Ethno-cultural and socio-political processes of formation and development of the Old Russian state

Problems of ethnogenesis and early history of the Slavs in historical science. East Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries. The first pages of the history of the Slavs are traditionally the most difficult. 19th century historians called them "Slavic antiquities". ancient history Slavs, their origin and ancestral home is still not fully understood. The complexity of the problem lies in the lack of reliable historical information. In addition, under their own name (“Slovene”), the Slavs appear only in sources dating back to the 6th century.

The search for "Slavic antiquities" takes us to the 1st millennium BC. e., when the paths of ethnogenesis are intertwined with the fate of the Slavs numerous nations. Then, along with other tribes (Germanic, Celtic, Finno-Ugric), on historical arena Slavs also appeared with their own language and ethnic characteristics. Having separated from the Balto-Slavic community, they formed a single ethnic group, speaking a language that is conditionally called "proto-Slavic" and is considered the basis of modern Slavic languages.

The term "Slavs" itself still has no scientific explanation. Many historians and linguists believe that he has common root with the "word" - these are those who own the word, are able to comprehend the meaning, the essence of things. Other scientists derive this name from the root "glory" - the peoples are "glorious", famous, famous for their deeds, achievements.

In the future, the formation of the Slavic world coincided with the civilizational break European history, when the barbarian culture of the young peoples of Europe was replacing antiquity, and its former geo political structure gone into the past. In addition, the Slavic ethnic groups were involved in the process of the great migration of peoples, dissected by powerful migratory flows nomadic tribes.

Exploring new territories, the Slavs approached the borders of the Eastern Roman Empire, constantly violating its defensive lines. The oldest names of the Western Slavs - Wends, southern - slavinov, Eastern – Ants- are found for the first time in the works of the Roman historians Pliny the Elder and Tacitus.

By the beginning of the VI century. Slavs appeared on the Danube, then moved to the Balkans, to the Czech Republic and Poland. Advancing in the southern, western and east directions, the Slavs encountered the local population: in the south with the Illyrian and Thracian tribes, in the west - with the Celts and Germans, with the Finno-Ugric peoples and Balts - in the east.

In the 7th century The Slavs settled vast areas of Eastern, Southeastern and Central Europe. The final stage of their movements across Europe (VII century) was characterized by the collapse of the Proto-Slavic unity and the formation eastern, western and southern ethnic groups(they are usually called eastern, western and southern Slavs). Western Slavs include Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Kashubians and Lusatians; to the south - Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Macedonians, Slovenes, Montenegrins; to eastern - Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians.

Reference.At present, the Slavs are settled in the vast territory of Southern and Eastern Europe and further east, up to the Far East of Russia. There is also a Slavic minority in the states of Western Europe, America, Transcaucasia and Central Asia. The total number of Slavs is 300-350 million people, of which approximately 116 million people live in Russia.

According to chronicle and archaeological sources, the territory of settlement of the East Slavic tribes is as follows. On the banks of the Dnieper in this southern cradle of the future ancient Russian state, a powerful tribal union has developed polyan with the center in Kyiv (“in the field” - fields, steppes). Their northeastern neighbors were northerners, living in the basin of the Desna, Sula and Seima rivers. Chernigov became the center of the Seversk land.

Further north were radimichi, occupied the upper tributaries of the Dnieper. The upper reaches of the Dnieper and Western Dvina, and also partly of the Volga, were inhabited krivichi, one of the largest tribal associations of Eastern Slavs. Their main city is Smolensk. Branch of the krivichi, Polotsk lived along the Polota River, along the Western Dvina. Polotsk became their main city.

The region of Ilmenskoye Lake and the basin of the Volkhov, Lovat, Msta rivers was occupied Ilmenian Slovenes, the northernmost group of Eastern Slavs. their oldest tribal center there was an ancient settlement of Staraya Ladoga on the Volkhov.

In the upper reaches of the Oka and its tributaries - Moscow and Ugra - there was a territory Vyatichi,- an eastern Slavic tribe, whose name the chronicler derives from their legendary ancestor Vyatko. In Polissya, on the banks of the Dnieper, north of the glades, settled Drevlyans(from "tree" - forest). The main city of the Drevlyans was Iskorosten on the river Uzh.

Between Pripyat and Dvina, in Polissya, the possessions stretched Dregovichi("scrabble" - a swamp, a quagmire). Dregovichi had their own "reign" with the center in Turov. Along the upper reaches of the Pripyat and the Western Bug lived duleba, or Volynians.

Along the middle and lower reaches of the Dniester to the very sea ​​coast lived convict and Tivertsy, bordering on the lands of Bulgaria. The northeastern spurs of the Carpathians inhabited white croats.

The names of the Slavic tribes are mostly associated not with the unity of origin, but with the area of ​​\u200b\u200bsettlement, which indicates that among the Slavs, territorial ties prevailed over tribal ones. In the listed East Slavic tribes one can see ethnic ancestors Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. At the same time, for example, according to scientists, the northerners were the ancestors of both Russians and Ukrainians, and the Krivichi and Radimichi - Russians and Belarusians.

The migration of East Slavic tribes was directed along large rivers and river systems. When the Slavs took possession of the sources of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina, approached the Volkhov River and Lake Ilmen, in their hands were extremely important communication routes that connected the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian.

The most important of them is « great way from the Varangians to the Greeks. It started from the Gulf of Finland and went along the Neva to Lake Ladoga, to the Volkhov and Lovat rivers. From Lovat it led to the Western Dvina, and from there to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. Through the Dnieper, the Slavs went to the Black Sea, to the "Greeks", that is, to Byzantium.

Another important route passed along the Volga. From the Dnieper, the Slavs went to the Don, reached the Azov and Caspian Seas. In the same way, foreigners traveled to Slavic lands. Trade relations with byzantine empire and the countries of the East, undoubtedly contributed to the economic progress of the Eastern Slavs and their ethnic consolidation. On these water trade routes, the two most developed among the Slavic tribes lived - glade and Slovenia.

In economic terms, the lands of the glades developed most rapidly. This was facilitated by fertile black soil, a favorable climate and constant contacts with the southern neighbors - the Greek cities of the Black Sea region and Byzantium.

Slovene in their forest, river and lake region did not know such a development of agriculture as the glade. But the location of their lands on the largest trade routes contributed to the development of navigation, trade and crafts.

Therefore, it was in the lands of the glades and Slovenes that by the 9th century. there was a folding of two ancient Russian proto-state centers - Kyiv and Novgorod.

Document. From the Byzantine historical work "Strategikon":“The tribes of the Slavs love freedom and cannot stand slavery. They are especially brave and courageous and capable of all sorts of labors and hardships. They are excellent warriors, because military affairs become a harsh science for them in every detail. The highest happiness in their eyes is to die in battle ... "

Thus, the ancient Russian nationality, the Russian people is autochthonous that is, the indigenous, ancient population vast territories East European Plain. Management techniques, worldview, language and culture characteristic of the Eastern Slavs, laid the foundations of Russian civilization.

It is necessary to especially emphasize the predominantly peaceful nature of relations with neighboring peoples, trade, economic, cultural, marriage and family and other ties.

Socio-economic and political changes in the bowels of the Slavic society at the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. Causes of the emergence of princely power and its functions. The role of the veche. By the 8th century the Slavs basically completed the process of decomposition of the tribal layer. The tribal community disintegrated, it was replaced by the family, which, thanks to the progress of the economy, could provide for itself. Not blood relatives, but neighbors began to live in the community. Family property (general arable land) was divided into separate family holdings. The right of private ownership was born, private property. Along with private properties, common ones continued to exist - lakes, forest lands, cattle pastures, etc.

For individual strong families, it became possible to develop large plots of land, get more food, create certain surpluses and exchange part of them for necessary items or sell. Thus, in the East Slavic society, a dominant layer arose in the person of princes, warriors, tribal elders, who, accumulating wealth, trading, seizing the best lands and slaves, turned into a force standing above society and subjugating the community.

Thus, in the VI-VIII centuries. the Slavs were undergoing an intensive process of decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of large tribal unions. Feudal relations were born, economic and socio-political prerequisites for the formation of statehood were created, princely power appeared. For defensive and offensive wars large Slavic tribes united in military-political alliances.

What were the prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state?

First, this economic background:

- increased level of development of productive forces;

– economic consolidation based on servicing the Dnieper and Volga trade routes;

- development of crafts, separation of crafts from agriculture; concentration of crafts in cities (graveyards);

- the predominance of free labor over slave labor.

Secondly, political background:

- the formation of Slavic tribal unions;

- the needs of the tribal nobility in the apparatus for protecting their privileges and seizing new lands;

- the threat of attack by external enemies.

Thirdly, social prerequisites:

- change tribal community neighborly;

- the emergence of social inequality of people;

- the formation of the ancient Russian people.

Fourth, spiritual background:

- common pagan religion; similar customs, rituals, language;

- community psychology.

By the beginning of the IX century. the Eastern Slavs have the above prerequisites state organization basically formed. As a result of these processes, a state was formed, a princely power and a fairly clear hierarchy (multi-stage) of East Slavic society developed.

At its top was prince - as a rule, the most successful, brave and courageous warrior who ruled a tribe or an alliance of tribes, led a squad and a tribal militia.

To main functions of princely power appropriate to include the following. First of all, the prince collected, organized and led the army (team), was in charge foreign policy tribal union, performed religious rites (was the initiator and organizer of sacrifices). Later, the prince's responsibilities included the subjugation of neighboring tribes and the maintenance of military and political dominance over them, the management of the subject territory, ensuring its security, and collecting tribute.

It is important to note that tribute meant the end of primitive communal relations, was one of the signs of the state. This annual tax in favor of the prince confirmed his right to own land, manage, and judge his subjects. At the same time, tribute meant that the prince took on the responsibility of protecting his subjects and the lands subject to him.

Princes from among the elite of the retinue close to them appointed governors in cities (posadniks), military leaders (thousands, governors), collectors of trade taxes (tributaries), judicial officials (virniki, emtsov), tax collectors (mytniks), administrators of the princely economy (tiuns) and other officials.

The judicial function of the princes gradually took shape - "prince's court" formed the legislative function of princely power. The power of the prince gradually acquired a sole character. Thus, the prince gradually concentrated in his hands the military, judicial, legislative and executive powers.

The prince, in the performance of his power functions, relied, first of all, on the warriors devoted to him. These people were no longer associated with either agriculture or cattle breeding. Their profession is war. In the case of successful campaigns, their production far exceeded the results of the labor of cultivators, hunters and artisans. But for prey often had to pay with injury, and even life. Vigilantes become a privileged part of society. In a certain sense, the princely retinue was already a state administrative apparatus.

The tribal nobility also became isolated - the heads of clans, large and strong patriarchal families, who concentrated significant wealth in their hands. They became assistants and advisers to the prince, carried out his instructions. From their number formed the future boyars.

The top of the squad, as well as the local nobility, were part of the main political body - advice to the prince, unicameral estate institution having an advisory character. There was no permanent staff; the Council included the vassals of the prince - the boyars; in peacetime - the spiritual nobility, and in wartime - the leaders of the allies. The members of the princely council were called "duma members" (with them the prince thought about business), so he had another name - Boyar Duma. The Council met as needed. The competence of the council was subject to issues of legislation, government, relations with the church, foreign policy.

The Council was the main, but not the only political body. Democratic, collective governing body was veche – popular assembly with broad powers. It included " eternal people"- boyars, clergy, merchants, townspeople or residents of the countryside. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, legislation, disposed of financial and land resources, authorized collections of money. Often the veche called upon the princes, concluding an agreement with them (“row”) and expelled them if the conditions of the “row” were not met. Rooted in the tribal system, the veche was a manifestation of the political activity of the ancient Russian people.

The main stages of the formation and development of Russian statehood. The process of formation and development of the Old Russian state covers the period from the second half of the 9th to the beginning of the 12th century. It was during this period that Kievan Rus became one of the largest states of the European Middle Ages.

Within the first stage, from the middle of the ninth century until the end of the tenth century, the formation of East Slavic statehood took place.

There is a legend about how the prince of the Slavic tribe of Polyans Kiy and his brothers Shchek and Khoriv built a city on the high bank of the Dnieper. In honor of their older brother, they named it Kyiv. Then Kiy visited Constantinople and there he was received by the emperor with great honor. The descendants of Kiy became the first princes Kyiv state, thereby laying the traditions of ancient Russian statehood. Then the Varangian combatants became rulers Askold and Dir.

"The Tale of Bygone Years"- Old Russian chronicle of the beginning of the 12th century, contains a story about the war between various Slavic clans in the north of the country. The elders of the tribes of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi, as well as neighboring Finno-Ugric tribes of Chud and Vesi in 862 decided to end the civil strife in the traditional way - to invite the Varangian prince Rurik to reign in Novgorod. This year - the starting point of Russian statehood.

Rurik united under his command the entire north and north-west of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric lands. A strong state center was formed, bringing together the surrounding lands under a single princely authority.

After the death of Rurik in 879, power passed to his relative Oleg. He had an important historical task - to unite the two ancient Russian state centers - Novgorod and Kyiv. Kyiv attracted Oleg primarily because it was located on the famous route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which became, as it were, the core of the Old Russian state, its main street.

Oleg gathered a large army (together with the Varangian squad there were detachments representing all the northwestern lands) and in 882, having dealt with Askold and Dir, he captured Kyiv by force. Oleg established himself in Kyiv and made it his capital. According to the chronicle, he declared: "Let Kyiv be the mother of Russian cities." So was born the Rurik dynasty.

Reference.The last rulers of the ruling Rurik dynasty in Russia were Tsars Fedor I Ioannovich (1584–1598) and Vasily Shuisky (1606–1610). The Rurik dynasty was replaced by the Romanov dynasty (1613–1917).

At Prince Oleg (882–912) the following important state tasks: the lands of a number of East Slavic tribes were annexed, the payment of tribute "polyudya" was introduced, which constituted one of the economic foundations of the state. It was at the expense of tribute and war booty that the state administration, the squad, the immediate environment of the prince and his court were kept. By the time of Oleg’s death in 912, a huge power was under his rule, which went down in history as Kievan Rus, which was not inferior in scale to Frankish Empire Charlemagne or Byzantium.

Oleg's successor - Prince Igor (912–945) many years had to suppress the separatist aspirations of a number of tribal unions. At that time, the power of the Grand Duke over the unions of the tribes was still extremely weak. Neither existed written laws, no imposed taxes. The Grand Duke personally collected tribute from subject tribes, which his squad protected from external enemies. In 941, Igor went on a campaign to Byzantium for tribute, but luck turned away from the Russian army. Now the wealth and power of the prince depended on internal tribute. Igor mercilessly robbed the subject tribes, for which he paid with his life as a result of the uprising of the Drevlyans in 945.

Princess Olga (945–964), severely avenged husband's death, sought to strengthen the grand ducal power with the help of socio-economic innovations. She streamlined the amount of tribute levied (lessons), determined the places of its collection (graveyards), which became the centers of state power in the field. It essentially replaced tribute with a regularly collected state tax.

With Olga's son Grand Duke Svyatoslav (964–972) the state foundations were strengthened, the country's defense capability increased, and the management system was improved. It was during this period that Western European chronicles began to call Russia Gardarika (country of cities), which, by European standards, were more than a hundred.

The glory of Russia in this period was brought by the military victories of Svyatoslav in the fight against Byzantium, the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate. The entire coast of the Black Sea from the Danube to the Kerch Strait, with the exception of the Crimea (the possessions of Byzantium), began to belong to Russia. In foreign policy, Svyatoslav achieved such amazing results that, according to a number of historians, he can rightfully be called Alexander the Great of Eastern Europe.

On the second stage(late X - first half of the XI centuries) Russia reached its peak in its development. For 35 years of reign Vladimir (980-1015) continued the process of territorial expansion. The state included the lands of the Vyatichi, Croats, Yotvingians, Tmutarakan, Cherven cities. Vladimir replaced the tribal princes with his sons, strengthening local power.

Thus, the Russian land became the common ancestral property of all the Rurikoviches - from the oldest in the family to the youngest prince. At the same time, it consisted of unequal destinies in importance. The most important after Kyiv was Novgorod, where the Grand Duke of Kyiv sent, as a rule, his eldest son to reign, followed by Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Volyn and other centers of principalities.

Reference.In the Old Russian state, the title "Grand Duke" applied only to the Kyiv prince, to whom all Russian princes were subordinate. The next step was occupied by large landowners - boyars and local princes. They paid tribute to the Grand Duke and had the right to collect tribute from their subordinates and their lands. The same place was occupied by the higher clergy.

At Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (1015–1054) the economic power of the country increased significantly, the international position of the state was especially strengthened, it turned into a great power. All neighbors considered the policy of Russia. Yaroslav completed the long-term efforts of Russia to fight the Pechenegs, inflicting a crushing defeat on them in 1036 under the walls of Kyiv. After that, the Pecheneg raids on Russian lands ceased. In the east, up to the lower reaches of the Volga, she now had no rivals. The length of the borders of Russia was about 7 thousand km, they stretched from the Carpathian Mountains to the Kama River, from Baltic Sea- to Black. By the middle of the XI century. According to modern historians, about 4 million people lived in Russia.

Yaroslav the Wise put into effect the first written code of laws in Russia - "Russian Truth". Russkaya Pravda regulated legal relations, protecting the life and property of various strata of ancient Russian society. She abolished local, tribal customs (for example, blood feud), introducing uniform norms of punishment for crimes. Their observance was assigned to the state.

Russkaya Pravda established the order of inheritance of land and property. This strengthened the existence of land ownership. The truth legally fixed the division of society into free and dependent people. In general, the Code of Laws consolidated the emerging feudal relations in Russia. In addition, Russkaya Pravda is the most important source on socio-economic and political history Kievan Rus 11th-12th centuries

Yaroslav died in 1054 at the age of 76, in a halo of glory, revered by Russian society, beloved by numerous children. He bequeathed that henceforth the Grand Duke in Russia was eldest in the family. Inheritance in a straight line from father to son, which was accepted in Europe, receded before the patriarchal custom. In the future, this was one of the reasons for the strife in the Rurik family.

In general, formed the system of state power and the social structure of the Old Russian state- Kievan Rus looked like this.

Led this system Grand Duke. He was the largest owner of land, collected tribute from subject princes and other land owners. He complained about the service estates in conditional possession (for the duration of service). Every autumn, the Grand Duke with his retinue went to the lands of the lands subject to him - "by people" - where he collected tribute (polyudye), handled court cases and resolved other issues. However, the carrier supreme power was not a specific prince, but princely family. The prince was only a temporary owner of power, which was transferred to the eldest in the family.

In some areas, the Grand Duke transferred to the combatants the right to collect tribute. On the income received from these lands, the combatant (representative of the princely administration) supported the house, family, servants, acquired weapons and horses. The right to collect tribute from the population was not inherited, but was only an award to the prince for military service. This scheme was similar to that practiced in Western Europe.

In the second half of the XI - the first half of the XII century. on the site of previous complaints is formed fiefdom- hereditary land holdings. However, unlike Western Europe, where the traditions of private property were strong, enshrined in Roman legal norms, patrimonial property in Russia was, first of all, state - princely. The owners of estates - boyars, monasteries, church hierarchs - were just hereditary land holders.

During the formation of Kievan Rus, the majority of the population consisted of free peasants-communes. Free peasants lived on free lands, paid tribute to the feudal lords and fulfilled their duties. However, as private ownership of land was established, the dependence on the feudal lords of the peasants, who were ruined as a result of crop failures, wars, natural disasters, and for other reasons, also increased, and forced them to voluntarily go into bondage to the feudal lord. Thus, the economic coercion of the peasants was carried out.

The dependent population was subject to feudal rent, which existed in Russia in two forms - corvee and quitrent in kind. Corvee- this is the gratuitous forced labor of a peasant working with his own inventory in the feudal lord's household. Natural quitrent- the annual collection of food and money from dependent peasants.

The following main groups of dependent peasants existed in the Old Russian state:

– purchase- a peasant who took a kupa from the feudal lord (debt in cash or in kind);

– Ryadovich- a peasant who, for various reasons, could not independently conduct a household and concluded a series (agreement) with the feudal lord. He voluntarily admitted his dependence and received in return a piece of land, tools, grain for crops, etc.;

– outcast- a peasant who has lost contact with the community and is employed by a feudal lord;

– serf- a person who was mainly among the courtyard people and was actually in the position of a slave.

Unlike other countries, both eastern and western, the process of formation of the Russian statehood had its own specific features. One of them is the spatial and geopolitical situation - the Russian state occupied a middle position between Europe and Asia and did not have pronounced, natural geographical boundaries within the vast plains.

In the course of its formation, Russia acquired the features of both eastern and western state formations. In addition, the need for constant protection from external enemies of a large territory forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language, etc. to rally, create a strong state power and have significant civil uprising.

Main trend third stage development of ancient Russian statehood - the second half of the XI century. - the beginning of the XII century. - this is an attempt to prevent the impending collapse, as well as the desire to stabilize the situation within the state, to eliminate separatist tendencies.

These attempts have been made Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125). Under him, a new legal code was created - the so-called Long Edition of the Russian Truth. This monument reflected the social changes that took place in Russia in the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. Long Truth recorded the existence of patrimonial (boyar) property, made changes to a number of pre-existing laws. However, from the second half of the XII century. the process of fragmentation and collapse of the unified state intensified.

The Old Russian state - Kievan Rus existed for more than three centuries. She played important role in the history of Europe, blocking the way to the West for numerous hordes of nomads. The Eastern Slavs, united in a single strong state, managed to repulse their onslaught and maintain their independence. Kievan Rus became the cradle of the ancient Russian people, from which the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples were then formed.

Cities in the political and socio-economic structure of Ancient Russia. Ways of the emergence of cities in Ancient Russia. Rural communities included not only unfortified villages, but also settlements - “grads”. These were communal shelters, original castles-fortresses, where the local population could hide behind ramparts and walls during enemy attacks.

The top tribal unions and combatants usually lived in separate villages, around which artisans settled, who produced everything necessary for the squad: weapons, armor, clothes, shoes. The princely settlement was surrounded by a deep moat with water, a high earthen rampart with a log wall. Each city was a military center, with fortified walls and towers. In this way, settlements and cities arose. Some cities grew out of fortified places, outposts in the border areas, at strategically important points.

The settlement of cities of refuge by artisans was the beginning of the emergence of cities as craft and trade centers. Archaeological data suggest that many cities of the Eastern Slavs arose already in the 7th-8th centuries. These include Kyiv, Izborsk, Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, Polotsk, Pskov, Smolensk, Rostov, Chernigov and some others. Cities gradually became economic, administrative and cultural centers principalities. This process continued in the future. For example, under Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century. Yaroslavl was founded on the Volga, and in the conquered land of the Chuds (Ests) - Yuryev (the current Estonian Tartu). The city was named after Yuri, the patron saint of Yaroslav.

The city, as a rule, was built on a hill, at the confluence of rivers ( waterways communication and trade), providing, among other things, defense against enemies. The central part of the city, protected by a rampart, around which a fortress wall was erected, was called Kremlin, chrome or kid. There were palaces of princes, courts of boyars, churches, and later monasteries. Behind the moat, under the protection of the fortress walls, there was a market. The handicraft part of the city, the settlement, adjoined the Kremlin. Separate areas, inhabited, as a rule, by artisans of a certain specialty, were called settlements.

The development of cities as craft centers testified to the economic progress of the Eastern Slavs. Russian craft of that time in its technical and artistic level was not inferior to the craft of Western Europe. In terms of the technique and quality of enamel production and the finest casting, Russian artisans were noticeably ahead of their foreign counterparts.

The separation and growth of the craft naturally led to the development of exchange, so merchants appear in Slavic society. In the cities, trade caravans were formed and sent along trade routes, including along the main one - “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. They traded in furs and linen, cattle and honey, and captive slaves. The protection of goods along the routes of caravans required military force, therefore, in trading cities military teams formed. Princes were at the head of such squads.

Cities were the center of culture. Book scribes, monks, architects, artists, icon painters lived and worked here. Most of the educated people were here. Basically, stone construction was carried out in the cities, mainly temples. The building art reached a high level in the cities and the most skilled builders also lived in the cities. On the lands adjacent to the cities, a three-field system was introduced, new crops and livestock breeds spread.

In ancient Russia in cities everywhere acted city ​​government. In the cities, the administration was formed - the elders of urban communities or "stars of the city", which are mentioned in ancient Russian written sources. Before Mongol invasion in ancient Russia, there were up to 300 cities. They were the basis of the strength, power and prestige of Ancient Russia.

Newest archaeological discoveries in Novgorod and their influence on ideas about the origin of the Old Russian state. It should be noted that Novgorod is unique from an archaeological point of view. Due to the peculiarities of the soil here, like nowhere else, wooden, bone, leather items, as well as fabrics and grain, are well preserved. Metal objects are covered with a thin layer of corrosion, which protects them from further destruction.

Such favorable conditions allowed, for example, to establish that on the territory of modern Novgorod a person lived from ancient times, settled no later than 5 thousand years ago. Remains of a Neolithic site (II-III millennium BC) and an early Iron Age settlement (I millennium BC) were discovered. Consequently, Novgorod has a long history of its development.

Wood was the main building material in Russia. From the remains of the lower tiers of log houses and street pavements, researchers can calculate the dates of their felling with an accuracy of one year. Carrying out such a dendrochronological analysis made it possible to establish that the formation of the city center began with a fortress (Kremlin) of the 8th–9th centuries, built by the Ilmen Slovenes.

Consequently, by the time the Varangian prince Rurik was called to Novgorod, the confederation of the tribes of the North-West already existed long time and had a common center - the Kremlin. Veche authorities and a tribal cult center were located here. Thus, we can conclude that statehood in Russia was formed long before the calling of Rurik and remained in Novgorod for several centuries.

During archaeological studies of the layers of the IX-XI centuries. a significant number of finds of military equipment and clothing, many princely seals, Arabic, Byzantine and European coins, household items of Scandinavian and Baltic origin were discovered. This testifies to the extensive international and foreign economic relations of the Novgorod Republic.

Novgorod was largest center handicraft production in the north-east of Europe. Archaeologists have discovered about 150 craft workshops of the 11th century. Nothing like this was found in any other medieval city of Russia. Among them are the workshops of tanners, jewelers, foundry workers, turners, bone cutters, coopers, shoemakers, brewers, weavers, dyers, bakers, gingerbread men, etc. Among the products of these workshops are iron, wood and glass products, fabrics, rings, combs , razors, scales, chess pieces, balls for playing bast shoes, etc. In Novgorod, archaeologists have collected the largest collection of medieval musical instruments: psaltery, beeps, flutes.

In total, during the archaeological research in Novgorod, more than 125 thousand finds were collected (this number does not include fragments of ceramic vessels, numbering in the hundreds of thousands). It was the excavations that discovered a new, hitherto completely unknown historical source. We are talking about the famous birch bark documents containing a lot of priceless information about the writing, language, life, and economy of the Novgorodians.

In former times, there was an opinion that in Ancient Russia only princes and priests were literate, and even then not all of them. However, the discovery of letters on birch bark in 1951 showed that literacy in medieval Novgorod extended to all segments of the population, right down to the serfs, and both men and women could write and read. This speaks of the high educational and cultural level of the citizens of the Novgorod Republic for that time.

Today, more than six hundred such documents are known. However, the Novgorod land is still fraught with a huge number of relics, because, despite more than half a century of research, only a little more than 1% of the territory of the ancient city has been studied so far.

Military organization and military strength of the Old Russian state. From the time of the Old Russian state begins military history Russia. From princely squads, who carried military service in peacetime and wartime, from fortified cities and warriors - townspeople and villagers who erected and defended these strongholds and their land, domestic military glory originates.

A well-established military organization was necessary for Russia to form a strong central secular and spiritual power, repel attacks from outside and carry out its own military campaigns, create an effective system of government in the regions - principalities, provide military-political support to neighbors and conclude allied treaties with them. In the border regions of ancient Russia, defensive lines were being built and improved in the most dangerous areas, the basis of which were fortress cities and fortress monasteries. Military activities to protect the state extended to ensuring the security of trade routes and the movement of the population to the sparsely populated lands on the outskirts of the Russian state.

In Russia IX-XIII centuries. there were many strong opponents. Border European countries and restless southern and eastern neighbors they tried in every possible way to seize part of the Russian territories, to extract other military-political or economic benefits.

The southern and southwestern borders of the Russian state were protected from possible encroachments by the Khazar Khaganate, hordes of the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, Byzantium, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Poland by the armed formations of the Kyiv, Vladimir-Volyn and Galician principalities.

Western borders Polotsk, Turov and Vladimir-Volyn lands were in contact with Poland, various Baltic tribes, and from the XIII century. - with the Teutonic Order. In the northwestern and northern directions, all responsibility for the protection of the Russian frontier lay with the oldest Novgorod principality in Russia. Here, the predatory interests of the Scandinavians periodically manifested themselves, from the end of the 12th century. - Swedish crusader knights, and from 1237 Germans - knights of the Livonian Order.

The eastern borders of Russia were guarded by the Rostov and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. Their opponents were Volga Bulgaria and its vassals - the tribes of Mary, Meshchera, Cheremis, etc.

military organization Ancient Russia included:

- princely (boyar) permanent armed detachments - squads;

- people's militia - armed formations of principalities, cities and monasteries. Often the militias of several lands (cities) were brought together by the princes into a single army and acted together;

- hired foreign troops of the Varangians, Polovtsy, Poles, Hungarians, etc., which were periodically used by Russian princes.

The squads of Russian princes were subdivided into the eldest, consisting of princely husbands - the boyars, and the younger - an armed squad detachment, who was constantly with the prince. In a broader sense, the term "team" was used in Russia and the name of the entire squad army. Russian militias were sometimes also called squads.

The senior squad of the prince was actually the apparatus of the military administration of the principality. The prince consulted with the senior retinue - boyar warriors about war, peace, about protecting the border lines of the principality, trade routes, bridges and caravans, and organizing military campaigns. The first governor of the senior squad was the eldest among the governors. As a rule, on the battlefield, the first governor was the commander of the Big Regiment, while the rights of the commander-in-chief remained with the prince.

A large role in military affairs belonged to the governors and posadniks. They were engaged in the organization of the defense of destinies and cities, fortifications, had their own squads, were the heads of garrisons and served as governors of the prince. The governors and posadniks knew the theater of operations, knew how to form and lead regiments, prepared them for battle and controlled them, that is, they had knowledge of military art. To a large extent, the creation of people's militias also depended on them.

In the XI century. the Kyiv prince had up to 500-800 warriors. They were armed with swords, spears, sabers. Shields and chain mail protected their bodies, and shishaks (pointed helmets) protected their heads.

Another part of the Russian army was a regiment consisting of voev- Smerdov and artisans. They were divided in the regiment into tens and hundreds, led by tenth and sot. The regiment was commanded by a thousand. The Voi were armed with bows and arrows, spears, heavy battle axes and knives. In the left hand each had a wooden shield covered with metal plates and thick leather.

The army that set out on a campaign was led by the prince, followed by a cavalry squad and a regiment. Next was a convoy with heavy weapons of soldiers and food supplies. When the watchman (intelligence) reported that the enemy was close, the soldiers dismantled their weapons, put on armor and chain mail and prepared for battle. The battle often began with a duel of heroes.

During the battle, the front (center) of the Russian troops were foot warriors. Their task was to repel the blow of the enemy cavalry. On the right and left wings (flanks) there were cavalry squads of princes. They delivered flank attacks and surrounded the enemy.

When storming enemy fortresses, devices were used to break through walls and gates: rams - huge logs upholstered in iron and suspended on chains or put on wheels, as well as access ladders, vezhs (mobile towers) that protected from arrows.

Thus, the creation and improvement of the military organization of the state, the Russian army was determined by the national interests, political goals and military-strategic tasks of Russia.

Feudalism in Western Europe and the socio-economic structure of Ancient Russia: similarities and differences. Features of the socio-political development and social structure of the Old Russian state. One of the largest states of the European Middle Ages became in the IX-XII centuries. Kievan Rus. In the literature of recent decades, there is often an opinion that Kievan Rus developed similarly to the Western European model.

Indeed, the ancient Russian society was a part of contemporary Europe and showed trends characteristic of the formation of the entire European civilization. The Kievan state was built on the basis of the Western institution of vassalage. The head of state was the Grand Duke, who came from the Rurik dynasty. The upper stratum of society was made up of its vassals, who were obligated to military service. At the same time, they acted as overlords on "their" territory: they had less noble vassals, they had the right to leave for another overlord.

However, big influence the emergence and formation of the statehood of Russia had severe geographical and climatic conditions Northern Eurasia. Poor soils, large forest areas that had to be cleared for arable land, made labor difficult and unproductive. A person in the east of Europe received less food for the same work as in the west, and their quality was worse. This led to a gap in the level of development of Russia and the countries of Western and Central Europe.

The barbarian states of Western Europe were part of the zone of influence of ancient civilization, in their formation they inherited many state-legal traditions of antiquity, they were characterized by a socio-economic synthesis of antiquity and barbarism.

Ancient Russia could not rely on such traditions due to their absence, and in the formation of its statehood it followed a largely original path. Therefore, here we see a relatively slow maturation of state institutions, their archaism and originality.

Unlike the countries of Western Europe, in the Slavic countries the transition to feudalism took place on the basis of breakdown of tribal relations and therefore slower. The process of appropriate structuring of society was also longer. And, of course, huge Negative influence for the rest of Russia's life had constant foreign invasions and exhausting, centuries-old struggle with the nomads.

The fundamental difference between Ancient Russia and the countries of Western Europe was that it was dominated by collectivist model of the socio-economic structure of society. The basic unit of the social order was community. It consisted of a territorial community of free peasants based on a collective form of ownership. The community relied on the principles of collectivism and equalization, was the collective owner of the land and lands. The community organized its internal life on the principles of direct democracy (election, collective decision-making). Rural communities united in volosts, representing the lowest administrative-territorial unit of the Old Russian state.

In addition to the rural community, in the cities there were communities of artisans: tanners, blacksmiths, carpenters, etc. The church community united all believers: both the nobility and ordinary farmers. Thus, the collectivist communal mentality played an important role in all spheres of life in ancient Russian society. If a person found himself outside the community, then he lost social protection and, in fact, turned into an outcast. Thus, the community, based on mutual responsibility, was a closed, multifunctional social system, which organized all types of human activities: labor, family, religious.

An important factor that determined the peculiarity of the economic development of Ancient Russia was the presence, in contrast to Western Europe, of a large number of free lands. For centuries, the peasants of Ancient Russia had the opportunity to leave their former place and settle rather quickly in a new one. Thus, the process of limiting the economic independence of rural and urban workers was slow.

In general, Ancient Russia revealed both western (development of the economy along the path of feudalism, the institution of vassalage) and eastern features in its development (communal, corporate character). social connections, availability of free land, etc.).

The Old Russian state in the assessments of modern historians. Discussion about the nature of the socio-economic system of Russia in domestic science. The concepts of "state feudalism" and "communal system". In the West, they still claim that the ancient Russian state was created by the Varangians (Vikings, Normans), who came from Scandinavia. This theory was first formulated in the 18th century. German scientists G.-F. Miller and G.-Z. Bayer invited to work in Russia.

The first anti-Normanist was M.V. Lomonosov. He and his other supporters reasonably argued that already in the VI-VIII centuries. Slavic tribal principalities united in large superunions with features of early statehood. As such proto-states based on various sources they called

"The Volyn Power" Kuyaba (around Kyiv), Slavia (around Novgorod), Artania (Ryazan, Chernigov region), etc.

Domestic scientists further refuted the Norman theory. They argued that the Old Russian state arose as a result of a long self-development East Slavic tribes long before the Varangians (Normans) came to Russia. In addition, the Slavic farmers stood on more high level development than Scandinavian warriors.

The Old Russian state was formed on the basis of the transition from primitive to civilization of the East Slavic and neighboring Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. At the same time, indeed certain role played by the Varangian squads, who came to Eastern Europe on trade route"From the Varangians to the Greeks". At the same time, the process of assimilation of the Varangians and the indigenous population was going on, as a result of which the dependence of Russia on hired Varangian squads was constantly decreasing.

So, according to chronicle data, it was established that the great Kyiv princes - the descendants of Rurik from the second half of the 10th century. surrounded not so much by the Varangians as by local residents - the Slavs. The descendants of the Varangians married Slavs, took Slavic and names. Igor (Ingvar) and Olga (Helga) are still Scandinavian names, and their son Svyatoslav already bore a Slavic name - “holy glory”. The chronicle mentions quite a lot of people surrounded by Svyatoslav with Varangian names, for example, the voivode Sveneld. The son of Svyatoslav, Vladimir (Slavic name - “owning the world”), the main boyar was the Slav Dobrynya.

On the issue of the economic and socio-political system of Ancient Russia, there is no consensus among domestic historians. Thus, the famous Soviet historian L.V. Tcherepnin (1905–1977) and its supporters put forward the concept "state feudalism". They argued that by the X-XII centuries. in Kievan Rus, large-scale private landownership was mainly formed and the feudal patrimony became its main form. Historians of this trend believe that the peasants living in it not only paid tribute to the state, but became dependent on the feudal lord (boyar), paying him natural feudal rent for using the land or working off corvée.

Thus, according to L.V. Cherepnin and his followers new level development of productive forces, the transition to arable and sedentary agriculture with the formation of relations of personal, economic and land dependence, the seizure of communal lands by strong people - its "charming" - gave the production relations in Ancient Russia a complete feudal character.

A number of domestic historians have a different point of view - supporters of the theory "community order". The founder of this theory was AND I. Froyanov (born 1936). Based on the same theoretical and source base as his opponents, he showed that in Ancient Russia large private land ownership was poorly developed. Therefore, the patrimony could not be the basis for the development of the feudal mode of production in its Western European version.

According to the concept of I.Ya. Froyanov, the vast majority of the population of Kievan Rus was free. In addition, Russia, in his opinion, until the end of the 10th century, remained not yet a state, but a tribal union (proto-state), that is, a form transitional to state organization, corresponding to the stage of military democracy. Tribute to I.Ya. Froyanov considered it not as a type of feudal rent, but as a military indemnity, not correlating it with the class exploitation of the working population. Thus, I.Ya. Froyanov put forward the concept of the pre-feudal nature of ancient Russian society and the state. It should be noted that this discussion continues in the scientific world to this day.

Questions and tasks

1. What were the main prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state?

2. Select and describe the main social groups ancient Russian state. What was the difference between the rights of the free and dependent population?

3. What is the role of cities in the political and socio-economic structure of Ancient Russia?

4. What problems of the history of the Old Russian state are debatable?

Ways of the emergence of cities in Ancient Russia.

Cities arose as administrative centers, residences of princes, posadniks. Some cities grew out of fortified places, outposts in the border areas. The city, as a rule, was built on a hill, at the confluence of two rivers, which provided reliable defense against enemy attacks. The central part of the city, protected by a rampart and a fortress wall, was called Kremlin, Krom or child. There were palaces of princes, courts of boyars, churches, and later monasteries. The handicraft part of the city adjoined the Kremlin - Posad. Separate areas populated, as a rule, by artisans of a certain specialty were called settlements.

In the cities, priests tried to be located next to the princes and boyars. Cities were the center of culture of that time, the center of various innovations that gradually penetrated other territories. Disseminators of advanced experience were people of intelligent professions - copyists of books, architects, artists, doctors. Most of the literate people of that time were also in the cities. On the lands adjacent to the cities, a three-field system was introduced, new crops and livestock breeds spread. Windmills and watermills began to be built. Basically, stone construction was carried out in the cities, especially temple construction. More than 150 architectural monuments are known that have come down to our time from pre-Mongolian times. The art of building in ancient Russia reached a fairly high level, and the most qualified builders were also located in the cities.

The lowest link in the social organization of the Slavic society was also the neighboring (territorial) community - world, rope. Name rope came from the word "rope", which was used to measure the land during its distribution within the community. The households of individual families jointly cultivated the land, were bound by mutual responsibility, mutual responsibility for paying debts, etc. The farmers were direct producers of bread and other products necessary for all residents.

The system of agriculture in the East Slavic lands gradually improved, the areas of agriculture expanded. Gradual release from hard work slash agriculture, work on the "old arable lands" cleared by previous generations, made the forced collectivity of the tribal system unnecessary. Now a separate family could feed itself, and this meant the withering away of the tribal system. In his place came neighborly community. The economic unit was predominantly a small family. Private property could not arise until a person realized his separateness from the genus. Subsequently, the development of the self-consciousness of an individual was undoubtedly influenced by the material results of the fragmentation of common tribal property.

rural community arose, developed and, changing, existed for a thousand years, until the twentieth century. Communal traditions and practices determined the way of life and characteristic features of the life of the Russian peasantry throughout the history of feudalism. The number of such communities gradually decreased. Subsequently, they remained only in the far north of the country.

The textbook on the discipline "History" was prepared in strict accordance with the approved State educational standard and covers the entire history of mankind from the appearance of the first states to the present day. AT this manual basic facts on the history of the largest countries, regions, civilizations are presented, without knowledge and understanding of which a holistic perception of the world historical process is impossible. The book includes the main problems of world and Russian history: the stages of statehood, the essence of socio-economic relations, the nature international relations and influences, main trends cultural development in various historical eras. A feature of the manual is that the history of Russia is presented in it in parallel with the material on world history. The publication contains the most important cards, images of individual characters, historical events, memorable historical sites. Footnotes are used not only for references to literature, but also to provide additional information on one issue or another. After each chapter, students are offered generalizing questions that they can meet during examinations in the discipline "History". The textbook is intended for students of universities of non-historical specialties.

The vast majority of citizens of any country are interested in history. A huge number of people, who are not professional historians, are engaged in the study different kind stories, fight for the preservation of the historical appearance of their native places, participate in fundraising for the installation of historical monuments and memorial signs. There is hardly a statesman or public figure who does not know the history of his country well.
History is studied by all young Russians at school. A Russian schoolchild, moving from class to class, studies the history of Russia of a particular historical period or successively epoch of world history - history ancient world, the history of the Middle Ages, etc. Why is it necessary to study a history course in higher educational institutions?
The discipline "History" is included in the federal list of disciplines that are compulsory for all specialties, forms and types of education in higher educational institutions of the Russian Federation.
The purpose of the discipline is to form in students a comprehensive understanding of the cultural and historical originality of Russia, its place in the world and European civilization. Training course"History" is designed to help students acquire systematic knowledge about the main patterns and features of the world-historical process with an emphasis on the study of Russian history. The study of the discipline "History" is designed to help students reach a new level of understanding of historical processes, develop their skills in obtaining, analyzing and summarizing historical information.

Table of contents
Introduction 13
Chapter 1. How historians write history (History in the system of social sciences and humanities. Fundamentals of the methodology of historical science) 16
§ 1. The place of history in the system of sciences 16
The concept of "history" 16
Object and subject of historical science 17
THE ROLE OF THEORY IN KNOWING THE PAST 18
Theory and methodology of historical science 19
Essence, forms, functions historical knowledge 20
The history of Russia is an integral part of world history: general and special in historical development 21
The main directions of modern historical science 21
§ 2. Researcher and historical source 23
Formation and development of historiography as a scientific discipline 23
Review questions 27
Literature for Chapter 1 27
Chapter 2. Features of the formation of statehood in Russia and the world 28
§ 1. Ways of politogenesis and stages of state formation in the light of modern scientific data 28
Theories of the origin of the state 28
Different types of communities in the pre-state period 30
Problems of ethnogenesis and the role of migrations in the formation of peoples 31
§ 2. Specificity of civilizations (state, society, culture) of the Ancient East and antiquity 32
Eastern and antique types civilizational development 32
The territory of Russia in the system of the Ancient World. Ancient cultures of Northern Eurasia (Neolithic and Bronze Age) 34
Aryan country 35
Cimmerians and Scythians 36
ancient empires Central Asia 37
Ancient Greece (Scythian tribes; Greek colonies in the Northern Black Sea region) 39
Antique Rome 41
The Great Migration of Peoples in the III-VI centuries. Fall of the Roman Empire 42
Birth and Rise of Muslim Civilization 42
§ 3. The transition of Europe from antiquity to feudalism 48
Change of forms of statehood 48
barbarian kingdoms. State of the Franks 49
Merovingians and Carolingians 50
Power traditions and institutions in the states of Eastern, Central and Northern Europe in the early Middle Ages; the role of military leader 52
Byzantium - a bridge between eras and civilizations 54
§ 4. Slavs in the early history of Europe 57
Problems of ethnogenesis and early history of the Slavs in historical science 57
Eastern Slavs in antiquity: VIII-XIII centuries 58
Reasons for the emergence of princely power and its functions 60
§ 5. The emergence of the Old Russian state (IX-X centuries) 61
Ethno-cultural and socio-political processes of the formation of Russian statehood 61
Traditional forms of social organization European nations in the pre-state period 62
Socio-economic and political changes in the bowels of the Slavic society at the turn of the VIII-IX centuries 62
The Old Russian state in the assessments of modern historians 63
The latest archaeological discoveries in Novgorod and their influence on ideas about the origin of the Old Russian state 67
The problem of the features of the social system of Ancient Russia 67
Discussion about the nature of the socio-economic formation in domestic science. The concepts of "state feudalism" and "communal system" 69
Feudalism in Western Europe and the socio-economic structure of Ancient Russia: similarities and differences 70
The problem of the formation of the elite of Ancient Russia 71
Role of veche 72
Cities in the political and socio-economic structure of Ancient Russia 72
Ways of the emergence of cities in Ancient Russia 74
§ 6. Russian lands in the XI-XII centuries 75
The evolution of ancient Russian statehood in the XI-XII centuries 75
Socio-economic and political structure of Russian lands in the period of political fragmentation. Formation various models development of ancient Russian society and state 76
Neighbors of Ancient Russia in the IX-XII centuries: Byzantium, Slavic countries, Western Europe, Khazaria, Volga Bulgaria 78
International relations of the Old Russian lands 80
Christianization; spiritual and material culture Ancient Russia 82
Cultural influences of East and West 83
Review questions 84
Literature for Chapter 2 85
Chapter 3. Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries. and European Middle Ages 86
§ 1. The Middle Ages as a stage of the historical process in Western Europe, in the East and in Russia 86
Technology, relations of production and modes of exploitation, political systems, ideology and social psychology 86
The role of religion and clergy in medieval societies of the West and East 88
Discussion about feudalism as a phenomenon of world history 91
The problem of centralization. Centralization and formation national culture 92
§ 2. Mongolian expansion: causes, course, results 94
Formation of the Mongolian state 94
The social structure of the Mongols 96
Causes and directions of the Mongol expansion. Ulus Jochi 96
Horde invasion; yoke and discussion about its role in the formation of the Russian state 97
Turkic peoples of Russia as part of the Golden Horde 99
§ 3. Russian lands in the fight against the onslaught of the West and East 100
Expansion of the West 100
Alexander Nevsky 102
Russia, Horde and Lithuania 104
Lithuania as the second center of the unification of Russian lands 105
§ 4. The revival of Russian statehood around Moscow 106
Unification of principalities Northeast Russia around Moscow 106
Fight against Tver 108
Relations with principalities and lands. The growth of the territory of the Moscow principality 108
The process of centralization. The fate of Veliky Novgorod and Tver 112
The final overthrow of the Mongol yoke 113
Sudebnik 1497 114
Formation of the nobility as a pillar of the central government 116
Review questions 117
Literature for Chapter 3 117
Chapter 4. Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. in the context of the development of European civilization 119
§ 1. Europe in the era of late feudalism 119
Renaissance 119
Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of the New Age in Western Europe 122
Reformation and its economic, political, socio-cultural causes 125
§ 2. First bourgeois revolutions in Europe 128
"New time" in Europe as a special phase of the world-historical process 128
Development of capitalist relations 131
§ 3. European absolutism 132
stable absolute monarchy within the framework of the national state - the main type of socio-political organization of post-medieval society 132
The Debate on the Definition of Absolutism 135
Absolutism and Eastern Despotism 136
§ 4. The evolution of Moscow statehood in the context of European development 139
Rzeczpospolita: ethnosocial and political development 139
Ivan the Terrible: the search for alternative ways
socio-political development of Russia 140
"Time of Troubles": the weakening of state principles, attempts to revive the traditional ("pre-Mongolian") norms of relations between government and society 143
Phenomenon of imposture. Random people on the Russian throne 144
A deadly threat to Russian statehood. Strengthening of the gentry-Catholic expansion to the East 147
The role of the militia in the liberation of Moscow and the expulsion of foreigners. K. Minin and D. Pozharsky 148
Militia Victory 151
Completion and consequences of the Troubles 154
Review questions 155
Literature for Chapter 4 156
Chapter 5. Russia and the world in the 18th-19th centuries: attempts at modernization and the industrial revolution 157
§ 1. XVIII century. in European and world history 157
The problem of transition to the "realm of the mind" 157
Formation colonial system and the world capitalist economy 158
The role of international trade 159
Sources of primitive accumulation of capital 160
The role of cities and shop structures 161
Development manufacturing production 161
Industrial revolution in Europe and Russia: general and specific 162
§ 2. Reforms of Peter I: causes, content, results 164
Russia and Europe: New Relationships and Differences 164
Peter I: the struggle for the transformation of traditional society in Russia 164
The main directions of "Europeanization" of the country 165
Evolution social structure society 166
A Leap in the Development of Heavy and Light Industry 167
Creation of the Baltic Fleet and Regular Army 168
Church reform 170
Proclamation of Russia as an empire 170
Strengthening the international authority of the country 172
Coverage of Peter's reforms in modern national historiography 174
§ 3. Enlightened monarchy in Russia 175
Catherine II: the origins and essence of the dualism of domestic politics 175
"Enlightened Absolutism" 176
The new legal status of the nobility 177
Partitions of Poland. Accession of Crimea and a number of other territories in the south 178
Russia and Europe in the XVIII century. Changes in the international position of the empire 178
Russian culture of the 18th century: from Peter's initiatives to the "age of enlightenment" 179
The latest research on the history of the Russian state in the XVII-XVIII centuries 182
§ 4. The European path from Enlightenment to Revolution 183
Ways of transformation of Western European absolutism in the 18th century in 183
European Enlightenment and Rationalism 186
The influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment on world development 186
The French Revolution and its influence on the political and socio-cultural development of European countries 187
§ 5. The influence of the European war on bourgeois evolution 189
Napoleonic Wars and Holy Union as a system of common European order 189
Formation of European nations 192
The development of Europe in the second half of the XIX century. Franco-Prussian War. Bismarck and the unification of the German lands. Unification of Italy 193
§6. American Revolution and the emergence of USA 197
War of Independence of the North American Colonies 197
Declaration of Independence and Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen 199
American Civil War 200
§ 7. The main trends in world development in the XIX century 202
European colonialism and the societies of the East, Africa, America in the 19th century 202
industrial revolution; acceleration of the process of industrialization in the XIX century. and its political, economic, social and cultural consequences 207
Secularization of Consciousness and the Development of Science 212
Romanticism, liberalism, Darwinism 214
§ eight. Russian empire in the 19th century: wars, reforms and counter-reforms 215
Attempts to reform the political system of Russia under Alexander I; projects by M. M. Speransky and N. N. Novosiltsev 215
The Significance of Russia's Victory in the War against Napoleon and Russia's Liberation Campaign in Europe for Strengthening Russia's International Positions 217
Russian Autocracy and the "Holy Alliance" 219
Change of political course in the early 20s of the 19th century: causes and consequences 221
Domestic policy of Nicholas I 221
Russia and the Caucasus 223
Peasant question: stages of solution. The first approaches to the abolition of serfdom at the beginning of the XIX century in 224
Background and reasons for the abolition of serfdom. Reforms of Alexander II 224
Discussion about the economic crisis of the system of serfdom in Russia. The abolition of serfdom and its results: alternatives to reform 227
Political transformations of the 60-70s of the XIX century in 228
Completion of the reign of Alexander the Liberator 231
Annexation of Central Asia. Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878 234
§ 9. Russian culture in the XIX century in 236
Education system 236
Science and technology 237
Print 239
Literature and art 239
Life of the city and the countryside 241
General achievements and contradictions 241
Review questions 242
Literature for Chapter 5 242
Chapter 6. Russia (USSR) and the world in the first half of the 20th century 243
§ 1. International relations on turn of XIX-XX cc 243
Completion of the division of the world and the struggle for colonies. Capitalist wars of the late XIX - early XX century. for sales markets and sources of raw materials 243
US Policy 244
Peculiarities of the Formation of Capitalism in the Colonially Dependent Countries 246
§ 2. National liberation movement: causes, driving forces, problems 247
"Awakening of Asia" - the first wave of bourgeois anti-colonial revolutions 247
National liberation movements in China. Kuomintang 250
§ 3. The first construction of capitalism in Russia (horses of the 19th - early 20th centuries) 251
The Russian economy of the late 19th - early 20th centuries: ups and downs and crises, their causes 251
Comparative analysis of the development of industry and agriculture: Europe, USA, countries South America 253
Monopolization of industry and the formation of financial capital 256
Banking houses in the economic life of post-reform Russia 257
The share of foreign capital in the Russian mining and manufacturing industry 258
Forcing Russian industrialization "from above" 259
Strengthening state regulation of the economy 262
§ 4. The first Russian revolution: background, content, results 263
Reforms by S. Yu. Witte 263
Russian village at the beginning of the century 264
Aggravation of disputes around the solution of the agrarian question 264
First Russian revolution 265
Stolypinskaya agrarian reform: economic, social and political essence, results, consequences 269
Political parties in Russia at the beginning of the century: genesis, classification, programs, tactics 271
The experience of the Duma "parliamentarism" in Russia 273
§ 5. The First World War: background, course, results 275
Main military-political blocs 275
Theaters of War 277
The impact of the First World War on European development 280
New map of Europe and the world. Versailles system of international relations 281
A new phase of European capitalism 282
§ 6. The Great Russian Revolution of 1917: background, content, results 283
Russia's participation in the First World War. Origins of the nationwide crisis 283
Disproportions in the structure of ownership and production in industry 284
The crisis of power during the war years and its origins. The impact of the war on the approach of a national crisis 284
Alternatives for the development of Russia after February Revolution. provisional government and Petrograd Soviet 286
Socio-economic policy of the new government. Power crises 289
Bolshevik Strategy: Reasons for Victory 291
October 1917 292
Economic program of the Bolsheviks 295
The beginning of the formation of a one-party political system. Political, social, economic origins and prerequisites for the formation of a new system in Soviet Russia. Structure of the power regime 296
Civil war and intervention 299
Main steps civil war 300
Results of the Civil War 303
The first wave of Russian emigration: centers, ideology, political activity, leaders 304
Modern domestic and foreign historiography about the causes, content and consequences of the national crisis in Russia and the revolution in Russia in 1917 306
§ 7. Features of international relations in the interwar period 308
League of Nations 308
The Adaptation of Soviet Russia on the World Stage 309
USSR and Great Powers 310
The Comintern as an organ of the world revolutionary movement. The Workers' Socialist International and the Parliamentary Road to Socialism 310
The Anti-Comintern Pact and the Secret Agreement 311
§ 8. Construction of socialism in the USSR in reality and discussions 312
The political crisis of the early 20s of the XX century. Establishment of a one-party political system 312
Transition from War Communism to NEP 312
The struggle in the leadership of the RCP (b) - VKP (b) on the development of the country. Rise of I. V. Stalin 314
Dictatorship of nomenklatura 315
The course towards the construction of socialism in one country. Economic fundamentals Soviet political regime. Diversity of civilizational patterns inherited from the past 317
Ethnic and sociocultural changes. Peculiarities of the Soviet National Policy and the Model of the National-State Structure 320
Forced industrialization: prerequisites, sources of accumulation, method, pace 322
The policy of complete collectivization of agriculture, its economic and social consequences 325
§ 9. Alternatives for the development of Western civilization in the late 20s - in the 30s of XX in 328
capitalist world economy during the interwar period 328
World economic crisis 1929 and Great Depression 329
General and special in economic history developed countries in the 20s of XX in 329
State monopoly capitalism 330
Keynesianism 330
Alternative ways out of the crisis 331
The ideological renewal of capitalism under the influence of the socialist threat: conservatism, liberalism, social democracy, fascism and national socialism 332
The rise of fascism to power in Germany 333
F. Roosevelt's New Deal 334
"People's Fronts" in Europe 336
Discussions about totalitarianism in modern historiography 337
§ 10. World War II and the Great Patriotic War: background, periodization, results 339
Soviet foreign policy 339
Modern controversy about the international crisis of 1939-1941. 340
Background and course of the Second World War 341
The first period of the Great Patriotic War and the second period of the Second World War (June 22, 1941 - November 1942) 343
The second stage of the Great Patriotic War and the third stage of the Second World War. (November 19-20, 1942 - December 1943). A radical change in the course of the Great Patriotic War and World War II 346
Creation anti-Hitler coalition 347
Allied development of global strategic decisions on the post-war reconstruction of the world (Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam conferences) 348
The third period of the Great Patriotic War and the fourth period of the Second World War (January 1944 - May 9, 1945). The defeat and surrender of Nazi Germany 350
Fifth period of World War II (June-September 1945). Defeat and capitulation of militaristic Japan 352
USSR in World War II and Great Patriotic Wars. Decisive contribution Soviet Union in the defeat of fascism 353
Consolidation Soviet society during the war years. Reasons and cost of victory 355
Review questions 358
Literature for Chapter 6 358
Chapter 7. The USSR (Russia) and the world in the second half of the 20th century
§ 1. International relations in the post-war world 359
The rise of the US to a superpower 359
New international organizations. Complication international environment; the collapse of the anti-Hitler coalition 360
The Beginning of the Cold War 360
Creation of NATO. The Marshall Plan and the Final Division of Europe 362
Establishment of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) 363
Creation of a socialist camp and ATS 365
The victory of the revolution in China and the creation of the PRC 366
Korean War 1950-1953 367
§ 2. The USSR in the post-war decades 367
Difficulties of post-war reconstruction; restoration of the national economy and the elimination of the US nuclear monopoly 367
Tightening the political regime and ideological control 368
Creation of a socialist camp 371
Military-industrial complex 372
The first post-Stalin decade. Reformatory searches in the Soviet leadership. Attempts to update the socialist system 373
Changes in the theory and practice of Soviet foreign policy 374
Significance of the XX and XXII Congresses of the CPSU 375
"Thaw" in the spiritual sphere 378
Khrushchev's counter-reforms 378
§ 3. Formation of the third world: background, features, problems 381
The collapse of the colonial system 381
Formation of the non-aligned movement 384
Arab revolutions, "free Africa" ​​and superpower rivalry 385
§ 4. Confrontation of two superpowers - the USA and the USSR: the world on the brink of war 388
Revolution in Cuba. Strengthening the confrontation between the two world systems. Caribbean crisis 1962 388
Vietnam War 389
The Socialist Movement in the Countries of the West and the East 390
Events of 1968 391
Scientific and technological revolution and its impact on the course of the world community development 392
Arms race (1945-1991); proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (types, delivery systems) and its role in international relations 394
Nuclear club. IAEA. Establishment of non-proliferation control systems 394
§ 5. Transformation capitalist system: causes, main trends, features 395
The development of the world economy in 1945-1991. 395
Creation and development of international financial structures (World Bank, IMF, IBRD) 396
The Transformation of Neocolonialism and Economic Globalization 399
Integration processes in post-war Europe. Treaty of Rome and creation of EEC 401
Continuing European Integration: The Maastricht Treaty 403
The dominant role of the United States in the global economy. Business cycles and crises 405
Capitalist world economy and socialist models (USSR, PRC, Yugoslavia) 406
§ 6. The USSR at the final stage of its history 408
Dissident movement in the USSR: background, essence, classification, main stages of development 408
Stagnation in the economy and pre-crisis phenomena in the late 70s - early 80s. 20th century in the country 410
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and its internal and external political consequences 414
Power and society in the first half of the 80s. 417
Causes and the first attempts to comprehensively reform the Soviet system in 1985 Goals and main stages of perestroika in the economic and political development of the USSR 419
"New political thinking" and change geopolitical position USSR. Foreign policy of the USSR in 1985-1991. End of the Cold War. Conclusion Soviet troops from Afghanistan, the collapse of the CMEA and the crisis of the world socialist system 423
GKChP and the collapse of socialist reformism in the USSR 425
The collapse of the CPSU and the USSR Formation of the CIS 425
§ 7. The development of the countries of the East in the second half of the XX in 426
Japan after World War II 426
Asian Tigers 428
Creation of the State of Israel. Arab-Israeli conflict. The problem of conflict resolution in the Middle East 429
Deng Xiaoping's Economic Reforms in China 431
§ 8. Russia in the 90s XX in 432
The liberal concept of Russian reforms: the transition to the market, the formation of civil society and the rule of law 432
"Shock therapy" of economic reforms in the early 90s. 433
The sharp polarization of society in Russia. Deterioration economic situation large part of the population 434
The constitutional crisis in Russia in 1993 and the dismantling of the system of power of the Soviets. Changes in the economic and political system in Russia 435
Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 436
Military-political crisis in Chechnya 437
Science, culture, education in market conditions 439
Social cost and the first results of reforms 440
Foreign policy of the Russian Federation in 1991-1999. 443
Political parties and social movements in Russia present stage 444
Russia and CIS 446
Russia in the system of the world economy and international relations 447
Review questions 447
Literature for chapter 7 447
Chapter 8. Russia and the world in the XXI century 449
§ 1. A multipolar world at the beginning of the XXI century in 449
Globalization of the world economic, political and cultural space 449
The end of the unipolar world 451
Increasing the role of the PRC in the world economy and politics 452
§ 2. The role of the Russian Federation in the modern world community 454
Russia at the beginning of the XXI century. Modernization of socio-political relations 454
Socio-economic situation of the Russian Federation in the period 2001-2011. 456
The global financial and economic crisis and Russia 457
Foreign policy of the Russian Federation 458
Regional and global interests of Russia 458
Modern problems of mankind and the role of Russia in their solution 460
Review questions 461
Literature for chapter 8 462
Literature for the entire textbook 463

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