At the beginning of the XIII century. in Central Asia on the territory from Baikal to the Great Chinese wall the Mongolian state was formed. By the name of one of the tribes that roamed near Lake Buirnur in Mongolia, these peoples were also called Tatars. Subsequently, all the nomadic peoples with whom Russia fought began to be called Mongolo-Tatars.

The main occupation of the Mongol-Tatars was extensive nomadic cattle breeding, and in the north and in the taiga regions - hunting. In the XII century. among the Mongol-Tatars, the primitive communal system was disintegrating and the process of feudalization began. From the midst of ordinary community members-cattle breeders, who were called karachu - black people stand out noyons(princes) - to know; having squads nukers(warriors), she seized pastures for livestock and part of the young. The noyons also had slaves. The rights of the noyons were protected by laws - "Yasa"(collection of teachings and instructions).

The socio-economic processes that took place among the Mongolian tribes led to the formation of a single Mongolian state. AT 1206 on the Onon River, a congress of the Mongolian nobility took place - kurultai(Khural), on which one of the noyons Temuchin was elected the leader of the Mongol tribes, who received the name Genghis Khan -"great khan", "sent by God" (1206-1227). Having defeated his opponents, he began to rule the country through his relatives and the local nobility.

The Mongol-Tatars had a well-organized army that maintained tribal ties. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongol warriors were called "darkness" ("tumen"). Tumens were not only military, but also administrative units.

The main striking force of the Mongol-Tatars was the cavalry. Each warrior had two or three bows, several quivers with arrows, an ax, a rope lasso, and was proficient with a saber. The warrior's horse was covered with skins, which protected it from the arrows and weapons of the enemy. The head, neck and chest of the Mongol warrior from enemy arrows and spears were covered with an iron or copper helmet, leather armor. The cavalry of the Mongol-Tatars had high mobility. On their undersized, shaggy-maned, hardy horses, they could travel up to 80 km per day, and up to 10 km with carts, wall-beating and flamethrower guns.

As in other countries, at an early stage in the development of feudalism, the state of the Mongol-Tatars was distinguished by its strength and solidity. The nobility was interested in expanding pastures and in organizing predatory campaigns against neighboring landowning peoples, who were located on much more high level development. Most of them experienced a period of feudal fragmentation, which greatly facilitated the implementation of the conquest plans of the Mongol-Tatars.

The strength of the Mongols was the well-placed reconnaissance of the enemy forces, which they conducted through Muslim merchants, closely connected with the world transit trade. Contributed Mongol conquests and the principle of religious tolerance towards the conquered peoples, which ensured the loyalty of the majority of the clergy and religious organizations in the occupied territories.

The Mongol-Tatars began their campaigns with the conquest of the lands of their neighbors - Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, Yenisei Kirghiz. Then they invaded China and in 1215 took Beijing. Three years later, Korea was conquered. Having defeated China (finally conquered in 1279), the Mongol-Tatars significantly increased their military potential. Flamethrowers were taken into service, battering rams, means of transport.

In the summer of 1219, almost 200,000 Mongol-Tatar troops led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. The ruler of Khorezm, Shah Mohammed, did not accept a general battle, dispersing his forces across the cities. Having suppressed the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders stormed Khujand, Mern, Bukhara and other cities. The ruler of Samarkand, despite the demand of the people to defend himself, surrendered the city. Mohammed himself fled to Iran, where he soon died.

The rich, flourishing agricultural regions of Semirechye (Central Asia) turned into pastures. Irrigation systems built up over centuries were destroyed. The Mongols introduced a regime of cruel exactions, barbarously destroyed the inhabitants; artisans were taken into captivity. As a result of the conquest of Central Asia by the Mongol-Tatars, its territory began to be populated by numerous Turkic-Mongolian nomadic tribes.

The main force of the Mongol-Tatars with the loot returned from Central Asia to Mongolia. A significant army under the command of the best Mongol commanders Jebe and Subedei was sent to conquer Iran and Transcaucasia. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Transcaucasia, since they met with strong resistance from the population. Along the coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mongolian troops entered the steppes of the North Caucasus. Here they defeated the Alans (Ossetians) and Polovtsy, after which they ravaged the city of Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea. The Polovtsy turned to the Russian princes for help.

On May 31, 1223, the Mongol-Tatars allied forces of the Polovtsian and Russian princes in the Azov steppes on the Kalka River. This was the last major joint military action of the Russian princes on the eve of the invasion of Batu. However, the powerful Russian prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir-Suzdal, the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, did not participate in the campaign.

The Kyiv prince Mstislav Romanovich, having fortified himself with his army on a hill, did not take part in the battle. Regiments of Russian soldiers and Polovtsy, having crossed the Kalka, struck at forward detachments Mongol-Tatars who retreated. The Russian and Polovtsian regiments were carried away by the persecution. The main forces of the Mongol-Tatars, who approached, took the pursuing Russian and Polovtsian warriors in pincers and destroyed them.

The Mongol-Tatars laid siege to the hill, where they fortified Kyiv prince. On the third day of the siege, Mstislav Romanovich believed the promise of the enemy to honorably release the Russians in the event of voluntary surrender and laid down his arms. He and his warriors were brutally killed by the Mongol-Tatars. The Mongol-Tatars reached the Dnieper, but did not dare to enter the borders of Russia. Russia has not yet known a defeat equal to the battle on the Kalka River. "And there was a cry and sorrow in all cities and volosts," the chronicler wrote. Only a tenth of the troops returned from the Azov steppes to Russia. In honor of their victory, the Mongols held a "feast on the bones". The captured princes were crushed with boards on which the victors sat and feasted. This is how the Mongols avenged the murder of their ambassadors on the eve of the Battle of Kalka.

Returning to the steppes, the Mongol-Tatars undertook failed attempt capture Volga Bulgaria. Reconnaissance in force showed that aggressive campaigns against Russia and its neighbors could be carried out only by organizing a general Mongolian campaign against the countries of Europe. At the head of this campaign was the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu(1227-1255), who inherited from his grandfather all the territories in the west, "where the foot of the Mongol horse sets foot." Subedey, who knew the theater of future military operations well, became his chief military adviser.

In 1235, at the Khural in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a general Mongol campaign to the West. In 1236, the Mongol-Tatars captured the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237 they subjugated the nomadic peoples of the steppe. In the autumn of 1237, the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars, having crossed the Volga, concentrated on the Voronezh River, aiming at the Russian lands. In Russia they knew about the impending formidable danger, but feudal fragmentation prevented from joining forces to repulse the strong and insidious enemy. There was no unified command. Fortifications of cities were erected for defense against neighboring Russian principalities, and not from steppe nomads. The Mongol-Tatar army had a numerical superiority. Batu put up 120-140 thousand soldiers, and all of Russia could then gather no more than 100 thousand. The princely cavalry squads surpassed the Mongol-Tatar cavalry in terms of armament and fighting qualities, but were few in comparison with it. The bulk of the Russian army was the militia - urban and rural warriors. Hence the defensive tactics, designed to deplete the enemy's forces.

In 1237, Ryazan was the first of the Russian lands to be attacked by the Mongol-Tatars. Vladimirsky and Chernihiv princes Ryazan refused to help. The Mongol-Tatars laid siege to Ryazan and sent envoys who demanded obedience and one tenth of "everything". The courageous answer of the people of Ryazan followed: "If we are all gone, then everything will be yours." On the sixth day of the siege, the city was taken, the princely family and the surviving inhabitants were killed. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is a new city located 60 km from the old Ryazan, it used to be called Pereyaslavl Ryazansky).

In the grateful people's memory, stories about the feat of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, who entered into an unequal battle with the invaders and earned the respect of Batu himself for his valor and courage, as well as about the nobility and sacrifice of Princess Evpraksia, have been preserved. She threw herself from a high tower and crashed, having learned about the death of her husband, so as not to become the khan's concubine.

In January 1238, the Mongol-Tatars moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The battle of the Vladimir-Suzdal rati with the Mongol-Tatars took place near the city of Kolomna, on the border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. In this battle, the Vladimir army died, which actually predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Russia.

Strong resistance to the enemy for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow, led by the governor Philip Nyank. After the capture by the Mongol-Tatars, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants were killed.

February 4, 1238 Batu besieged Vladimir. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) was covered by his troops in a month. The attempts of the Mongol-Tatars to take the city for three days were unsuccessful. On the fourth day, the invaders broke into the city through gaps in the fortress wall near the Golden Gate. The princely family and the remnants of the troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongol-Tatars surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire.

After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongol-Tatars broke into separate detachments and subjected to the defeat of the city of North-Eastern Russia. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the approach of the Tatars to Vladimir, went to the north of his land to gather military forces. Hastily assembled regiments in 1238 were defeated on the City River, and the prince himself died in the battle.

The Mongol-Tatar hordes moved to the north-west of Russia. Everywhere they met stubborn resistance from the Russians. For two weeks, for example, the distant suburb of Novgorod, Torzhok, was defended. As a result of this struggle Northwestern Russia was saved from defeat, although she paid tribute.

Having reached the stone Ignach Cross - an ancient sign on the Valdai watershed (one hundred kilometers from Novgorod), the Mongol-Tatars retreated to the south, to the steppe, in order to restore their losses. The retreat was in the nature of a "raid". Divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russian cities from north to south. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated. Greatest resistance Mongol-Tatars were rendered during the "raid" by Kozelsk, which held out for seven weeks. The Mongol-Tatars called Kozelsk an "evil city".

In the spring of 1239, Batu defeated South Russia (Pereyaslavl South), in the fall - Chernihiv Principality. In the autumn of the next 1240, the Mongol troops crossed the Dnieper and laid siege to Kyiv. After a long defense, led by the governor Dmitr, the Tatars defeated Kyiv. In the following year, 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality. On the territory of Russia, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established, which lasted more than two hundred years (1240-1480).

After the defeat of Russia, the hordes of the Mongol-Tatars moved to Europe. Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic were devastated, Balkan countries. Mongol-Tatars came to the borders German Empire reached the Adriatic Sea. However, the Mongols constantly had to reckon with the incessant resistance in the rear of their troops. At the end of 1242 they suffered a series of setbacks in Bohemia and Hungary. From distant Karakorum came the news of the death of the great khan. It was a convenient excuse to stop the difficult campaign. Batu turned his troops back to the east.

A decisive world-historical role in the salvation of European civilization from the Mongol-Tatar hordes was played by the heroic struggle against them by the Russian and other peoples of our country, who took the first blow from the invaders. In fierce battles in Russia, the best part of the Mongol-Tatar army perished. The Tatars have lost their offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle unfolding in their rear. A.S. Pushkin rightly wrote: "A great destiny was determined for Russia: its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion on the very edge of Europe ...".

There is evidence that before the era of Genghis Khan, most Mongolian nomads had European features. Even Genghis Khan himself, according to the descriptions, had blond hair, eyes and a beard. But in the process of conquest, the Mongols mixed with the peoples of the lands they conquered, which contributed to the formation of new ethnic groups. First of all, these are the Mongols proper, then the Crimean, Siberian and Kazan Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Kirghiz, partly Uzbeks, Turkmens, Ossetians, Alans, Circassians. Then the Ural Khanty and Mansi, Siberian indigenous peoples - Buryats, Khakasses, Yakuts. In the genotype of all these peoples there are features that are commonly called Mongoloid. It is also possible that the blood of the Mongol-Tatars flows in modern Japanese, Chinese, Koreans. However, researchers believe that Tuvans, Altaians and Khakasses, for example, have a type of appearance closer to Caucasoid than that of Eastern peoples. And this can serve as an indirect confirmation of the "Caucasoid" ancestors of the Mongol-Tatars. There is also a version that many European nations have Mongolian roots. These are Bulgarians, Hungarians and even Finns.

On the territory of Russia there is a people whose representatives consider themselves direct descendants of Genghis Khan - these are the Kalmyks. They claim that their ancestors were Genghisides - the elite at the court of Genghis Khan. Some Kalmyk clans allegedly descend from Genghis Khan himself or his closest relatives. Although, according to another version, the Kalmyk cavalry simply served the Genghisides. But who can now say for sure?

Thus, the descendants of the Mongol-Tatars can be scattered not only throughout Asia, but also in Europe. Nationality - in general, the concept is quite arbitrary.

I. Russia at the beginning of the thirteenth century. (give a description).

II. Formation of the Mongolian state:

1. Mongolian nomadic tribes were at the stage of decomposition of tribal

building. Main occupations: nomadic cattle breeding and hunting.

2. Lifestyle. Customs and traditions.

3. Segments of the population: khan (Great Khan and khans of uluses)

· _______________ - know

_______________ - warriors, vigilantes

_______________ - ordinary pastoralists

4. At the beginning of the thirteenth century. (Where?) _________________________________________ the Mongolian state was formed, headed by Genghis Khan.

1206- at the kurultai (congress) of the Mongolian nobility - the election of Noyon Temuchin as the Great Khan - Genghis Khan ( unlimited power and the desire for world domination).

III. military organization Mongol-Tatars.

1. Structure:

tumen ("darkness") - 10,000 temnik

thousand

hundreds centurion

dozens ten's manager

2. The basis of discipline in the army is the law of "yasa".

3. Military tactics: intelligence, treachery, intimidation, flattery and deceit, bribery, ambushes

IV. Causes aggressive campaigns:

1. The desire for world domination.

2. The desire of the tribal nobility to enrich themselves.

3. Acquisition of new pastures

4. Ensuring the security of their own borders.

5. Gaining control over trade caravan routes.

6. Tribute from the countries of agricultural and urban culture.

V. Main events

VI. The route of the campaign of Batu Khan to Russia:

1239-1240: ___________________________________________________________________

Reasons for military success:

1. The weakening of Russia as a result ____________________ (M.-T. fought not with the Russian state, but with individual principalities).

2. The superiority of the Mongol-Tatar army:

§ Multiplicity

§ Strict discipline

§ High fighting qualities of the cavalry

§ Thoughtful military tactics

§ Army cohesion

§ Purposefulness

§ Many years of military experience

§ Good weaponry

§ Use of siege equipment borrowed from conquered peoples.

3. Collection of tribute from the conquered peoples.

VII. Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion:

1. The ruin of the country

2. Reducing the population (death, slavery, theft ...)

3. The death of a professional army

4. Interruption of craft specialties

5. International trade relations Russia

6. Continued civil strife with the involvement of the forces of the Horde

7. Doom cultural property

8. Regime established (yoke or vassal-seigneurial system?)

The Mongol-Tatar invasion slowed down the development of Russia (huge damage to the economy and culture), but could not stop it:

1. Russia is not included in the composition Mongol Empire

2. Not enslavement, but submission, receiving tribute.

3. The internal order of life will not be affected.

Vs in 1240 - 1480

I. Yoke or relationship "seigneur-vassal"?

Yoke - political and economic oppression.

Senior - ___________________________________________________________

Vassal - ____________________________________________________________

II. 40s thirteenth century - creation of the state Golden Horde(capital - _____________)

Control system of the Golden Horde:
Ulus - ____________________________________________________________

III. Political dependence:

receipt by Russian princes from the Horde khans labels_ ________________________________________________________)

punitive raids ( round-ups)

terror against Russian princes

control of the Basques over the activities of the princes

IV. Economic dependency:

payment of an annual tribute output), tribute collectors - Basques(almost immediately, the function of collecting tribute is transferred to the hands of the princes).

· Population census ( number).

· Delivery in m.-t. army of Russian soldiers.

· Development of duties in favor of the conquerors (carrying, construction).

· Creation favorable conditions for Horde merchants.

Extraordinary Horde payments ( requests or black fees)

Russia's struggle with Western aggression

I. Causes of aggression:

1. Russia is weakened.

2. Interest in the rich lands of Northern Russia.

3. Aspiration Roman Catholic Church make Russians Catholics.

II. The peoples of the Baltic in the XIII century.

III. The invasion of the knights in the Baltics:

· 1201 – foundation of the city of Riga by the Germans.

· 1202 - creation of the Order of the Sword.

· 1219 - foundation by the Danes of the city of Reval - the center of expansion in the Baltic.

1237 - ____________________________

IV. Alexander Nevsky (characteristics of personality and activity).

Scheme (move)

Meaning:

stopped Swedish aggression to the East

Russia retained access to the Baltic Sea

VI. Battle on the Ice 5 April 1242

Scheme (move).

Meaning

weakened power Livonian Order

thwarted aggression against Russia

the independence of the Novgorod and Pskov lands was preserved

· put an end to attempts to impose Catholicism on Russia.

VII. Reasons for the Victory in the fight against Western aggression:

preparation and military tactics of the Russian army

· a strong and united commander, his military talent.

Dominion of the Horde in Russia

As a result Mongol invasion 1237 - 1241 Russia was thrown back in its development for several decades. Many cities were destroyed, 49 of them to the ground, in 14 - life was no longer resumed, and 15 cities turned into villages. Entire handicraft specialties have disappeared (the skill of granulation and filigree has been forgotten forever), hundreds of villages and villages have been emptied. Many of those people who passed the Mongolian saber or lasso, for several years after the invasion, lived in the forests, fearing a new ruin. The Mongols broke the traditional trade routes, resulting in a sharp reduction foreign trade, led to the foreign policy isolation of Russia. From the 1240s Russian land found itself in political and economic dependence on the Golden Horde. Settled Tatar-Mongol yoke, preserved for about two and a half centuries (1240 - 1480).

Political dependence consisted in the fact that the Karakoram Khan became the supreme ruler of the Russian land, and from 1260. - Khan of the Golden Horde. The Russian princes lost their sovereignty and were obliged to travel to Sarai-Batu (the capital of the Golden Horde) in order to receive a label from the khan - a document confirming the right to reign. The first prince to receive a label was Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir (1243). At the same time, civil strife continued, which the Mongols themselves often provoked. They "traded" grand princely thrones, arranging original auctions, which, of course, contradicted the Russian traditions of succession to the throne. The khans humiliated in every way, and sometimes tortured and even killed the princes. Mikhail Vsevolodovich Chernigovskiy and Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy were martyred while visiting the Khan. Most likely, the Tatars poisoned the Grand Duke Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky.

Mongolian yoke finally destroyed the veche system. The exceptions were Novgorod and Pskov. In most lands, in fact, monarchical princely power was established in appanages - hereditarily transferred possessions. It should be noted that the Russian princes gradually adopted the despotic methods of government that existed among the Mongols, and actively introduced them already on Russian soil. From public life all democratic traditions and institutions were uprooted, and they were replaced by hypocritical worship of authority. The Russian people got used to kneeling not only in church. By the way, the pagan Mongols tried not to offend the church, probably fearing the wrath of the “Russian gods”.

The Russian lands were not officially part of the Golden Horde, however, the permanent representatives of the Khan's administration - the Baskaks ("crushers") - had to monitor the development of the situation in the "Zalessky ulus" and cruelly suppress even the slightest anti-Mongolian attacks on the part of the Russian people.

Russia did not have the right to defend itself in the event of new predatory raids by the Horde, moreover, the princes were obliged to provide part of their squads at the disposal of the khan at his first request.

Economic dependence consisted mainly in the Horde output (annually paid tribute). At first, the tribute was collected by the Bessermen - Muslim tax-farmers. Further Horde exit began to collect Grand Duke Vladimirsky, and the Baskaks control it. If earlier the unit of taxation was considered to be a plow, a plow (ralo), now they have switched to the household principle. To determine the size of the tribute, the khans sent clerics to Russia, who conducted a census of the population (for the first time in 1257 - 1259). In addition to the exit, there was also a trade duty (tamga), food for the Horde ambassadors (honor). Only the church was exempted from paying taxes.

Similar information.

Mongol-Tatar invasion.

1. The birth of the Mongolian state.

Oslash; General information about the Mongols. The Mongolian tribes were engaged in cattle breeding and hunting, led a nomadic way of life. They were divided into clans, tribes and uluses (peoples). In the 12th century, there were 3 classes: the steppe aristocracy, commoners and slaves (which, however, were not sold). At that time, the Mongols professed shamanism; they finally converted to Buddhism (Lamaism) in the second half of the 16th century. The main tribal associations into which the Mongols were divided were Tatars, Taichiuts, Kereits, Naimans and Merkits.

o Territory. From Baikal and the upper reaches of the Yenisei and Irtysh in the north; to the southern regions of the Gobi Desert. The Mongols were subsistence farming and produced extremely little food. Money circulation was absent, and trade took place in the form of exchange.

Ø Public relations. Back in the 12th century, communally tribal system the Mongol began to decompose, and the process of feudalization began. From among the pastoralists - community members began to stand out noyons - tribal nobility having pastures and flocks. Relying on your squads nukers (warriors), The noyons subjugated ordinary pastoralists, giving them their cattle to graze. By the beginning of the 13th century, the Tatar-Mongolian tribes switched to the early feudal system, tribal alliances were formed.

Ø Rise of Genghis Khan. The struggle between the tribes ended by the beginning of the 13th century with the formation of the Mongolian state. After long wars leader of one of the Mongolian tribes Temujin conquered the rest of the tribes. The Kirghiz of Southern Siberia, the Uighurs, and the king of Tibet obeyed him. Thus, having achieved the unity of the state of the Mongols, Temujin solemnly renounced paying tribute to the monarch northern regions China. In 1206, at the congress of the Mongol feudal lords, Temujin was proclaimed all the Mongol ruler under the name of Genghis Khan. Thus ended the process of formation of the Mongolian state headed by a single sovereign.

Ø Mongolian army. The Mongols had a well-organized army that still retained tribal ties, but Temujin resolutely refused to organize troops according to tribal and tribal principles; units could be recruited from a wide variety of clans and tribes. Thus, the army was cut off from the old tribal basis. This gave a new impetus to the mixing of clans and tribes, to their merging into a single nationality. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. 10,000 Mongol warriors were called tumen. Tumens were not only military, but also administrative units. The main striking force of the Mongols was the cavalry. The Mongolian cavalry could travel up to 80 km per day.

Ø State administrative system. Administrative system, created under Genghis Khan, was adapted for new wars of conquest. Inferior administrative unit a group of ails was recognized, capable of fielding ten warriors. Next came groups of ails, exhibiting 100 soldiers each, 1000 soldiers each, and, finally, 10 thousand soldiers each. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their household in peacetime, and in war time took up arms. Such an organization provided Genghis Khan with the opportunity to increase his armed forces to about 95 thousand soldiers.

Separate hundreds, thousands and tumens, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another noyon. By its very nature it was a feudal award. The Great Khan, considering himself the owner of all the land in the state, distributed the land and arats (cattle breeders) into the possession of the noyons, with the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties for this. The most important duty was military service. Each noyon was obliged, at the first request of the overlord, to put the prescribed number of soldiers in the field. Small noyons served as large ones. Thus, under Genghis Khan, the foundations of the military system in Mongolia were laid.

Genghis Khan divided the country between members of his family and all his closest associates.

Under Genghis Khan it was legalized enslavement of arats, unauthorized transition from one dozen, hundreds, thousands or tumens to others is prohibited. This prohibition already meant the formal attachment of the arats to the land of the noyons - for migration from the possessions, the arat was threatened with the death penalty.

2. The beginning of aggressive campaigns.

Ø The conquest of the peoples of Southern Siberia. By 1211, the Mongols conquered the land of the Buryats, Yakuts, Kirghiz and Uighurs, i.e. subjugated almost all the main tribes and peoples of Siberia by imposing tribute on them.

Ø The conquest of Northern China and the conquest of Korea. In 1211, Genghis Khan set about conquering northern China, which was finally completed only by 1234. The Mongols in the process of conquest borrowed from the Chinese various military equipment and also learned how to besiege cities and fortresses. In 1218 they conquered Korea.

3 Invasion of Central Asia. In the summer of 1219 they invaded Central Asia. The ruler of the state of Khorezm, Shah Mukhamed, did not accept a general battle on the borders, but dispersed his troops across large cities. As a result, he left the bulk of the population defenseless. In the period from 1219 to 1221, Central Asia was completely captured. The rich, flourishing agricultural regions of Semirechye were turned into pastures. Sedentary agriculture was supplanted by nomadic pastoralism, which was a brake on the development of the economy.

Ø The conquest of Transcaucasia. The main forces returned with the loot from Central Asia to Mongolia. But a significant part of the troops was sent to conquer Iran and Transcaucasia. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops and causing enormous damage to the economy of Transcaucasia, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the mountainous territory of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Let's go for North Caucasus into the lands alakonov. Here new battles awaited them. The Alans teamed up with the Polovtsians who roamed there, then the Mongols persuaded the Polovtsian leaders to leave the lands of the Alans, and then defeated the Alans. In the autumn of 1220, troops led by commanders Jebe and Subedei invaded Azerbaijan. In 1243 Transcaucasia was finally conquered.

Ø Invasion of the Polovtsian steppes. Polovtsian Khan Kotyan turned to the Russian princes for help. Kyiv, Smolensk, Galician, Volyn princes responded. But they have a single plan, a common command, and even here strife over seniority has not stopped. just before Russian offensive ambassadors arrived in Russia, who assured that they would not touch the Russians if they did not go to the aid of their neighbors. When Russian army stood on the Dnieper appeared 10 Tatar ambassadors and offered peace to the princes, saying that they do not invade Russian land and do not offend the Russians, but only want to punish the Polovtsians. But the princes do not believe the ambassadors and kill them. But the Tatars sent new ambassadors who told the princes that they had done no harm, the princes listened to the Polovtsy and killed their ambassadors. May 31, 1223 On the banks of the Kalka River, a battle began. But not all princes took part in it. Mstislav Romanovich did not take part in the battle, but fortified himself on a hill with his army. The Mongols laid siege to the camp, and after a three-day siege, the prince, believing Subedei's promises, ceased resistance. As a result of this, Mstislav and his entourage were destroyed. The Mongols pursued the remnants of the Russian troops to the river. Dnieper but invade the limits of Russia.

Ø Collision with the Volga Bulgars. Retreating to the East to connect with the main forces, Genghis Khan and Subedei tried to penetrate the Volga Bulgaria. But they failed. Autumn 1223- battle in the area of ​​Samarskaya Luka. In 1229 - the battle on the Yaik River (the Bulgars were defeated, but the Mongols did not go any further).

3. The beginning of the Great campaign to the West.

Ø Preparing for the hike. After returning from the campaign, Genghis Khan lived a little and died in 1227. He bequeathed Batu (his grandson) with the help of a common Mongolian output conquer Russia and Europe. In 1229, the great Khan Ogedei made a decision at the kurultai to resume the campaign against Eastern Europe. The troops of the ulus of Jochi invaded the steppes of the Caspian Sea. But Batu's successes here turned out to be very modest. During the five years of the war, the conquerors reached the lower reaches of the river in the west. Volga, in the north - to the border of the forest and the steppe, where the Volga Bulgarians erected powerful defensive fortifications and stopped their advance. In 1235. at the kurultai hosted by Khan Ogedei, it was decided to general Mongol campaign to the West to conquer the countries of Europe. In total, 14 "princes", descendants of Genghis Khan, with their hordes took part in the campaign. Batu Khan was placed at the head of the campaign. Preparations for the campaign took 13 years. The route was as follows: Volga Bulgaria to Russia. All summer horse hordes of khans different ways moved to the West, and in the autumn their main forces united within the Volga Bulgaria.

Ø The conquest of the Volga Bulgaria. Crossing the river Yaik (Ural) the Mongols attacked the Volga Bulgaria. defensive lines Bulgars on the steppe borders were broken through, the city of Bulgar was sazhen.

Ø Final Conquest Polovtsian steppes. The next invasion took place only in the spring of 1237. The blow was aimed at the Polovtsian lands and on the right bank of the river. Volga. In battles with their old and elusive opponents, the khans used the tactics of "roundup": they walked along the steppes with a wide front of small detachments gradually closing the Polovtsian nomad camps in a ring. The battle was led by three noble khans: Guyuk, Manhe and Mengu. The war in the Polovtsian steppes dragged on for the whole summer of 1237. But as a result, they subjugated almost all the lands of the interfluve of the river. Volga and r. Don.

Ø The conquest of the Middle Volga region. Another large army, led by Batu, fought on the right bank of the Middle River. Volga in the lands of Burats, Arzhans and Mordovians. The events of this campaign are little known. Thus, the peoples of the Lower and Middle Volga region put up stubborn resistance, which delayed the advance of Batu, and only by the autumn of 1237 was he able to concentrate all the main forces for the invasion of North-Eastern Russia.

Ø Campaigns to Russia.

Ø The ruin of North-Eastern Russia (1237-1238).

Reasons for the conquest of Russia. Political: the Russian princes could not have been unaware of the impending offensive, but despite this, after the battle on the river. Kalke strife between the princes did not stop ( strange behavior). Consequently, there was no united army under a single command to repel the onslaught of a powerful enemy, and was violated one system defense of the southern steppe borders. subjective: many princes hoped for fortresses, not taking into account the experience of the Mongol troops.

(In 1203, an earthquake occurred throughout Russia, the epicenter of which was in southern region states. In the early 30s of the 13th century, a "great" drought began: "the swamps ignited, thick clouds of smoke covered the sun, the air was saturated with burning," the chronicle writes. In 1230 broke out terrible famine and sea in Russia.)

The main forces of Batu concentrated on the Don (30 thousand). At the beginning of the winter of 1237, Batu moved to Russia. The first on their way was the Ryazan principality. For the Ryazan princes, this was a complete surprise. They got used to the raids on Russia by the Polovtsians and other nomadic tribes in the summer-autumn period.

Ø The goal of conquest. Batu Khan, who invaded the aisles of the principality, presented an ultimatum, where he demanded "Tithing in everything: in princes, in horses, in people." The prince, in order to gain time, sent his son Fyodor to Batu Khan with rich gifts, and in the meantime he himself began to quickly prepare for battle. He sent messengers to Vladimir prince(Yuri Vsevolodovich) and to Chernigov for help. But both of them refused the Ryazan prince. The siege of Ryazan began on December 16, 1237, and on December 21 the city was taken during the assault.

Ø Conquest of the Vladimir land. Leaving the devastated Ryazan lands, Batu moved in January 1238 to Vladimir principality. They approached the capital of North-Eastern Russia on February 4, 1238. On the eve of the siege, Yuri Vsevolodovich left and stood on the river. City to gather regiments against the Tatars. The defense of the city was led. : February, the assault began, and on February 7, the Mongols broke into the city. After the capture of the city of Vladimir, Batu's army was divided. One part went east and went to the Volga to the city of Gorodets. Other part moved: from Vladimir to the north-west through Tver to the border checkpoint Torzhok (the attack lasted 2 weeks!!!). After the fall of Torzhok, only a small detachment moved towards Novgorod, but before reaching 100 miles to Novgorod, they turned back. Batu did not dare to make a big campaign against Novgorod, because: 1) spring came: the flood of rivers and lakes began; 2) leading a nomadic lifestyle in the southern steppes, they got used to dry air, and dampness gave rise to diseases in their ranks; 3) residents northeastern Russia put up stubborn resistance and the forces of the latter noticeably thinned out. Third, largest part went north (to catch up with the Grand Duke), along the way they defeated Yaroslavl, Kostroma and other cities. In early March 1238, a large army was near the river. City. On March 4, 1238, a battle took place, as a result, the Russians were again defeated. And during February, the Mongols ravaged 14 cities between the Volga and Klyazma, but Smolensk could not be taken. On the outskirts of the city they met the enemy Smolensk regiments and threw it away. Batu decided to turn to the northeast and stumbled upon the city of Kozelsk (51 days!!!).

Ø The ruin of the Southern lands of Russia (1239-1241). In 1239 they invaded southern Russia. At the same time, they went the way that the Polovtsians did forays. In the autumn of 1240, having crossed the Dnieper and overcoming the resistance of the "black hoods" ( tribal union the remnants of the Turkic nomadic tribes - Pechenegs, Toroks, Berendeys, who defended the southern borders of Russia), at the end of November they approached Kyiv. Prince Daniil Romanovich Galitsky - absent !!! After a 9-day siege and assault on December 6, 1240, Kyiv fell. After the capture of Kyiv, they moved further west.

Ø Campaign to Europe (1241-1242). In the spring of 1241, the Mongols moved into Europe. The Hungarians put up fierce resistance in the passes of the Carpathians. But Batu crossed the mountains and in April invaded Hungary. The Hungarian king Bella II gathered 60 thousand soldiers and set out from the city of Pest. April 11, near the river. Sayo started the battle. The king was defeated. After a 3-day siege, the city of Pest fell. In the same spring of 1241, the Mongols moved further into Poland and captured Lublin, Zavikhost, Sandomierz, Krakow. The Czech king Vaclov I sent 40 thousand troops to help the Poles. On April 9, 1241, the Poles and allied troops were defeated near Lebnitz, but the Mongols failed to take Lebnitz. The Czech Republic was preparing for a stubborn struggle, threatening the flanks Mongolian army and Batu Khan withdrew his troops from the Polish lands back. Then the Mongols invade the lands of Bukovina, Moldavia and Romania. Slovakia, which was under the rule of Hungary, seriously suffered from their attack. Batu still moved west in 1242 to the Adriatic Sea, invaded Selesia and defeated the Duke of Slesia. A difficult capture of Germany was coming, but the troops ran out of steam (from 1236 to 1242 - 7 years of continuous hostilities) and the khan turned his troops back (to the east), without reaching the "SEA OF THE FRANKS" (according to the will of Genghis Khan).

4. The formation of the state "Golden Horde" relationship with the Russian lands.

Ø Territory of the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde included: part of the lands in Central Asia, the Caspian Sea and the Northern Black Sea region; Medium and Lower Volga region; Northern Crimea, the lands of the Polovtsy and other Turkic nomadic peoples in the steppe spaces from the river. Irtysh and to the mouth of the river. Danube. In 1254, the capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Saray Volga, was built. of the highest flourishing The Golden Horde reached under Khan Uzbek (1313-1342).

Ø Recognition of the dependence of Russian lands on the Golden Horde. In 1243 Batu, returning from western campaign, summoned the Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. From the hands of the khan, he accepted the "label" for a great reign. This was so formal and legal recognition of Russia's dependence on the Golden Horde. Unlike other conquered lands, Russia retained its statehood. Dependence was expressed in the payment of tribute (not only monetary). In the 40s, the collection of tribute was not fixed either in time or in size. It was carried out by tax collectors. Norms for them, the amount of tribute and the actual registration of the yoke occurred later, in 1257, when a census of the Russian lands was carried out by the Horde officials - "numerals" and a regular tribute was established. The khans established control over the princes and the collection of tribute (14 types of tribute). They sent their representatives - the Baskaks, whose functions were not only to collect tribute, but also to control the activities of the princes (Baskak in Yaroslavl - Russian monk Izosim, in Ustyug - Russian John, Suzdal - Kutlubug (not Mongol)) "guilty" princes were summoned to the Horde or sent punitive ratis to their lands.

5. The influence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of the Horde dominion on the history of Russia.

There are three main points of view on this problem in Russian historiography.

Ø Firstly, this recognition is very significant and predominantly positive impact of the conquerors on the development of Russia, which prompted the process of creating a unified Moscow (Russian) state. The founder of this point of view was N.M. Karamzin, and in the 30s of our century it was developed by the so-called Eurasians. At the same time, unlike L.N. Gumilyov, who in his studies painted a picture of good-neighborly and allied relations between Russia and the Horde, did not deny such obvious facts, like the devastating campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars on Russian lands, the collection of heavy tribute, etc.

Ø Other historians (among them S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov) evaluated influence of the conquerors inner life ancient Russian society as an extremely insignificant. They believed that the processes that took place in the second half of the 13th - 15th centuries either organically followed from the trend of the previous period, or arose independently of the Horde.

Ø Finally, many historians are characterized by an intermediate position, as it were. The influence of the conquerors is regarded as noticeable, but not determining the development of Russia (at the same time unambiguously negative). Creation united state, according to B.D. Grekov, A.N. Nasonov, V.A. Kuchkin and others happened not thanks to, but in spite of the Horde.

o (Mongol-Tatar, Tatar-Mongol, Horde) - the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian lands by nomadic conquerors who came from the East from 1237 to 1480.

This system was aimed at the implementation of mass terror and robbery of the Russian people by levying cruel requisitions. It acted primarily in the interests of the Mongol nomadic military-feudal nobility (noyons), in whose favor the lion's share of the collected tribute came.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke was established as a result of the invasion of Batu Khan in the 13th century. Until the early 1260s, Russia was ruled by the great Mongol khans, and then by the khans of the Golden Horde.

Russian principalities were not directly part of Mongolian state and retained the local princely administration, whose activities were controlled by the Baskaks - representatives of the khan in the conquered lands. The Russian princes were tributaries of the Mongol khans and received from them labels for the possession of their principalities. Formally, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in 1243, when Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich received a label from the Mongols for the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. Russia, according to the label, lost the right to fight and had to regularly pay tribute to the khans twice a year (in spring and autumn).

On the territory of Russia there was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army. The yoke was supported by punitive campaigns and repressions against recalcitrant princes. The regular flow of tribute from the Russian lands began after the census of 1257-1259, conducted by the Mongolian "numerals". The units of taxation were: in the cities - the yard, in rural areas- "village", "plough", "plow". Only the clergy were exempt from tribute. The main "Horde hardships" were: "exit", or "Tsar's tribute" - a tax directly for Mongol Khan; trading fees ("myt", "tamka"); transport duties ("pits", "carts"); the content of the khan's ambassadors ("fodder"); various "gifts" and "honors" to the khan, his relatives and associates. Every year, Russian lands left in the form of tribute great amount silver. Large "requests" for military and other needs were periodically collected. In addition, the Russian princes were obliged, by order of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in battue hunts (“catchers”). In the late 1250s and early 1260s, tribute from the Russian principalities was collected by Muslim merchants (“besermens”), who bought this right from the great Mongol khan. Most of tribute went to the great khan in Mongolia. During the uprisings of 1262, the "besermen" from Russian cities were expelled, and the duty of collecting tribute passed to the local princes.

The struggle of Russia against the yoke was gaining more and more breadth. In 1285, Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich (son of Alexander Nevsky) defeated and expelled the army of the “Horde prince”. AT late XIII- the first quarter of the XIV century, performances in Russian cities led to the elimination of the Basques. With the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the Tatar yoke is gradually weakening. Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) won the right to collect "exit" from all Russian principalities. From the middle of the XIV century, the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by real military threat, the Russian princes were no longer carried out. Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389) did not recognize the khan's labels issued to his rivals and seized the Grand Duchy of Vladimir by force. In 1378 he defeated the Tatar army on the Vozha River in the Ryazan land, and in 1380 he defeated the Golden Horde ruler Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo.

However, after the campaign of Tokhtamysh and the capture of Moscow in 1382, Russia was again forced to recognize the power of the Golden Horde and pay tribute, but already Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) received the great reign of Vladimir without the khan's label, as "his fiefdom." Under him, the yoke was nominal. Tribute was paid irregularly, the Russian princes pursued an independent policy. The attempt of the Golden Horde ruler Edigey (1408) to restore full power over Russia ended in failure: he failed to take Moscow. The strife that began in the Golden Horde opened before Russia the possibility of overthrowing the Tatar yoke.

However, in the middle of the 15th century, Muscovite Russia itself experienced a period internecine war, which weakened its military potential. During these years, the Tatar rulers organized a series of devastating invasions, but they were no longer able to bring the Russians to complete obedience. The unification of the Russian lands around Moscow led to the concentration in the hands of the Moscow princes of such political power, which the weakened could not cope with. Tatar khans. Great Moscow Prince Ivan III Vasilyevich(1462-1505) in 1476 refused to pay tribute. In 1480, after the unsuccessful campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and “standing on the Ugra”, the yoke was finally overthrown.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke had negative, regressive consequences for the economic, political and cultural development of the Russian lands, was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Russia, which were at a higher social level. economic level compared with the productive forces of the Mongolian state. It artificially preserved long time purely feudal natural character of the economy. AT politically the consequences of the yoke were manifested in the violation natural process state development Russia, in the artificial maintenance of its fragmentation. The Mongol-Tatar yoke, which lasted two and a half centuries, was one of the reasons for the economic, political and cultural backwardness of Russia from Western European countries.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources.