Marco Polo went down in history as the first European to reach China. AiF.ru talks about some little known facts from his biography.

Italian, Croat or Pole

It is believed that Marco Polo was born in Venice in a family merchant Nicolo Polo. Father with his brother Maffeo he sold jewelry and spices, traded with the countries of the East, visited the Volga and Bukhara.

According to another version, home famous navigator was not the Apennine Peninsula, but the Balkans. Researchers claim that the first evidence of the Polo family's stay in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia. In their opinion, Marco Polo should be considered rather a Croat, because he was born on the island of Korcula, which belongs to the Balkan Republic.

There is also a version according to which Marco Polo was a Pole. The word "polo" title page The first edition of his work "The Book of the Diversity of the World" is written with a small letter and indicates not a surname, but rather a nationality.

Departure of Marco Polo from Venice on his second journey through Asia. 1271. Photo: www.globallookpress.com

Governor of Yangzhou City

The “smart and noble citizen of Venice” (as Polo called himself) began to travel the world with his father and uncle. After a long wandering they became guests of honor Mongolian Khan Khubilai(grandson Genghis Khan), who defeated the dynasty soong and ascended the throne as the sole ruler of the Mongol Empire. AT total Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo Polo have been in Asia for about seventeen years. According to Polo, the khan gave him various assignments and even appointed him the governor of the city of Yangzhou and a member of the secret council. Although in the chronicles of the XIII century nothing is said about this. Perhaps this was not an invention of Marco Polo, but a mistake by the translators of his book, who instead of "sejourna" (abides) wrote "seigneura" (rules).

Mister "Million"

Having visited China in the 13th century and wanting to convey his admiration for its untold riches, Marco Polo coined the word "million". In Italian, “mile” means “thousand”, and the ending “one” is an augmentative, corresponding to the Russian ending “looking for”. During his lifetime, the traveler had the nickname "Signor Million". The term "million" occurs in the first printed arithmetic, published in Italian city Treviso in 1478, and even earlier in the book of the traveler Marco Polo.

Travel map of Marco Polo. Photo: www.globallookpress.com

Polyglot Traveler

Marco Polo knew several languages, including Italian, French, Persian, Mongolian and Chinese. This allowed him to most fully and colorfully tell in his memoirs about the customs and customs different peoples, as well as depict all the difficulties that a European may face in a foreign land. As a result, Marco Polo's book became a reference book for many outstanding travelers of the era of the Great geographical discoveries, including for Christopher Columbus.

Oriental delicacy and pasta

There is a misconception that pasta and ice cream were brought to Italy by Marco Polo. In fact, dry pasta was mentioned as early as 1279 in Genoa. And in the 9th century, thin noodles were eaten in Arab countries. This misconception began in 1929, when Marco Polo was first featured in an American pasta trade magazine. It is also unlikely that Marco Polo brought ice cream to the West, since there was no mention of it until the 17th century.

Prisoner of the Genoese prison

After the death of Kublai Khan, Marco Polo went to Venice, which was at that time at war with the Republic of Genoa. In 1297 Marco Polo was taken prisoner. From 1296 to 1299 he was imprisoned in a prison in Genoa, where he dictated to the prisoner Rusticello the text of his famous "Book on the Diversity of the World", which contains descriptions of his 24-year journey to the East. The work contains descriptions not only of China and the Asian mainland, but also of the vast world of islands - from Japan to Zanzibar. The handwritten original of the "Book", which was compiled by Rusticiano in the Franco-Italian dialect, has not been preserved. It is only known that this work spread very quickly throughout Europe and received several names. The author himself titled his manuscript "Divisament dou Monde" - "Description of the World".

Medallion depicting Marco Polo. Photo: www.globallookpress.com

Unrecognized and forgotten by contemporaries

Returning from prison, Marco Polo became rich by marrying a wealthy noble Venetian Donate. In this marriage, they had three lovely daughters: Bellela, Fantine and Maretta. Towards the end of his life, Marco became quarrelsome and greedy, often quarreling with his relatives and even suing relatives. The townspeople derisively treated their compatriot, considering him a liar who tells tales about distant countries. Marco Polo died in Venice in 1324 at the age of 70. He was buried in the church of St. Lawrence, during the rebuilding of the church in late XVI centuries, the burial was lost.

Marco Polo - famous Italian traveler of the 13th century, with whose name the era of great geographical discoveries begins. He was one of the first Europeans who traveled to the east, where he spent a lot of time and collected a lot of new and interesting information for Europe at that time, laid significant trade routes. About him, and the significance of his discoveries will be discussed in my message. But first brief information from the biography.

short biography

Marco Polo born in 1254 in the city of Venice(according to other sources on the Croatian island of Korcula) in a family of merchants. His uncle (Matthew) and father (Nikolo) explored the lands from the Black Sea to the Volga, laying new trade routes. But their activities were not limited to this - after a while they traveled with diplomatic mission to the Mongol Khan - Kublai, who gave them a very warm welcome. Thus, we can conclude that Marco is still inspired to travel since childhood their two closest relatives.

Trips

The young Italian went on his first trip at the age of 17 with his uncle and father, who were on a trading trip to China.

At the same time, the Polo brothers acted as delegates whose task was to establish diplomatic relations between Venice and China (which at that time was part of Mongolian state Yuan). It was decided to move through Jerusalem in order to purchase miraculous oil from the tomb of Christ, which they subsequently presented to Khan Kublai.

The result of a long journey (and the Polo family reached China as early as 1275) was a warm relationship with the khan, who liked Marco so much that he made him the governor of one of the Chinese cities, where our young traveler spent three whole years.

A total of Marco Polo lived in China for 17 years during which he managed to visit many regions of the empire. In 1291, the Khan decided to marry his daughter to a Persian prince and organized a huge sea expedition, which included the Polo family. On the way to Persia, the Italian traveler managed to visit South East Asia, Sumatra Island, Ceylon, Iran.

Upon arrival in Persia, the Marco family learns of the death of Khan and decides to return to Venice, which happens in 1295.

After some time in prison, namely in 1324, Marco is ransomed, and he returns to Venice, where he spends the rest of his life. Their last years the great Italian traveler spent in abundance.

Conclusion

Marco Polo had a life full of travel. Let's designate their main routes:

1. Venice-Jerusalem-China. 1261-1275
2. China-Southeast Asia-Ceylon-Sumatra-Persia 1291
3. Persia-Venice 1295

Marco Polo travel route map:

And also in this form:

The result of the vast experience and knowledge collected during the period of travel is "The Book of the Diversity of the World" - an invaluable work that helped humanity centuries later. This essay has been used both as a reference book with maps and as a fascinating story of adventure. Based on the materials of this great work, the subsequent Great geographical discoveries were made.

If this message was useful to you, I would be glad to see you

Marco Polo came from merchant family. His father and uncle carried on extensive trade, in particular with Persia. In 1271, when they went on a long journey, they took with them Marco, who from childhood was noted for his keen powers of observation and intelligence. For 17 years, the Marco Polo family was engaged in trade in the Celestial Empire. Marco learned languages ​​very quickly and gained favor Chinese emperor, moreover, to such an extent that his family was given the most important assignment - to accompany the Chinese princess to Asia, and in the spring of 1292 a flotilla of 14 ships sailed from the port. Polo was about to make a big cruise, the first in the history of navigation, in which Europeans took part.

The path ran along the eastern and southern coasts of Asia. The phenomenal memory of Marco Polo captured the smallest details of the journey: what he saw with his own eyes, he never forgot.

Only in 1295 did the Polo family return to Venice, bringing with them great wealth.

After some time, war breaks out between Venice and Genoa. These two prosperous port city-states have long fought for supremacy in commerce. At his own expense, Marco Polo equips the ship, but in one of the battles he fails: the ship was captured, and Polo ended up in a Genoese prison. In order not to become discouraged, he begins to talk about his travels to his cellmates. His story aroused keen interest not only among the prisoners, but also among the guards, who began to carry them around the city. And now the inhabitants of Genoa begin to visit the prison in order to hear for themselves what Marco Polo tells. In the end, he comes to the idea that he needs to capture his memories on paper. Rusticiano, a cellmate, became the "chronicler". Day after day, under his pen, a work is born, which to this day is read like a fascinating novel. Polo himself never gave a name to this work. It went down in history as "The Book of Marco Polo". The draft book was completed by the end of 1298. Perhaps this played a role in the fact that Marco Polo was soon released, and, moreover, without a ransom. Returning to Venice, he continues to work on his narrative, significantly supplementing it.

It was still far from the invention of printing, but the "Book of Marco Polo" began to diverge throughout Europe, translated into many languages. Shortly before his death, Polo said: "I did not write even half of what I happened to see." But what he wrote cannot be overestimated, since the "Book" significantly expanded the horizons of Europeans, for the first time gave them information about countries that they knew only by hearsay.

One of the chapters of the book is devoted to the description of our country. "Great" he calls her. In it, Marco Polo gave a fairly reliable description of Russia.

... Marco Polo died in 1344. For the last ten years of his life he was engaged in trade and never returned to his book. He never had to learn that his geographical observations and discoveries were long ahead of their time.

A journey from Europe to China in the Middle Ages can perhaps be compared to a journey into space in the 20th century. Just as our compatriots knew by name all the once few cosmonauts, we can try to count on our fingers all the Europeans who have visited Far East. It was still very far from the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, but one of these discoveries was already made in late XIII in. It cannot be said that before Marco Polo, Europe did not know about China. But it was the great Venetian who made this name widely known.

Marco Polo was born on one of the Dalmatian islands of Korcula in 1254. The islands then belonged to Venice, and the Polo family was actively involved in the extensive trading activities of this republic. Father Marco Nicolò and uncle Matteo chose eastbound to develop their trade. They had connections with the Crimea and Asia Minor, and soon after the birth of Marco they decided on a long journey to China. Kublai Khan, who ruled there, took from them a promise to return to China and bring with him several Christian monks.

In 1269, the older Polos returned to Venice, and three years later they again went to China, this time taking with them the 17-year-old Marco. By sea, the merchants reached the southeastern shores of Asia Minor, from there they followed by land, probably from Akkon (Akka) through Erzerum, Tabriz and Kashan (Iran) to Hormuz (Hormuz) and from there through Herat, Balkh and Pamir to Kashgar and further to Katai (China), to the city of Kambala (Beijing). In 1275, the Polos reached Khanbalik (Beijing), where Genghis Khan's son Kublai Khan (Kubla Khan) ruled.

It is not entirely clear how this happened, but the older Venetians and especially their young comrade were favored by the khan. The Mongols created in China a slender state system, united various provinces, experienced officials, educated and energetic people were required. Marco was a diligent young man and had a gift for languages. While his father and uncle were engaged in trade, he studied the Mongolian language. Khubilai, who usually brought talented foreigners closer to the court, hired Marco to civil service. Soon Marco became a member of the secret council, and the emperor gave him several instructions. One of them was to draw up a report on the situation in Yunnan and Burma after the latter was conquered by the Mongols in 1287, the other was to buy a tooth of the Buddha in Ceylon. Marco subsequently became the prefect of Yangzhou.

The Polos stayed under Khubilai for 17 years. During the years of service, Marco studied China, collected a lot of information about India and Japan. In 1290, he asked to be allowed to go home, but Khubilai refused. In 1292, Kublai gave the Venetians his last responsible task - to accompany the Mongol princess Kokachin to Persia, where she was to marry the local ruler Arghun, Kublai's great-nephew. The junks with the Polo family on board departed from South China. From Pacific Ocean In the Indian ships passed the Strait of Malacca, made a three-month stop on the coast of the island of Sumatra. After stopping in Ceylon and sailing along western coasts Indian ships entered the Persian Gulf and anchored in the city of Hormuz. During the voyage, Marco Polo managed to obtain some information about the African coast, Ethiopia, the islands of Madagascar, Zanzibar and Socotra. In Persia, the Polos received news of the death Chinese khan which relieved them of the obligation to return to China. Marco and his relatives reached Venice in 1295 without much incident.

Marco Polo quickly became famous among fellow countrymen for his stories about distant and amazing countries. Many laughed at him, believing that paper money, tree-lined streets, and other miracles were nothing more than fiction. Whether for the word "million", which the narrator often used when describing the wealth and population of China (the word meant "thousand thousand"), or using the traditional nickname of the Polo family, Marco was nicknamed Mr. Million. In 1297, during a naval skirmish, Marco Polo was captured by the Genoese. In prison, he met the Pisan writer Rusticano. He wrote down the cellmate's stories in a book, which he called "The Book of the Diversity of the World." This book is also known under other names: "The Book of Marco Polo" and simply "Million". It contained descriptions not only of China and the Asian mainland, but also of the vast world of islands, from Japan to Zanzibar. Despite the fact that the invention of printing was still very far away, the book gained popularity during the lifetime of its author. Marco himself, after leaving prison, showed great enterprise, advertising his work. It was copied, translated, the traveler gave copies to influential people in different countries.

"The Book of Marco Polo" contains extremely valuable information on geography, ethnography, history of Armenia, Georgia, Iran, China, Mongolia, India and Indonesia. The mysterious country of Chipango (Japan) is also mentioned there. Much of what the Venetians ridiculed was true, although Marco did not do without some fables and exaggerations. In particular, his information about distances was inaccurate, which led some geographers to move China much further east than they should. This is probably why Christopher Columbus was so confident in the success of his proposed voyage to Asia. After all, he, too, carefully read the Book of Marco Polo.

Marco Polo died in Venice in 1324. They say he was a wealthy man, but these data are refuted by some historians who claim that the most famous "storyteller" of that time remained a poor man.

Marco Polo was born into a family Venetian merchant Nicolo Polo, whose family was engaged in the trade of jewelry and spices. Since there are no records of the birth of Marco Polo, the traditional version of his birth in Venice was challenged in the 19th century by Croatian researchers, who argue that the first evidence of the Polo family in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia , while until 1430 the Polo family owned a house in Korcula, now in Croatia. Most researchers adhere to the traditional version of the birth of Polo, believing that the family settled in Venice before the birth of Marco Polo.

In addition, there is a version about the origin of Marco Polo, based on the first edition of his book (1477 - Germany). Under the portrait, there is an inscription: " Das ist der edel Ritter, Marcho polo von Venedig. Which in translation means something like this: "This noble knight Marco the Pole von Venedig" (polo is written with a small letter - most likely indicates nationality, not a surname).

The first journey of father and uncle Marco Polo

In 1260, Nikolo, Marko's father, together with his brother Maffeo went to the Crimea (to Sudak), where their third brother, also named Marko, had his own trading house. They then followed the same route that Guillaume de Rubruck had taken in 1253. After spending a year in Saray-Batu, the brothers moved on to Bukhara. Due to the danger of hostilities conducted by Khan Berke (Batu's brother) in this region, the brothers were forced to postpone their return home. After staying in Bukhara for three years and not being able to return home, they joined the Persian caravan, which was sent by Khan Hulagu to Khanbalik (modern Beijing) to his brother, Mongol Khan Khubilai, who by that time had almost completed the defeat Chinese dynasty Song and soon became the sole ruler Mongol Empire and China.

In the winter of 1266, the brothers reached Beijing and were received by Khubilai, who, according to the brothers, gave them a golden paisa for a free road back and asked them to convey a message to the Pope asking him to send him oils from the tomb of Christ in Jerusalem and preachers of Christianity. Together with the brothers, the Mongolian ambassador went to the Vatican, however, on the way he fell ill and fell behind. Arriving in Venice in 1269, the brothers found that Pope Clement IV had died and a new one had never been appointed. Wanting to fulfill Kublai's order as soon as possible, they decided not to wait for the appointment of a new pope, and in 1271 they went to Jerusalem, taking Marco with them. Having already left Jerusalem, they returned to it again to meet with the newly elected Pope Gregory X. Gregory favored the idea of ​​evangelizing China and the hope of using Khubilai as an ally in the fight against Islam.

Journey of Marco Polo

Travels 1271-1295

Road to China

The new journey to China passed through Mesopotamia, the Iranian Plateau, the Pamirs and Kashgaria.

Life in China

First Chinese city, which the Polo family reached in 1275, was Shazhu (modern Dunhuang), a transit point of the Silk Road. In the same year, they reached Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern Chinese province Gansu). According to Polo, the khan was delighted with him, gave various instructions, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even during three years held him governor of the city of Yangzhou (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the Khan's army and taught him how to use catapults during the siege of fortresses.

The description of Polo's life in China rarely follows chronological order, which is a problem in defining exact route his travels. But his description is geographically accurate enough, it gives orientation to cardinal points and distances in terms of travel days: South of Panshin, in one day's journey, the great and noble city of Kaiu. In addition, Polo describes the daily life of the Chinese, mentioning the use of paper money, the typical crafts and culinary traditions of various areas.

Return to Venice

Marco Polo in China

In spite of numerous requests Khan of the Polo family did not want to let them go, but he married off one of the Mongol princesses to the Persian Ilkhan Argun. To arrange for her safe journey, he equipped a detachment of fourteen ships, allowed the Polo family to join as official representatives of the Khan, and sent a flotilla to Ormuz. In the process of sailing, the Polos visited Sumatra and Ceylon and returned to Venice through Iran and the Black Sea in the year.

Marco Polo about Russia

Greek Christians live here. There are many kings and own language; the people are simple-hearted and very beautiful; men and women are white and blond ... Know, in truth, the most severe cold in the world in Russia; it's hard to hide from him. The country is large, to the very sea-ocean; and on this sea they have several islands, where gyrfalcons and pilgrim falcons are found, all this is exported by different countries Sveta. From Russia, I tell you, the way to Norway is not long, and if it weren't for the cold, it would be possible to get there soon, but because of the great cold it is not easy to go there. (Chapter CCXVIII, Book 4)

Life after returning

Very little is known about his life after his return from China. According to some reports, he participated in the war with Genoa. Near Polo he was captured by the Genoese and was there until May 1299. His travel stories were written down by another prisoner, Rusticello (Rusticiano), who also wrote chivalric romances. According to some sources, the text was dictated in the Venetian dialect, according to others it was recorded by in Old French with inserts in Italian. Due to the fact that the original manuscript has not been preserved, it is not possible to establish the truth.

After his release from the Genoese captivity, he returned to Venice, married and from this marriage he had three daughters (two were married off to merchants from Dalmatia, which, according to some researchers, confirms the hypothesis of his Croatian origin, but the wife herself was from a well-known Venetian family, which rather speaks of the well-established ties of the Polo family in Venice). He also had a house on the corner of Rio di San Giovanni Crisostomo and Rio di San Lio. There are documents that he participated in two small trials.

In 1324, being already a sick man, Polo wrote his will, which mentions the golden paiza received from Tatar Khan (he received it from Uncle Maffeo, who in turn bequeathed it to Marco in 1310). In the same year, 1324, Marco died and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo. In 1596, his house (where, according to legend, things he brought from Chinese campaign) burned out. The church in which he was buried was demolished in the 19th century.

Researchers about the book

Il milione

The Book of Marco Polo is one of the most popular objects historical research. The bibliography compiled in 1986 contains more than 2300 scientific works only in European languages.

From the moment he returned to the city, stories from the trip were viewed with disbelief. Peter Jackson mentions as one of the reasons for distrust unwillingness to accept his description of a well-ordered and hospitable Mongol Empire, which ran counter to the traditional Western idea of ​​barbarians. In turn, in 1995 Francis Wood, curator of the Chinese collection British Museum, published a popular book in which she questioned the very fact of Polo's travel to China, suggesting that the Venetian did not travel beyond Asia Minor and the Black Sea, but simply used descriptions of the travels of Persian merchants known to him.

Previous contacts with China

One of the myths that have developed around this book is the concept of Polo as the first contact between Europe and China. Even without taking into account the assumption of contacts between the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, the Mongol conquest XIII centuries have facilitated the route between Europe and Asia (since it now passed through the territory of almost one state).

In the archives of Khubilai from 1261 there is a reference to European merchants from Lands of the midnight sun, probably Scandinavian or Novgorod. On their first journey, Nicolò and Maffeo Polo followed the same route as Guillaume de Rubruk, indeed sent by Pope Innocent IV, who reached the then Mongol capital of Karakoram and returned in 1255. The description of his route was known in medieval Europe and might have been known to the Polo brothers on their first voyage.

During Polo's stay in China, a native of Beijing, Rabban Sauma, came to Europe, and the missionary Giovanni Montecorvino, on the contrary, went to China. Published in 1997 by David Selbourne, the text of the Italian Jew Jacob from Ancona, who allegedly visited China in 1270-1271, shortly before Polo, according to most Hebraists and Sinologists, is a hoax.

Unlike previous travelers, Marco Polo created a book that gained great popularity and throughout the Middle Ages competed in success with the public with the fantastic journey of John Mandeville (the prototype of which was Odorico Pordenone).

Book versions

Little is known about the extent of Marco Polo's literacy. It is most likely that he was able to keep commercial recordings, but it is not known if he could write the lyrics. The text of the book was dictated to them by Rusticello, probably on his mother tongue, Venetian, or in Latin, but Rustichello could also write in French, in which he wrote novels. The process of writing a book could significantly affect the reliability and completeness of its content: Marco excluded from his description those memories that were not of interest to him as a merchant (or were obvious to him), and Rustichello could omit or interpret at his own discretion memories that were not interest or incomprehensible already for him. It can also be assumed that Rustichello was related to only some of the four books, and Polo could have other "co-authors".

Soon after its appearance, the book was translated into Venetian, Latin ( different translations from the Venetian and French versions), back into French from the Latin version. In the process of translation and correspondence of the book, fragments of the text were changed, added or deleted. The oldest surviving manuscript (Manuscript F) is substantially shorter than the others, but textual evidence suggests that other surviving manuscripts are based on more complete original texts.

Fragments in doubt

Essential defaults

Francis Wood notes that neither hieroglyphs, nor typography, nor tea, nor china, nor the practice of bandaging the feet of women, nor the Great Wall of China are mentioned in Polo's book. Arguments put forward by proponents of the authenticity of the journey are based on the peculiarities of the process of creating a book and Polo's goal in transmitting his memories.

Polo knew Persian (the language of international communication of the time) while living in China, learned Mongolian (the language of Chinese administration during this period), but did not have to learn Chinese. As a member of the Mongol administration, he lived at a distance from Chinese society (which, according to his testimony, had a negative attitude towards European barbarians), had little intersect with its everyday life, and did not have the opportunity to observe many of the traditions that are evident only in the household.

To a person who had not received a systematic education and was a stranger to literature, local books represented "Chinese writing", but Polo describes in detail the production of paper money, which differs little from the printing of books.

Tea was by that time widely known in Persia, therefore it was of no interest to the author, in a similar way it is not mentioned in Arabic and Persian descriptions of that time.

Porcelain was briefly mentioned in the book.

With regard to the binding of the feet, one of the manuscripts (Z) mentions that chinese women walk in very small steps, but it is not explained more fully.

Finally, Great Wall in the form in which we know it now, was built during the Ming Dynasty. In the time of Marco Polo, these were mostly earthen fortifications, which did not represent a continuous wall, but were limited to the most militarily vulnerable areas. For a Venetian, fortifications of this kind might not be of significant interest.

Inaccurate descriptions

Descriptions of Marco Polo are full of inaccuracies. It's about titles. individual cities and provinces, their mutual location, as well as descriptions of objects in these cities. A famous example is the description of the bridge near Beijing (now named after Marco Polo), which actually has half as many arches as described in the book.

In defense of Marco Polo, it can be said that he was describing from memory, he was familiar with Persian and used Persian names, which were often also inconsistent in their rendering of Chinese names. Some inaccuracies were introduced during the translation or rewriting of the book, so some surviving manuscripts are more accurate than others. In addition, in many cases, Polo did use second-hand information (especially when describing historical or fantastic events that happened before his trip). Many other contemporary descriptions of this kind also sin with inaccuracies, which cannot be blamed for the fact that their authors were not in that place at that time.

Role at court

Kublai's honor to the young Polo and his appointment as governor of Yangzhou do not appear credible, and the absence of Chinese or Mongolian official records of merchants' presence in China for almost twenty years is, in Frances Wood's view, particularly suspicious. Most authors mention only a reference from 1271, in which Phagba Lama, a close adviser to Khubilai, mentions a foreigner who is on friendly terms with the Khan, but it does not indicate either the name, nationality, or length of stay of this foreigner in China.

It is possible that Polo's role in China is greatly exaggerated in his book, but this error can be attributed to the author's bluster, scribal embellishment, or translators' problems, which may have resulted in the advisory role being transformed into the post of governor. In addition, Marco Polo nowhere mentions by what name he was addressed in China. A common practice of the time was the use of Chinese nicknames for foreigners, and therefore it is difficult to find a mention of the name Polo in Chinese lists. Many Europeans who officially visited China during this period, such as de Rubruck, were also not honored with a mention in the Chinese chronicles.

In the book, Polo shows an awareness of relationships in the Khan's court, information about which would not have been available without proximity to the court. Thus, in Chapter LXXXV (On the treacherous plot to disturb the city of Kambala), he, emphasizing his personal presence at the events, describes in detail the various abuses of Minister Ahmad and the circumstances of his murder, naming the killer (Wangzhu), which exactly corresponds Chinese sources. This episode is significant because the Chinese Yuan-shih dynasty chronicle mentions the name of Po-Lo as a person who was on the commission investigating the murder and stood out in that he sincerely told the emperor about the abuses of the latter.

Return from China

The description of this journey is the most conclusive evidence the fact that the Polo family was indeed in China and was on fairly friendly terms with the Khan's court. Polo in his book describes in detail the preparation of the trip, the route and the number of participants, which are confirmed by Chinese archival records. He also gives the names of three ambassadors, two of whom died on the way to Hormuz and their names were not known outside of China.

Evaluation of the book by modern researchers

Majority modern researchers rejects the opinion of Frances Wood about the complete fabrication of the entire trip, considering it an unsubstantiated attempt to cash in on a sensation.

A more productive (and generally accepted) point of view is to look at this book as the source of the merchant's records of places to buy goods, the routes of their movement, and the circumstances of life in these countries. Even the second-hand data in this description (for example, about a trip to Russia) is quite accurate, most of the data on the geography of China and other countries along the travel route are also quite consistent with modern knowledge about the history and geography of China. In turn, these notes of the merchant were supplemented by fragments of interest to the general public about life in exotic countries.

Literature

• A book about the diversity of the world. Edition: Giovanni del Plano Carpini. History of the Mongols, Guillaume de Rubruk. Travel to Eastern countries., Book of Marco Polo. M. Thought. 1997, translation: I. M. Minaev
• Book of Marco Polo, trans. from Old French text, intro. Art. I. P. Magidovich, M., 1955 (lit. available).
• Same. Alma-Ata, 1990.
• Hart G., The Venetian Marco Polo, trans. from English, M., 1956;
• The book of sir Marco Polo, the Venetian…, 3 ed., v. 1-2, L., 1921.
• Magidovich IP, Magidovich VI Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. M., 1982. T. 1. S. 231-235.

Notes

Links

• Polo, Marco in the library of Maxim Moshkov: A book about the diversity of the world. Translation by I.P. Minaev.
• V. Dubovitsky Venetians. In the land of rubies, or what Marco Polo wrote about Badakhshan