etc.). However, words grouped in a common synonymous series cannot always be interchangeable (see the example with the words profit - profit, profit, etc.). Synonymous words have one, as a rule, stylistically neutral core (main) word in the synonymic series, which is usually called a dominant (Latin dominans - dominant). Such is, for example, the verb to speak in relation to words stylistically colored - to say, utter, grumble, etc.
The synonymic possibilities of the Russian language are varied; synonyms can be heterogeneous words (greatness - grandiosity; snowstorm - blizzard, snowstorm) and single-rooted words (greatness - majesty, majesty; snowstorm - blizzard; unprincipled - unprincipled). Synonymous with single words combinations of service and significant words(in spite - in defiance; anonymous - without a signature), words and terminological combinations words (aviation - air fleet; dentist - dentist), etc.
The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally great: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word, more precisely, convey thoughts more clearly, allow you to express the variety of shades of a particular phenomenon, quality, etc.
Along with general literary, accepted, ordinary(Latin usus - custom) synonyms in the process of use in speech (especially in the language fiction) as synonyms are words that in common use have nothing in common in their meaning. For example, in the sentence: A ruddy girl came out and knocked a samovar on the table (M. G.), the word knocked is synonymized with the word set, although in general literary language they are not synonyms. Such usage is called occasional(lat. occasional - random), due to the individual selection of words only for a given context. For such words, stable consolidation of synonymous meanings in the language system is not observed. They are not listed in dictionaries.
By the number of words, the synonymic rows are not the same: some have two or three words (marriage - matrimony; authority - weight, prestige), others include a large number of words and turns (win - overcome, smash, defeat, overcome, break, overpower, triumph, overpower, cope, take over, win, etc.).
Synonyms are divided into absolute (full) and relative (partial).
Absolute (full) synonyms are called lexical and phraseological units that have the same meaning, stylistic coloring. Absolute synonyms have neither semantic nor stylistic differences.
For example: abstract - abstract, spelling - spelling, linguistics - linguistics, bucks - greens - green. Such synonyms are most often completely interchangeable. .
For example, absolute PU-synonyms are PU when the crayfish whistles on the mountain, after the rain on Thursday. All these phraseological units have the meaning ‘it is not known when in an indefinite future, never’, a colloquial stylistic coloring.
As the language evolves, one of the variants may become obsolete while the other remains in active stock, for example: airplane - airplane‘(obsolete) aircraft heavier than air with a power plant and a wing that creates lift’ . Sometimes the options start to diverge in meaning, for example: lover 1. ‘a man in relation to a woman who is in an extramarital relationship with him’, 2. obsolete man in love - in love 1. ‘a person experiencing a feeling of love, attraction to someone.’
Relative (partial) synonyms (quasi-synonyms) such lexical and phraseological units are called that have semantic and stylistic differences.
There are three types of relative synonyms:
semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of meaning. For example: Key - spring: key‘source where the water flows with pressure’, spring‘water seeps in’. Phraseologisms differ in shades of meanings: on knives(colloquial) ‘in sharply hostile relations’ and like a cat with a dog(colloquial) ‘in constant quarrel, enmity’.
Semantic synonyms can
1) differ in shades of meaning in the characteristic of a sign, action. For example, synonyms flare up, flare up, flare up, flare up. All these verbs are used to indicate the initial moment of combustion. catch fire‘start burning’ , get busy use mainly in those cases when the burning starts very intensely, when the flame covers an object, structure, etc.’ , flare up indicates the speed at which the flame appears , blaze‘immediately catch fire with a strong fire’
2) differ in the degree of manifestation of a feature or action.
For example, synonyms run away And rush in the following example: Clouds ran through our village ... So they flew up to pine forest, crossed the ravine and rushed on(V. Kozlov). It is clear that the verb rush compared to its synonymous verb run away indicates a greater intensity of action, a greater speed of movement. Therefore, we can say that the verbs used in the text run away And rush allowed the author to clarify the nature of the action, to emphasize the intensity of its manifestation. There are many such examples among synonyms: (bonfire) burned- (bonfire) glowing, fast(step) - impetuous(step), fear, fear, horror, confusion, hot(air) - sultry(air), etc.
Sometimes phraseological synonyms differ in the degree of intensity of action. For example: pour tears, burst into tears, drown in tears, cry out one's eyes- each subsequent synonym conveys a stronger manifestation of the action.
Semantic synonyms can also have a different scope of meaning. For example, among the synonyms bend - curve the word is broad in meaning bend‘rounded corner’: river bend, road bend, branch bend, arm bend etc. Word bend used only when talking about the bends of the river, for example: Lena flows in bends(I.A. Goncharov).
stylistic synonyms differ in their stylistic affiliation, i.e. used in different functional styles of speech. For example, synonyms eyes - eyes, beauty - beauty differ from each other only in a stylistic sense: the first words are stylistically neutral, the second ones are bookish. In the synonymy run away - run away the first word is stylistically neutral, the last word is colloquial.
For example, phraseological units get into the skin And put oneself in one's place have the same meaning ‘to imagine oneself in the position of someone’, but at the same time they differ in stylistic coloring: phraseologism get into the skin has a colloquial stylistic coloring, and phraseological unit put oneself in one's place does not have a stylistic coloring, is neutral.
The differences between the shades of bookishness and colloquialism in synonymous words become obvious if you use a bookish word in a colloquial style or a colloquial word in a bookish one.
semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in shades in meaning and stylistic affiliation. For example, synonymous adjectives interesting And amusing differ in shades of meaning: the word interesting used in the sense of ‘exciting attention with something significant’, and amusing– ‘exciting only external interest’. Besides, interesting- the word is stylistically neutral, and amusing- colloquial. ( ANDdti - drag, cough - thump, breathe).
For example, phraseological units dense forest(colloquial) ‘complete obscurity, obscurity. About something unfamiliar or incomprehensible’, gibberish(simple) ‘something incomprehensible, difficult to understand’, sealed book(bookish) ‘something completely incomprehensible, inaccessible to understanding’.
It must be said that synonyms relatively rarely appear in " pure form”, in one strictly defined role: most often, various “roles” are combined in their use.
According to A.P. Evgenyeva, it is impossible to draw a line between stylistic and “ideographic” synonyms, “enrolling some as stylistic, and others only as ideographic. The main, overwhelming mass of synonyms serves both stylistic and semantic (shading, clarifying) purposes, often performing both functions at the same time. For example, words drag, weave(colloquial) , trudge(colloquial) , stretch(colloquial) , crawl(colloquial) differ from each other and shades in the characteristics of the action, expressiveness and stylistic function.
By structure lexical synonyms are divided into
single root (deaf‘not sonorous, not sharp, the word is used. advantage In relation to low sounds, regardless of their duration, muted‘weakened by something (distance, obstacle)’) and heteroroot.
Phraseological synonyms by structure divided into single-structured and multi-structured.
Single structure PhU synonyms have the same construction model. For example, phraseological units: in two counts - in one step, at least climb into the noose - at least lie down in the coffin, hurt the living - grab the heart.
Diversified phraseological synonyms are built according to different models. For example: grandmother said in two - it’s written with a pitchfork on the water, for no reason at all - you live great.
Between these two clearly distinguished structural types of PU-synonyms, one-structured and different-structured, there are the so-called similar structural phraseological units. Similar structural phraseological units have the same basic component, expressed by a certain part of speech (verb, noun, etc.), and all other components differ in form. For example, send to the next world, send to another world, send to the forefathers, put in place, knock out the soul -‘kill, kill’.
Synonyms are divided into occasional and general language.
Common language (usual) synonyms synonyms are called, which are characterized by relative independence from the context, sufficient frequency of use. Such synonyms are reflected in modern dictionaries and, as a rule, lend themselves to literal translation into another language (if they do not denote special, nationally limited concepts, phenomena, realities, etc.). For example, cheerful - joyful.
occasional (usual, contextual speech, contextual, situational, individual, author's ) synonyms such words-synonyms are called, which, taken separately, are not synonyms, but, lined up in a row by the speaker in a certain context, seem to converge in a common sense, tk. become expressions of the author's intention.
For example, " They are tired ofdual power , polyarchy , to be more precise -anarchy "(Ros. newspaper. 1994). Dual power and multiple power are equated to anarchy only in this context.
Contextual synonyms approach their meanings only in context.
Distinctive features of such synonyms are a clearly expressed contextual conditionality and fixation, a single (as a rule, individual) nature of semantics (and often word formation), irreproducibility, i.e. a clear limitation of use, absence in dictionaries and the difficulty of literal translation into another language.
internal when phraseological units enter into synonymous relations only with phraseological units. For example, darkness, darkness, do not count the numbers, even a dime a dozen thatthe sand of the sea, like uncut dogs.
Phraseological synonyms can be external when phraseological units enter into synonymous relations with words. External phraseological synonyms form mixed synonymous rows. For example, thin, skinny, skin and bones, like a pole; make a fool of, leave with a nose, wrap around your finger, plumbyou eyes(to whom), rub glasses(to whom), take on the gun, deceive, foolcheat, deceive, deceive, deceive, deceive, mystify).
