List of Eastern European countries. Tourism: capitals, cities and resorts. Cards foreign countries region Eastern Europe.

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“Eastern Europe is what we are” - so even some 20 years ago a citizen of the USSR could confidently say. Times have changed, but this statement is still not far from the truth: Eastern Europe includes Russia proper, Ukraine and Belarus, and also, depending on the speaker's pan-Slavic views, Moldavia, Bulgaria and Romania. Actually, this division is even more conditional than the division of the rainbow into seven colors: sometimes this term is understood as the countries of the former socialist camp (which means that the Czech Republic, Slovakia, as well as the once constituent parts of Yugoslavia - now six Balkan republics), sometimes - they go even further into history, including parts of Austria, Hungary, etc.

Eastern Europe

Be that as it may, one thing is indisputable: Eastern Europe is the closest geographically and spiritually to Russia part of the Old World, which, although not on the list of the most popular destinations for outbound tourism, has its devoted army of fans. It would not be an exaggeration to say that only a lazy and principled supporter of “real” foreign tourism did not bother to visit the resorts of Crimea. Well, let Belarus not have gentle sea and wide beaches, but it can offer a real eco-recreation in the green expanses of Central Russia: centuries-old oak forests, a delicious abundance of mushrooms and berries, a variety of game and wild “hunting” animals, lakes, nature reserves, healing mud and mineral waters ... in general, there is a complete "gentleman's package" of a tourist destination.

Eastern Europe is the closest geographically and spiritually to Russia part of the Old World, which, although not on the list of the most popular outbound tourism destinations, has its own dedicated army of fans.

For those who want to “break away” from Russian reality a little more radically and at the same time not go too far to the west, we advise you to pay attention to our distant Eastern European neighbors. In Moldova, for example, in addition to all kinds of eco-baits (dales and villages, forests and fields ...) there is also a very specific result of this very ecosystem - wine, cognac and champagne. It is not surprising that tours "under the degree" fly here simply "with a bang": a lot of wine roads pass through the country, and everyone will be able to choose their own own way- in direct and figuratively- Based on the level of physical and moral preparation. In addition, lovers should definitely get here. national history: such a number of Jewish and gypsy memorial sites cannot be found on the entire planet!

The objects of tourist interest in Bulgaria are the talk of the town Golden Sands (as well as lesser-known resorts Black Sea coast) plus a remarkable number of mineral springs and other deposits of natural medicinal "appliances". Don't forget to grab the well-known bottle of rose oil from the Valley of the Roses. Romania, in addition to the above (beaches, balneology, ecotourism), offers tourists a gloomy but attractive Middle Ages: Transylvania and the castle of the notorious Count Dracula, fortified churches and monasteries and entire ancient cities, as if descended from a medieval engraving.

Among the pleasant "chips" of tourist Eastern Europe are a trifling flight (no more than 2 hours in the air), familiar climate, lack of language barrier and very native, benevolent population. Among other things, in the coming Eastern European countries it is easy to arrive, just sitting behind the wheel of your own car!

Alla Alekseevna Yazkova - Head of the Mediterranean-Chernomorie Center of the Institute of Europe of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Alla Yazkova

Southeast Europe in an era of change

In the context of the international events of the last two centuries and in the accompanying ideas of contemporaries, South-Eastern Europe, better known as the Balkans, was invariably combined with negative connotations. The concept of "Balkans" was associated with the term "Balkanization", which, according to the well-known Yugoslav analyst and publicist Ranko Petkovic, meant a state of constant conflict between states over disputed territories and the situation of those living outside their countries. ethnic groups population. To this characteristic, we can add the factor of many years of self-serving "play" of major European and world powers on the contradictions both between the Balkan states and between the peoples inhabiting them.

At the end of the 20th century, these complex processes ended with the collapse of the largest Balkan state, the Federal Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and the resulting regional crises and conflicts have not been overcome to this day.

Despite this, most of the countries of the region, although not always consistently and successfully, are included in the processes of modernization and advancement along the path of Atlantic and European integration. In pan-European projects and scientific and political literature, the Balkan region is increasingly referred to as "South-Eastern Europe". Yes and in public consciousness most of its countries, the desire to quickly overcome the dangerous propensity for conflicts, the notorious "Balkanization" syndrome, stereotypical perceptions of the Balkans as a "powder keg" and "vulnerable underbelly" of the continent is becoming more and more noticeable.

But is it possible today to assert that the concept of "South-Eastern Europe" has already replaced the term used for many decades Balkans?

Yes and no. The Balkan Peninsula, without any doubt, remains the geographical basis of South-Eastern Europe. But in the context of ongoing processes of modernization and progress along the path of regional and pan-European integration, the indication of its European affiliation becomes especially important and significant for its member countries. As rightly pointed out contemporary authors, the region acquires grounds for a phased inclusion in European integration precisely as Southeast Europe. Wherein we are talking about the historically formed group of Balkan countries, the commonality of which became obvious only at those stages of history when they had to decide general tasks. For example, to fight for national and state independence at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.

It was at this period of history that a complex of regional characteristics was formed, in the presence of which the Italian researcher Stefano Bianchini saw Balkan specificity. On the one hand, it is characterized by the similarity of the spiritual and material culture of all peoples inhabiting the Balkans. On the other hand, there are features in the local mentality that oppose it to the cultural world. Western Europe. The well-known Romanian historian Nicolae Iorga wrote about the same at one time, noting that in terms of clothing, types of ornaments used, architecture, agricultural methods, customs and superstitions, ways of thinking and feeling, the Balkan peoples are "absolutely identical to each other" .

At the same time, the strategically important densely populated region Southeastern Europe (with a total population of about 50 million) is literally riddled with sources of various kinds of potential contradictions. Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Islam have long been in contact here, repeatedly resulting in sharp religious conflicts. The ethnic map of the region is incomparable in its diversity with other parts of Europe (with the possible exception of the Caucasus). Being for centuries under the rule of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires and feeling the constant, although far from unambiguous, influence of Russia, the Balkan region perceived both positive and negative aspects of all these influences.

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire, although not disinterestedly, but rather actively contributed to the emergence of new independent states here. After the emergence of the USSR and until the Second World War, the states of South-Eastern Europe were to some extent embedded in the policy of the "cordon sanitaire", and in the post-war years their relations with the Soviet Union developed according to the well-known model of "international relations of a new type", which, after 1968 became known as the "doctrine of limited sovereignty". After the collapse of the USSR, a period of alienation began again, and therefore Russia's relations with the countries of this region over the past decade and a half have to be built anew.

Thus, the states of the Balkan Peninsula were formed under conditions of contradictory cultural, historical and political influences. Moreover, in the 20th century in the Balkans there was a powerful clash of Western civilization ideologies - communism, fascism and nationalism, which further increased the conflict potential of the region. In other words, many of the current problems in the Balkan region are rooted in the past. Among them are the historically established multi-ethnicity, and the late formation of nations and states, and, as a consequence of all that has been said, protracted economic backwardness and political instability.

A characteristic feature of the international development of the Balkan states is their dependence on the major European powers, which after the world wars themselves decided - as a rule, to their advantage - extremely painful for the Balkans issues of establishing or changing state borders. After the Second World War, the current borders between Romania and Hungary were determined, territorial disputes between Bulgaria, on the one hand, and Greece and Turkey, on the other, were resolved. The problems of territorial settlement between Italy and Yugoslavia turned out to be more difficult, the dispute between them over the “free territory of Trieste” was finally resolved only in 1975. It took a long time and post-war settlement between Greece and Albania, the state of war between which was formally ended only in February 1988.

In the years " cold war The confrontation between blocks was added to the territorial disputes, which made it possible to speak of the Balkans as a micromodel of the whole world with its conflicts and contradictions. The states located in the region were part of NATO (Greece and Turkey), the Warsaw Pact Organization (Romania and Bulgaria), the Non-Aligned Movement (Yugoslavia) or remained in self-isolation (Albania is the only European country that did not sign the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe ). The situation was also complicated by internal political clashes. Among them - the conflict between Stalin and Tito in 1948, the break in relations between the USSR and Albania in 1960, the transition of Romania in the mid-1960s to the position of "dissident" in the socialist community.

True, in contrast to this, in the 1960s-1980s, the processes of inter-Balkan cooperation developed autonomously, which after 1975 became a kind of refraction of the “spirit of Helsinki” and a prologue to the subsequent overcoming of the confrontation of world systems in the Balkans. In this regard, it is impossible not to notice that the intensification of such interaction at that time contributed to the gradual erosion of national, ideological and geopolitical barriers in relations between the Balkan countries and in their contacts with the West.

However, the subsequent collapse of the communist regimes in Bulgaria, Romania and Albania led to the destabilization general political situation in the region and the revival of nationalist ideas and slogans in the late 1980s. Even before the start of the war in Yugoslavia, the American researcher Stephen Larrabee noted that the main threat to European security now comes not from the Soviet bloc, but from interethnic conflicts and political fragmentation. The Greek researcher Thanos Veremis joins his opinion, from the point of view of which the main causes of instability in the Balkans in the early 1990s were the escalation of interethnic conflicts and the weakening of mutual trust.

The consequences of the collapse of the SFRY - the former Yugoslavia - turned out to be the most severe for South-Eastern Europe. The resulting crises and conflicts were tried to be prevented and extinguished, although not always by acceptable methods, first European Union and then the US and NATO. According to many international experts, the prologue to the escalation of large-scale conflicts on the territory of Yugoslavia was the hasty recognition by the European Union in late 1991 and early 1992 of the independence of Croatia and Slovenia, made in opposition to the nationalist policy of the Serbian leadership. The culmination of the Balkan policy of the United States and NATO was the bombing in March-June 1999 on Federal Republic Yugoslavia, which is only post factum was formalized by UN Security Council Resolution No. 1244, recognizing the territorial integrity of the FRY.

Throughout the 1990s, Russia also tried to assist in resolving the Yugoslav crisis, but at first the Russian ruling elite had neither a clear understanding of its origins nor constructive ideas for overcoming it. For a long time, stakes were placed on those forces of the FRY that gave rise to this crisis - on Slobodan Milosevic and his entourage. Russian foreign policy in those years showed a number of features that made it possible to speak of a situational reaction to events in the context of the Russian problems and at the same time - about the desire for conservation status quo in the region and avoid any changes. Its disappointing result was the results of voting in the UN Security Council after the start of air strikes on the FRY, when on March 26, 1999, only Russia itself, China and Namibia voted for the resolution proposed by Russia that characterized NATO's actions as aggressive.

Today, there is no shooting in the Balkans - and this is the merit of the peacekeeping forces of the UN, NATO and the European Union - but smoldering pockets of potential crises remain. In this situation, the function of Russia as a permanent member of the UN Security Council remains important. In this regard, it suffices to mention her contribution to the complex and lengthy process of negotiations to resolve the "problem of Kosovo", an autonomous province within Serbia with a predominantly Albanian population. Granting independence to the province, which the Kosovars insist on, could easily lead to a new explosion of territorial and interethnic conflicts and seriously undermine stability in the region.

At the final stage of negotiations on the status of Kosovo in the Security Council (March-April 2007), Russian diplomacy managed to transfer them to the level of direct contacts between representatives of Belgrade and Pristina through the mediation of the "troika" consisting of Russia, the EU and the United States. At the same time, the negotiations were based on the idea that "not a hasty solution to the issue of Kosovo's status, but the achievement of a compromise should become the goal and necessity for everyone."

The deadlock around the Kosovo problem poses a potential threat of new armed conflicts in the Balkan region. If independence is granted to Kosovo, the border territories of Macedonia and Montenegro, inhabited by Albanians, may stretch to this region. Anticipating such a possibility, the nationalist circles of the Republika Srpska are now declaring their intention to reunite with Serbia, which threatens the very existence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Finally, the inevitable such a case the explosion of nationalism in Serbia could finally undermine stability in the western part of the Balkans. All of the above calls into question the current unity of Southeast Europe. Its western part, uniting six countries - Albania, as well as fragments of the former Yugoslavia as part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro - remains the most problematic part of the European continent.

The transition to a market economy turned out to be more difficult here than in other former socialist countries. The disintegration of Yugoslavia and the armed conflicts on its territory had the most devastating effect on the economic situation of the countries affected by them and had a negative impact on the course and pace of the transition period. Despite significant international assistance, the region remains far from macroeconomic stability and economic recovery. Today, the economic performance of its member countries differs from the results achieved not only in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, but also in the eastern part of the Balkans themselves - in Bulgaria and Romania, which became members of the European Union in 2007.

But despite the predisposition to political crises and economic stagnation, one cannot but take into account the continuing commonality of goals and objectives of the historically formed group of countries in Southeast Europe. The processes of modernization and democratization taking place here are still far from European models. The consolidation of an imperfect party system is conditional, the independence of the judiciary and its effectiveness are problematic, and freedom of the media is ephemeral. But with the chosen orientation towards joining the European Union, the choice of a democratic path for the countries of the region seems to have no alternative. backward movement will become possible only if the European perspective is lost or in the event of explosive destabilization at certain points or in the region as a whole.

European vector during foreign policy countries of South-Eastern Europe emerged in the early 1990s, becoming decisive for the subsequent stage. A significant reason that strengthened the attraction of the former socialist countries to the Euro-Atlantic structures was their inability to independently resolve protracted interstate crises and conflicts. The collapse of the USSR also played a role here, as well as a new configuration of relations with its heirs - primarily with Russia. But the main factor that prompted them to focus on “return to Europe” and integration into NATO and the EU was that not only state leaders, but also the majority of the population associated hopes for a better life and overcoming the authoritarian legacy with such a course.

Other opinions, however, are expressed, according to which the initiative role in NATO's eastward expansion belonged to the North Atlantic Alliance itself, which sought to strengthen its strategic positions. Without disregarding the undoubted significance of the Western influence, I would like to note that the main incentives for the "drift to the west" turned out to be internal factors. AT different countries they manifested themselves in different ways, but all the Balkan states were united by the fact that a clear discrepancy between their economic and political development NATO and especially the EU standards only confirmed the direction of their movement.

The "pioneers" were Romania and Bulgaria: in May 2004 they became members of NATO, and since January 2007 they have secured EU membership. The situation is more complicated with the states of the Western Balkans. Their negotiations with the European Union are unlikely to succeed in the foreseeable future. As for NATO, the most active contacts with the alliance today are maintained by Croatia, Macedonia and Albania, which signed an agreement in November 2002 on joint actions in this direction. Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina different reasons are not yet included in the negotiation process, although their persistent desire to achieve at least initial involvement in the integration process is obvious.

No less difficult problems arose in the West in connection with the new vector of Balkan politics after the collapse of "real socialism". The task of establishing contacts with the countries of the Balkan region turned out to be extremely difficult for the EU. According to the decision adopted in June 1993 at the meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen, EU membership is possible for those states that meet the so-called "Copenhagen criteria". However, even the most stable Balkan states - Bulgaria and Romania - did not "fit" into them, and that is why the dates for their entry into the EU were repeatedly postponed. Albania was not even offered specific dates, and the republics of the collapsed SFRY were only included in the preliminary program "Regional Approach for the Balkans". As a result, by the end of the 1990s, the EU's relations with the countries of Southeast Europe were characterized, according to one of the Greek researchers, by "amazing diversity". The region neighbored: a full member of the European Union - Greece, two candidates for the "second wave" of enlargement - Bulgaria and Romania, Turkey, which has been waiting for integration into the EU for almost twenty years, as well as Albania, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and the FRY, included in additional programs of the European Union.

Subsequently, as already noted, only Bulgaria and Romania managed to overcome the bar. Meanwhile, a kind of vicious circle has developed in the western Balkans: political stability in Southeastern Europe is impossible without progress in the economy, and this, in turn, is hampered by the lack of political stability. This does not mean that the situation of the countries that have been awarded accession is absolutely cloudless: the most significant obstacle to the normal functioning of Romania and Bulgaria within the EU remains corruption, which, according to the European Commission, is a large-scale and systemic problem that undermines justice, the economy and the faith of citizens to the state. But attempts to accelerate the curbing of corruption and especially shadow economy negative consequences, in particular an increase in the already high unemployment rate. In addition, according to experts, the introduction of European quotas for the export of agricultural products and strict food safety standards can lead to the ruin of 40% of small and medium-sized enterprises in the industry. It will take years to remove such barriers. This will significantly complicate the implementation of social programs of the EU member states and candidates for accession.

For the relations of the states of South-Eastern Europe with NATO, the 1999 Washington Summit strategic concept, where, for obvious reasons (the summit was held at the height of the NATO bombing of the FRY), the main attention was paid to the state of affairs in the Balkan region. The documents adopted in Washington formed the basis for further processes of transformation and modernization of NATO. The first practical steps to regulate international crises outside the alliance's traditional area of ​​responsibility were made in the Balkan region, but their results turned out to be much more modest than expected. The main goal was not achieved - to ensure stabilization in the crisis region of South-Eastern Europe. The establishment of an international protectorate over Kosovo also did not solve the key problem of determining the status of the province and the position of national minorities in it.

In the relevant sections strategic concept the conditions for the integration of the countries of South-Eastern Europe into NATO were outlined. Among them are the settlement of international disputes by peaceful means; resolution of interethnic and territorial conflicts with neighbors; commitment to the rule of law and the protection of human rights, rejection of the threat of the use of force, and establishment of a system of democratic and civilian control over the armed forces; providing partners with information about the state of the economy and the principles economic policy.

Romania and Bulgaria were able, albeit very conditionally, to overcome the bar set by the alliance. As for the states of the western Balkans, NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Skeffer said that in order to become candidates for accession, Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as Serbia, in addition to implementing military reforms, should actively cooperate with the Hague Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia . After 2002, certain prospects for joining NATO appeared in Albania, Croatia and Macedonia, and the strategic interests of the North Atlantic bloc itself became decisive here.

Summing up, we can conclude that, despite numerous obstacles and difficulties, the countries of South-Eastern Europe will continue to cooperate with European and Euro-Atlantic structures. The desire to "return to Europe" remains dominant not only for politicians, but also for the majority of the population of these states. Its implementation will largely depend on when and how successfully the economic and economic social barriers between the East and West of Europe and at the same time established - already on new basis-- their cooperation with traditional partners, primarily with Russia.

Today, if we exclude the "problem of Kosovo", South-Eastern Europe can no longer be perceived as a field of geopolitical confrontation between Russia and the West. In the new situation, there are real conditions for large-scale economic cooperation between our country and the countries of the region. Relying on the largest energy companies, Russia today is able to pursue a more active regional policy than before. In this sense, the expansion of Russia's economic presence logically fits into the policy of stabilizing the region and Russia's relations with the European Union. But this does not rule out the intensification of competition for control over oil and gas routes, attempts to create alternative Russian routes for the supply of energy resources to the South-East and Southern Europe.

A significant imbalance in mutual trade and a clear asymmetry of interests between Russia and its partners, who are striving to return to the Russian market, has become typical of Russia's economic relations with the countries of Southeast Europe. Russia itself is not satisfied with the fact that 90% of its exports to the countries of South-Eastern Europe are energy carriers, raw materials and semi-finished products, while the share of finished products continues to decline steadily. Here, of course, the orientation of our partners towards obtaining high-tech products from the EU countries affects, although at the current stage their capabilities in this regard remain limited.

All of the above leads to the conclusion about the need for trilateral cooperation between the states of South-Eastern Europe with Russia and the European Union, which is more profitable and more promising for them than any unilateral options. Only in this way, despite the inevitable obstacles and difficulties on this path, can the age-old confrontation between Russia and the West in the Balkans be completed.

AT recent months World War II in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, popular fronts were formed, which included various parties and most of the social corpses. The years 1944-1946 went down in the history of these countries as a period of "people's democracy". The following factors influenced the emergence and strengthening of the Soviet regime in the region:

• in the territories of these European countries, Soviet army units are located;
• The USSR abandoned the Marshall Plan.

These factors also influenced the elimination of the multi-party system in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe and created the conditions for the autocracy of the communist parties.

In 1948-1949, the communist parties in power set the course for building socialism, and the market economy was replaced by a centrally planned economy. As a result, a totalitarian socialist society arose in these countries. Private property was abolished, entrepreneurship and individual peasants were reduced to a minimum.

Among the countries of "people's democracy" Yugoslavia was the first to spoil relations with the USSR. The Union of Communists of Yugoslavia, which opposed Soviet rule, was expelled from the Communist Information Bureau at the end of 1948.

In 1949, to coordinate economic development socialist countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was created, and in 1955 these same countries joined the Organization Warsaw Pact that united their armed forces.

The death of Stalin and, especially, the criticism of the cult of personality contributed to a change in the political climate in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. In the autumn of 1956, a crisis arose in Poland, which was eased by the partial democratization of the political system.

On October 23, 1956, mass demonstrations began in Hungary. Imre Nagy, elected head of the Hungarian government, on November 1 announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Treaty Organization. November 4 soviet tanks entered Budapest and literally drowned freedom movement in blood. Imre Nagy was charged with treason and executed.

In 1968-1969, events took place in Czechoslovakia, which received the name "Prague Spring".

The Czechoslovak Communist Party, under the leadership of A. Dubcek, adopted a "Program of Action" to build a model of a socialist society that would correspond to the conditions of modern Czechoslovakia. The USSR and some socialist countries reacted negatively to this idea.

Troops of the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Hungary and Bulgaria invaded Czechoslovakia. In August 1968 A.

Dubcek and his associates were arrested and deported to Moscow. In 1969, the place of A.

The policy of “perestroika” in the USSR and the collapse of the empire in the late 1980s and early 1990s provoked a paralysis of the socialist system in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Poland was the first to fall out of the socialist system.

As a result of the collapse of the socialist system, the "Balkan Empire" - Yugoslavia - collapsed along with the USSR. It broke up into independent states: Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia,

Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia. And Czechoslovakia was divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

The video tutorial allows you to get an interesting and detailed information about the countries of Eastern Europe. From the lesson you will learn about the composition of Eastern Europe, the characteristics of the countries of the region, their geographical position, nature, climate, place in this subregion. The teacher will tell you in detail about the main country of Eastern Europe - Poland.

Subject: Regional characteristic peace. Foreign Europe

Lesson: Eastern Europe

Rice. 1. Map of the subregions of Europe. Eastern Europe is highlighted in red. ()

Eastern Europe- cultural and geographical region, which includes states located in the east of Europe.

Compound:

1. Belarus.

2. Ukraine.

3. Bulgaria.

4. Hungary.

5. Moldova.

6. Poland.

7. Romania.

8. Slovakia.

In the post-war period, the industry actively grew and developed in all countries of the region, and non-ferrous metallurgy relies mainly on its own raw materials, black - on imported.

The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool building, household appliances and computer science); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures; in addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland.

The region's chemical industry lags far behind Western Europe due to the lack of raw materials for the most advanced branches of chemistry - oil. But still, the pharmaceutical industry of Poland and Hungary, the glass industry of the Czech Republic can be noted.

Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes took place in the structure of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe: agro-industrial complex arose, specialization of agricultural production took place. It manifested itself most clearly in grain farming and in the production of vegetables, fruits, and grapes.

The structure of the region's economy is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, the share of animal husbandry exceeds the share of crop production, in the rest - the ratio is still the opposite.

Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) important role rye and potatoes play, vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated in the central part of the subregion, and the "southern" countries specialize in subtropical crops.

The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, fruits.

The main wheat and corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube rolling plain(Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria).

Hungary has achieved the greatest success in grain growing.

Vegetables, fruits, grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in the subregion, but there are areas where they primarily determine the specialization of agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in the range of products. For example, Hungary is famous for winter varieties of apples, grapes, onions; Bulgaria - oilseeds; Czech Republic - hops, etc.

Livestock. Northern and central countries regions specialize in dairy and meat-and-dairy cattle breeding and pig breeding, and the southern regions specialize in mountain pasture meat and wool animal husbandry.

In Eastern Europe, lying at the crossroads that have long connected the eastern and western parts of Eurasia, transport system formed over many centuries. Now the leader in terms of traffic volume railway transport, but the automobile and marine industries are also intensively developing. Availability major ports contributes to the development of external economic ties, shipbuilding, ship repair, fishing.

Poland. The official name is the Republic of Poland. The capital is Warsaw. The population is 38.5 million people, of which more than 97% are Poles. Most are Catholics.

Rice. 3. Historic center of Warsaw ()

Poland borders on Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Russia; in addition, it borders on the sea areas (zones) of Denmark and Sweden.

About 2/3 of the territory in the north and in the center of the country is occupied by the Polish lowland. In the north - the Baltic Ridge, in the south and southeast - the Lesser Poland and Lublin Uplands, along southern border- Carpathians (highest point 2499 m, Mount Rysy in the Tatras) and the Sudetes. major rivers- Wisla, Odra; dense river network. Lakes are predominantly in the north. Under the forest 28% of the territory.

Minerals of Poland: coal, sulfur, iron ore, various salts.

Upper Silesia is a region of concentration of Poland's industrial production of pan-European significance.

Poland generates almost all electricity at thermal power plants.

Leading manufacturing industries:

1. Mining.

2. Mechanical engineering (Poland occupies one of the leading places in the world in the production of fishing vessels, freight and passenger cars, road and construction machines, machine tools, engines, electronics, industrial equipment, etc.).

3. Ferrous and non-ferrous (large zinc production) metallurgy.

4. Chemical ( sulfuric acid, fertilizers, pharmaceutical, perfumery and cosmetic products, photographic products).

5. Textile (cotton, linen, wool).

6. Sewing.

7. Cement.

8. Production of porcelain and faience.

9. Manufacture of sports goods (kayaks, yachts, tents, etc.).

10. Manufacture of furniture.

Poland has a highly developed agriculture. AT agriculture horticulture predominates. The main crops are rye, wheat, barley, and oats.

Poland is a major producer of sugar beets (over 14 million tons per year), potatoes, and cabbage. Importance has exports of apples, strawberries, raspberries, currants, garlic, onions.

The leading branch of animal husbandry is pig breeding, dairy and meat cattle breeding, poultry farming (Poland is one of the largest suppliers of eggs in Europe), and beekeeping.

Homework

Topic 6, Item 3

1. What are the features geographical location Of Eastern Europe?

2. Name the main areas of specialization in Poland.

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10. Unified state exam 2009. Geography. Universal materials for the preparation of students / FIPI - M .: Intellect-Center, 2009. - 240 p.

11. Geography. Answers on questions. Oral exam, theory and practice / V.P. Bondarev. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2003. - 160 p.

12. USE 2010. Geography: thematic training tasks/ O.V. Chicherina, Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 144 p.

13. USE 2012. Geography: Standard exam options: 31 options / Ed. V.V. Barabanova. - M.: national education, 2011. - 288 p.

14. USE 2011. Geography: Standard exam options: 31 options / Ed. V.V. Barabanova. - M.: National Education, 2010. - 280 p.

Materials on the Internet

1. Federal Institute pedagogical measurements ().

2. federal portal Russian Education ().

A manufacturing economy developed in the Aegean Sea region even before the middle of the 7th millennium BC. So far, we do not know whether this Neolithic way of life was to some extent brought by new settlers, or whether the corresponding ideas penetrated here from Anatolia over many generations gradually and without the mediation of large-scale migrations. And what happened to the Mesolithic population, was it absorbed? Based on the available data, all of these factors may have played a role certain role. Indeed, in the earliest Neolithic settlements of the South-East

Europe's main types of livestock. ___________ sheep and goats would be

already completely domesticated. Significant transformation

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tic settlements,

assumptions that both people and cattle once came

went to Europe from other places

Gimbutas M. Civilization I Great Goddess

Unfortunately, we have almost no archaeological data on the period preceding the Neolithic. The warming of the climate in the post-glacial period led to a rise in sea levels, and it is possible that many Mesolithic sites on the islands of the Aegean Sea and in coastal areas were mostly flooded. Traces of Mesolithic and Neolithic dwellings have been found only in the Argolis region of the Peloponnese, in the Franhti Cave, but cultural continuity is not entirely obvious here either. The remains of skeletons found in this cave allow us to put forward two assumptions: either the original population belonged to local Mesolithic groups, or they were of eastern origin.

Physical type heterogeneity

Anthropological material discovered to the north, in Greek Macedonia (the settlement of Nea-Nicomedia), from the point of view of taxonomy, is heterogeneous. As Angel points out, several types were represented there: Dinaric - Mediterranean and the so-called main white type with Cro-Magnon features. This variability is explained by the fact that over the centuries there has been a gradual mixing of the agricultural population with hunter-gatherers. The heterogeneity of the physical type is also noted in the Starchevo culture of the Central and Northern Balkans (see Chapter II).

On the Danube, in the area of ​​the Iron Gates, a continuous cultural continuity can be traced from the Late Paleolithic through the Mesolithic, as evidenced by the stability of the local European, Cro-Magnon population, stone processing, religion and art. This is the so-called "Balkan-Danubian culture of the Epigravets and Mesolithic", or "the culture of Lepenski-Vir" (Lepenski-Vir is one of the fourteen excavated settlements, famous for its sanctuaries and sculptures, to which we will return in chapters II and VII). The productive economy came here along with the Central Balkan (Starchev) culture brought by the Neolithic tribes around 6000 BC

I I R IIT e TTTTGI e s YUTA GRATTILNYR ST^e GTI How NOL/f OUTSTANDING

or ousted those who inhabited this region for more than a month

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friend mingled 9

Navigation and trade exchange - gavnye

culture catalysts

Apparently, the skills of navigation, trade and barter, increasing the intensity of contacts between people, served as a catalyst for the unprecedented flowering of Neolithic culture. Starting from the 8th millennium BC, i.e. even before the onset of the Neolithic, traces of the existence of a trade exchange of flint and obsidian can be found 10 . After the establishment of a productive way of life, the constant growth of contacts is evidenced by the obsidian, marble and Spondylus shells brought to these places. Obsidian is a volcanic glass formed from lava saturated with quartz, ideal for sergg blades and cutting tools. Therefore, sttpos on t-gego ftLTjr use TTO ^ TOIWV and find it sometimes

kilometers from the mining sites The main source of obsidian both for the Aegean region and for the whole of Greece was the island of Melos, located in the southern part of the Aegean basin. myoyjpmpgyutgm*

Sicily. And the Carpathian basin and the Danube valleys were supplied with Carpathian obsidian from northeastern Hungary and northwestern Romania. the marble used to make bowls, dishes, ornaments and figurines could come from many places, but, apparently, its main sources were the islands of Paros and Skyros, located respectively in the southern and northern parts of the Aegean Sea, since it was there that Neolithic settlements. Beads, pendants and bracelets were made from spondylus shells characteristic of the Aegean basin. From the shores of the Aegean they are in in large numbers got to the north, to Bulgaria and Romania, and then, along the Danube, to Central Europe. Shells from the shores of the Adriatic were in circulation in western parts Yugoslavia and Northeast Italy.

Chapter I. Occurrence and distribution enenie earthdelia

Developed Neolithic cultures in Greece

by 6500 BC.

By 6500 B.C. in the coastal regions of Greece and adjacent to them flat territories there was a developed Neolithic mode of existence, with its characteristic production of ceramics and domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and a dog. A complete set of domestic animals appeared here five hundred years earlier than in Southwest Asia. The population already grew wheat, barley, vetch, lentils, peas and flax. It is possible that emmer rye and sheep were brought here from Anatolia, while the domestication of KDvnHoro cattle and pigs took place in South-Eastern Europe, regardless of extraneous influences.

included"
or from deer antlers hoes, wood Rice. 1-1

sunken or bone sickles with blades
viami m obsidian sherta or
kprmnya (pur 1-1) and chrgshptrpk "m ptvti
III, n™„ ^R NOGe R KI ""U"-