reflections.
A bit of subjective history.
Have you ever wondered about the origin of our Great and Mighty? Where does our language come from? Having attended Dmitry Petrov's lecture “On the Origin of Languages” in the summer, I never received an answer to my question. main question, although the lecture was undoubtedly very interesting.
Many adhere to the views of the so-called “ Norman theory”, that it is the people-tribe of Rus that takes its roots from Scandinavia (Varyags). If you look at the map and realize the endless expanses of our homeland, then this theory turns out to be too narrow. I'm sure we have more in Russia than we imagine.
The Scandinavian influence on Russia was indeed significant, but only in one of its geographical parts. True, it cannot be denied that all the same, the first legitimate power was still behind the Varangians (Rurik).
My personal Subjective opinion: Scandinavian tribes assimilated on the territory of Russia with the tribes that lived there at that time
Most likely, the Rus are not Slavs and not Scandinavians, but a kind of mix. Varyago-Russian ethnic community.
There were many tribes. That is, the tribe “Rus”, and the territory “Rus” was the territory of present-day Ukraine (Kievan Rus), and the Slavs, apparently, lived on Novgorod Land.
In general, Novgorodians long time did not consider themselves Russians at all, the word Russia belongs to their territory. in Novgorod birch bark letters, as well as in the annals for some time there are stories that such and such a bishop in such and such a year went to Russia from Novgorod, that is, he went south, to Kyiv or Chernigov. - Andrey Zaliznyak (outstanding linguist, academician) .
I have always had the impression that our country has always been somehow separate state, compared with Western world and its economic and political formation began much earlier than the coming of Rurik to reign. But intuitively I feel that real Russia not in Moscow, but much farther from it, somewhere there, to Novgorod and beyond. And next to Moscow, the influence is really strong Western culture, which often determines the mentality. We are close. In general, many Russian people living to the north have a harsh mentality. Kind, good, but harsh. Hence all the stereotypes about bears and Siberia and vodka. Not on empty place. Cold. And there already.
About language.
Slavic branches grow from a powerful trunk Indo-European family, which covers most languages of Europe and India. Indian and Iranian group represented in the East. In Europe, languages arise from Latin: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian. Greece and Greek is represented first by Ancient Greek and now by Modern Greek. German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, English came to us from Germany. The Baltic combines the Baltic languages and Slavic.
The Baltic branch includes Latvian, Lithuanian and now extinct Old Prussian. And the Slavs were divided into 3 groups of South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic languages.
- South Slavic is Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Macedonian;
- West Slavic is Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian.
- BUT East Slavic languages(OUR), is Russian (otherwise Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian.
By the divine coming of the brothers Cyril and Methodius, the language in Russia acquired an alphabet and a commonality. After all, before the tribes spoke their dialects. Cyril and Methodius came from Byzantium, therefore, they brought us part of the Greek. Did shades of Greek influence the Russians? Maybe.
Church Slavonic appeared. The Language of Worship. Elite language. Simple people it was not spoken.
And Old Russian, which was used as a folk language.
In comparison with Church Slavonic, in contrast to it.
The Russian language was perceived as a simple language, not just neutral, but even a little pejorative. “Russify” means to sink, stop looking after yourself. Not allowed to express spiritual content.
Russian language and Sanskrit.
Sanskrit is the ancient literary language of India. It is considered the same language of the elite as Latin, as Church Slavonic, but only in India. sacred language. It has written a huge number of religious texts and high literature.
Slavic and Sanskrit have a lot in common. Probably because Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European family and have common root. I am sure that the mutual influence of India and Russia was not limited to this. Russia is still too big.
A close connection can be traced between words such as " jnana ' and 'knowledge', ' vidya "and" knowledge "," dwara ' and 'door', ' mrityu ' and 'death', ' shveta ' and 'light', ' jiva ' and 'live', isn't it?
A great connoisseur of languages, dialects, professor and linguist Durgo Shastri, came to Moscow half a century ago. He did not speak Russian. A week later, the professor refuses an interpreter, saying that he began to understand Russians, since they speak corrupted Sanskrit. There are also such cases.
When I was in Moscow, the hotel gave me the keys to room 234 and said "dwesti tridtsat chetire". At a loss, I couldn't figure out if I was standing in front of a nice girl in Moscow, or if I was in Benares or Ujjain during our classical period some 2,000 years ago. Sanskrit 234 would be "dwsshata tridasha chatwari". Is there a greater similarity somewhere? hardly two more different language who have kept ancient heritage- such a close pronunciation - to this day.
I happened to visit the village of Kachalovo, about 25 km from Moscow, and was invited to dinner at the Russian peasant family. Elderly woman introduced me to the young couple, saying in Russian: "On my seen i ona moya snokha."
How I wish that Panini, (the great Indian grammarian, who lived about 2600 years ago), could be here with me and hear the language of his time, so wonderfully preserved with all the smallest subtleties! - Durga Prasad Shastri
Of course, the influence on the modern Russian language is simply enormous, a huge number of words have already been borrowed from those countries with which we have managed to communicate closely over all periods of history.
To be honest, in modern Russian there are traces of influences from almost all four corners of the world.
BORROWING.
Sail from the Greek "Farus".
During the expansion of the Goths- König, king - Prince.
Regiment from the German "Volk”.
Kaufenfrom German“ Buy”.
Words of Turkic origin for example, words like shoe, boar, cap, brick, product, lumber room, Cossack, cauldron, mound.
Bazaar, Barn, Attic - words of Turkish origin.
Watermelon. In Persian it is "Harbuza". In Persian it is watermelon, where char it's 'donkey', and buza- "cucumber'. Together it turns out “donkey cucumber”, and, by the way, it means there not a watermelon, but a melon.
From the Swedes - Herring, herring. By the way, the word “Finns” also came to us from the Swedes. The Finns themselves call themselves "Suomi".
The words cruiser,skipper, flag- Dutch. There are dozens of such words. Appeared during the reign of Peter the Great.
See how strongly neighboring languages influence word formation. Russian language communicated with huge amount languages, with at least two dozen. And if we count isolated cases, then there will be a dozen more with long-distance connections.
The national language is the means of oral and written communication of the nation. Along with the common territory, historical, economic and political life, as well as the mental warehouse, language is the leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term nation(lat.natio - tribe, people).
Russian national language by family ties, belongs to to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Indo-European languages are one of the largest language families, including Anatolian, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Italic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic groups, as well as Armenian, Phrygian, Venetian and some other languages.
Slavic languages come from single Proto-Slavic a language that evolved from the Indo-European base language long before our era. During the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, the main features inherent in all Slavic languages developed. Around VI -VII centuries AD, the Proto-Slavic unity broke up. The Eastern Slavs began to use a relatively uniform East Slavic language. (Old Russian, or language Kievan Rus). At about the same time, they formed West Slavic(Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbal Lusatian and "dead" Polabian) and South Slavic languages (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovene, Rusyn and "dead" Old Church Slavonic).
In the 9th-11th centuries, on the basis of translations of liturgical books made by Cyril and Methodius, the first written language Slavs - Old Church Slavonic Its literary continuation will be the language used to this day in worship. – Church Slavonic .
With the strengthening of feudal fragmentation and the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities are formed. Thus, the East Slavic group of languages is divided into three related languages: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. By the 14th-15th centuries, the language of the Great Russian people was formed with the Rostov-Suzdal and Vladimir dialects at the core.
Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development capitalist relations and the development of the Russian nationality into nation. Phonetic system, grammatical structure and basic vocabulary Russian national language inherited from the language Great Russian people formed in the process interaction between the northern Great Russian and the southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north of the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. Exactly Moscow business vernacular had a significant impact on the development of the national language.
An important stage in the development of the Russian national language was the 18th century. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. The democratization of the language was required, the introduction of living elements into its structure, colloquial speech merchants, service people, clergy and literate peasants. main role in theoretical substantiation of the Russian language played M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a "Russian grammar", which has theoretical and practical significance: streamlining literary language and development rules for the use of its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, unfounded philosophy, incomprehensible history, dubious jurisprudence without grammar. Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages:
- "the vastness of the places where he reigns"
- "your own space and contentment."
In the Petrine era due to the appearance in Russia of many new objects and phenomena the vocabulary of the Russian language is updated and enriched. The flow of new words was so huge that even a decree of Peter I was needed to regulate the use of borrowings.
The Karamzin period in the development of the Russian national language is characterized by the struggle for the establishment of a single language norm in it. At the same time, N.M. Karamzin and his supporters believe that, when defining norms, it is necessary to focus on Western, European languages (French), to free the Russian language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, to create new words, to expand the semantics of those already used to designate emerging in the life of society, mostly secular, new objects, phenomena, processes. Karamzin's opponent was the Slavophil A.S. Shishkov, who believed that old Slavic should become the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute over language between Slavophiles and Westernizers was brilliantly resolved in the work of the great Russian writers of the early nineteenth century. A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of live colloquial speech, the originality and richness of Russian folklore.
Creator same national Russian language became A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportion and conformity”: any element is appropriate if it accurately conveys thought and feeling.
In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing the national language in order to create unified orthoepic, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume " Dictionary living Great Russian language” V.I. Dahl.
After the October Revolution of 1917, important changes took place in the Russian language. Firstly, a huge layer of secular and religious vocabulary, which was very relevant before the revolution, “dies out”. The new power destroys objects, phenomena, processes, and at the same time the words denoting them disappear: monarch, heir to the throne, gendarme, police officer, privatdozent, footman and so on. Millions of believing Russians cannot openly use Christian terminology: seminary, sexton, Eucharist, Ascension, Mother of God, Spas, Assumption, etc. These words live in the people's environment secretly, implicitly, waiting for the hour of their revival. On the other side. a huge number of new words appear, reflecting changes in politics, economics, culture : Soviets, Kolchak, Red Army soldier, Chekist. There are a large number of compound words: party dues, collective farm, Revolutionary Military Council, Council of People's Commissars, Commander, Prodrazverstka, food tax, cultural enlightenment, educational program. One of the brightest distinguishing features of the Russian language of the Soviet period - interference of the opposite, The essence of this phenomenon lies in the formation of two opposing lexical systems that positively and negatively characterize the same phenomena that exist on opposite sides of the barricades, in the world of capitalism and in the world of socialism. : scouts and spies, warriors-liberators and invaders, partisans and bandits.
Nowadays, the Russian national language continues to develop already in post-Soviet space. Among modern characteristic features the most important languages are:
1) replenishment of the vocabulary with new elements; first of all, it is a borrowed vocabulary denoting objects and phenomena of the political, economic and cultural life of the country: electorate, extreme sports, business center, conversion, clone, chip, iridology, HIV infection, audio cassette, cheeseburger, jacuzzi;
2) the return to use of words that seemed to have lost such an opportunity forever; first of all, it religious vocabulary: lord, communion. Annunciation, Liturgy, Vespers, Epiphany, Metropolitan;
3) the disappearance, along with objects and phenomena, of words characterizing Soviet reality: Komsomol, party organizer, state farm, DOSAAF, pioneer;
4) the destruction of the system formed as a result of the action interference of the opposite.
The history of the emergence and development of the Russian language
A Brief History of the Russian Language
Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Russian language is one of the official and working languages of the United Nations. The number of Russian speakers is about 180 million people. It belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but Belarusian and Ukrainian are closest to the Russian language. Together, these languages form the East Slavic subgroup, which is included in Slavic group Indo-European family.
The history of the origin and formation of the Russian language
The history of the origin of the Russian language go to deep antiquity. Approximately in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. from the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - approximately in the 1-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic).
Already in Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries) Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the 14-16 centuries. southwestern variety of literary language Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in the Moldavian Principality.
Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (13-15 centuries), Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the 13-14 centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language also gradually disintegrated. 3 centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the 14-15 centuries. on the basis of these associations, closely related, but independent East Slavic languages are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
The history of the development of the Russian language - the era of Moscow Russia
The Russian language of the era of Moscow Russia (14-17 centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately to the north from the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod, and South Great Russian in the south from this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects that overlapped with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in live speech, the final restructuring of the categories of time takes place (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with "-l"), the dual number is lost, the former declension of nouns according to six bases is replaced modern types declensions, etc. The written language remains colorful.
In the 17th century national ties arise, the foundations of the Russian nation are laid. In 1708, the civil and Church Slavonic alphabets were separated. In the 18th and early 19th centuries secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the 2nd half of the 18th century. on Russian vocabulary and phraseology began to provide French.
The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to popular speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, little understood by the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language.
In modern Russian, there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology was borrowed by the Russian language from the German language, in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the 20th century. it is borrowed mainly from in English(in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment vocabulary Russian general literary language, however, the penetration foreign words should be reasonably limited.
On the development of the Russian language
Starting from the middle of the 20th century. the study of the Russian language is expanding all over the world. Information for the mid-1970s: Russian is taught in 87 states: in 1648 universities; the number of students exceeds 18 million people. The International Association of Teachers of the Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was founded in 1967; in 1974 - Institute of the Russian Language. A. S. Pushkin.
A Brief History of the Russian Language
Russian is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, the fifth total strength speaking it. Moreover, it is the most widely spoken Slavic language in Europe. According to the classification, it belongs to East Slavic subgroup Indo-European family of languages.
AT prehistoric period the language of the Slavs was complex group dialects of different tribes. At the same time, the Old Russian language was divided into three ethnolinguistic groups: South Russian, North Russian and Central Russian (East Russian).
The origin of the Old Russian literary language dates back to the 11th century AD, that is, to the period of the formation of Kievan Rus. The formation of writing had a certain influence Greek culture. However, the application Greek alphabet could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, so the Byzantine emperor Michael III ordered to create a new alphabet for the Old Slavonic language.
This process contributed to the simplified translation of Greek religious texts into Slavonic. As a rule, the creation of the Russian literary language is associated with the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius. The rapid spread of writing and the development of language in Ancient Russia led to the fact that the Slavic language was on a par with the leading languages of the era.
The language became the main factor in the unification of the Slavic peoples from the 9th to the 11th century. One of the outstanding literary monuments of that period is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - a work about the campaign of Russian princes against the Polovtsians. The author of the epic has not been identified.
Between the 13th and 14th centuries, in connection with feudal fragmentation, the increased influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the frequent raids of the Polish-Lithuanian troops, changes occurred in the development of the Russian language. Since then, it has been divided into three groups: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
With the formation of Moscow Rus in writing some reforms have taken place. The sentences became short, with an abundance of everyday vocabulary and folk sayings. A prime example of this language was the work "Domostroy", printed in mid-sixteenth century. Printing has played a significant role in the development of the literary language.
In the 17th century, the supplier of scientific, technical, legal and other terms in Europe became Polish language. So, gradually there was a modernization of the Russian language. AT early XVIII centuries, the alphabet has undergone reforms and has become closer to the European model. The Russian literary language henceforth existed independently of church ideology.
In the second half of the 18th century, the influence of French, and along with this, the Europeanization of Russian society also intensified. Around the same period, M. V. Lomonosov introduced new norms of the literary language, establishing a system of styles and combining all varieties of the Russian language (order, oral speech, regional variations).
Other writers who influenced the formation of the Russian language in the 18th - 19th centuries were Fonvizin, Derzhavin, Karamzin, Gogol, Lermontov and, of course, Pushkin. It was A. S. Pushkin who was able to show all the richness and beauty of the Russian language to the fullest, freeing it from stylistic restrictions.
In the 20th century, under the influence of the social and political life of Russia, the Russian language was enriched with many new words and expressions. In many ways, the development of these lexical forms was facilitated by the media and Internet communications.
