Muslim: The Bible has been changed many times, so it cannot be considered authentic Scripture, open to Moses, Jesus and other prophets. What evidence do you have that the Bible is reliable and trustworthy?
Years ago, a young Muslim woman asked me, "Has the Bible ever been changed?" I told her, "Of course not." To this she said, "But doesn't she teach that Jesus Christ is the Son of God?" I confirmed: "Teaching again and again." In response, she stated, "Then she had to change."
Any Christian who reads the writings of Muslim authors will be surprised to find that the arguments put forward in them as a refutation of the authenticity of the texts of the Bible are often extremely weak and unconvincing. This happens for one reason only - Muslims do not believe in the complete safety of the Bible, not because they have found adequate evidence that changes were made to its text, but because they must deny its authenticity in order to support their conviction that The Quran is the Word of God. Two conflicting Books cannot both be the Word of God. When Muslims discovered in the early centuries of Islamic history that the Bible was clear and definite about basic Christian doctrines, such as the divinity of Jesus Christ and His atonement, they could no longer approach it objectively. Since then, they have been striving to prove what is really nothing more than a guess - the Bible had to change! The main reason Muslims disbelieve in the authenticity of the Bible is that they have no choice: they cannot believe the Bible if they are supposed to be faithful to the Qur'an.
It is important to know the evidence of immutability biblical texts, especially the fact that there are genuine manuscripts dating back many centuries before the birth of Islam, proving that the Bible we hold in our hands today is the same Bible that the Jews and early Christians considered their only Holy Scripture.
The three main manuscript lists of the Bible
Until now, there are three main manuscript copies of the Bible on Greek(including the Septuagint (Old Testament) and original text New Testament), several centuries ahead of the appearance of the Koran.
1. Alexandrian list. This volume, written in the 5th century A.D. contains the entire Bible except for a few missing plates from the New Testament (namely, Matt. 1:1-25:6, John 6:50-8:52, and 2 Cor. 4:13-12:6). It does not include anything that is not part of modern bible. The manuscript is kept in the London British Museum.
2. Sinai list. This is a very ancient manuscript dating from the end of the 4th century. It contains all New Testament and a significant part Old Testament. For centuries, it was kept in the St. Petersburg Imperial Library and was sold to the British government for one hundred thousand pounds. It is also currently in the British Museum.
3. Vatican list. This is probably the oldest complete manuscript copy of the Bible that has survived. It dates from the 4th century and is kept in the Vatican Library in Rome. the last part of the New Testament (from Heb. 9:14 until the end of Revelation) is written in a different hand than the rest of the manuscript (probably the scribe who started copying the text was unable to complete the work for some reason).
These manuscripts convincingly prove that the only Scripture given to the Church at least two centuries before the birth of Muhammad is the Old and New Testament known to us.
Other evidence for the authenticity of the Bible
There are many other testimonies that prove the authenticity of the Bible, which date back to an era several centuries ahead of the time of the birth of Islam. In discussions with Muslims, the following points should be highlighted.
1. Masoretic texts. Ancient biblical manuscripts belong not only to Christians, but also to Jews, who revere the Old Testament as the only Scripture given to them. These are texts written in Hebrew - original language Old Testament, they are at least a thousand years old. They are known as the Masoretic Texts.
2. The Dead Sea Scrolls. First discovered in caves in the Qumran desert near the Dead Sea in Israel, these scrolls contain many passages from the Old Testament in Hebrew and date back to the 2nd century BC. e. They include two copies of the Book of the Prophet Isaiah containing prophecies about the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see: Isaiah 53:1–12), about His immaculate conception(see: Is. 7:14) and about His divinity (see: Is. 9:6-7).
3. Septuagint. The Septuagint is the title of the first Greek translation of the Old Testament. He corresponded in the 2nd century BC. e. and contains all the main prophecies about the coming of the Messiah, the statement that He is the Son of God (see: Ps. 2:7; 1 Chronicles 17:11–14), and some details of His suffering and atoning death (see: Psalm 21:68). The early Church made extensive use of the Septuagint.
4. Vulgate. In the 4th century A.D. e. The Roman Catholic Church translated the entire Bible into Latin language, using the Septuagint and ancient Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. This list is known as the Vulgate and contains all the books of the Old and New Testaments as we know them. This translation is approved as the standard text for the Roman Catholic Church.
5. Extracts from the Greek text of the New Testament. There are many passages of the original Greek text of the New Testament that have survived from the 2nd century CE. e. All of these, taken together, constitute the content of the New Testament as we know it. It is very interesting to compare the abundance of these testimonies with the texts of the ancient Greek and Roman classics, many of which were written no earlier than a thousand years after A.D. Truly, there are no others literary works of the same era, which would have had as many handwritten proofs as Greek text New Testament.
Most importantly, and this should be emphasized when talking to Muslims, is the absence of a source suggesting that the Bible presents the life and teachings of Jesus Christ in a distorted way. All rejected by the Church apocryphal books, on at least in in general terms, follow the same narrative line as the New Testament manuscripts. Definitely doesn't exist historical evidence, suggesting that Jesus was in fact a prophet of Islam, as the Qur'an makes Him out to be.
In conclusion, it would be a good idea to ask Muslims to provide historical facts to support their claim that the Bible we are reading is a modified Bible. What was she originally like? What was changed about it that made it the Book we have today? Who made these changes? When was it done? Ask your interlocutor to name real people which he assumes corrupted the Bible, the time it happened, the specific changes made to the original text of the Bible, and you will find that he is not capable of doing so, because such evidence simply does not exist. Always remember that the Muslim vicious attack is based not on the scientific evidence they have, but on assumptions. The Bible, in their mind, had to change, since it contradicts the Koran. Unfortunately, too often Muslims read the Bible not out of a desire to understand its teachings, but solely to find errors in it that justify their prejudice against it.
John Gilchrist "God or Prophet?"
First Library Kievan Rus
Yaroslav the Wise had a collection of just such unique books, each of which was an expensive masterpiece. He, like no one else, knew the importance of studying and reading for the development of man and the state as a whole. He was the first ruler in Europe who gave importance to this process. It is likely that he himself took part in the translation of texts from foreign languages(which he was good at).
“Yaroslav loved books. In the summer of 6545, this Prince Yaroslav, son of Vladimirov, lit up the hearts of believers with bookish words. It is great because a person is benefited from the teachings of the book.
This is what the Tale of Bygone Years says.
In the same Tale, the only thing recorded written reference about the existence of Yaroslav's library. The prince began to form it 17 years before his death. Basically, these were sacred, liturgical books and especially valuable for science - historical chronicles. Scientists admit that in general the collection could number up to 1000 unique publications. A kind of publishing house (where they translated and wrote) was located in the capital of Kievan Rus, namely, in St. Sophia Cathedral. Here was written the famous “Word of Hilarion”, “Word of Law and Grace” of the Kiev Metropolitan Hilarion, here they worked on the “Izbornik of Svyatoslav”.
Kiev Gospel of the Queen of France
Valuable books from the collection of Yaroslav the Wise became a dowry for his daughters. As the father of nine children, the prince was primarily concerned with their education. All three daughters were given for kings. Elizabeth married the Norwegian king, Anastasia married the Magyar, and the youngest Anna became the most famous
.Interestingly, the 18-year-old French Queen Anna Yaroslavna was famous not only for her beauty, but also for her education; apparently, not a single woman in Europe at that time could compare with her. And her husband, King Henryk I, could neither read nor write.
Therefore, a girl or not from the first days of married life took up the leadership of the state. She signed state acts with her name “Anna Regina”, while King Henryk put a cross on his name. That was the Kiev Gospel,
which would later be called Reims.
Surprisingly, since that time, all the kings of France, up to Louis XIV, took the oath in the Cathedral of Reims with a hand on the Gospel, written in the old Old Russian language.
Each prince (Anni's sisters) who got married was given something from the parent library along with the other. Therefore, part of Yaroslav's books was transported to Europe
. "Whoever finds this move will find the treasure of Yaroslav"
Unfortunately, no one knows whether the books of Yaroslav the Wise still exist. Since then, there have been many wars, fires and other troubles.
The library could have burned down during the takeover Tatar-Mongols Kyiv in 1240, who set fire to the city. Could have been plundered And yet, scientists fully admit the version according to which historical books are still stored in the bowels of Kiev lands. The catacombs of ancient temples, deep caves and dungeons, with complete certainty, could serve as a reliable cache of the collection. Built in 1037, a beautiful stone temple with unique mosaics and frescoes - Hagia Sophia - became best place for the princely book collection. Probably, the library was not moved from there.
Interestingly, in 1916, next to Sophia Cathedral a deep abyss formed, in which an underground passage was visible.
The expedition of researchers was led by Alexander Ertel. Examining the ancient corridors, scientists suddenly came across an amazing find: a piece of birch bark with a message that said: "Whoever finds this passage will find Yaroslav's great treasure."
The author carved the letters on wood and then sketched them in ink. No one doubted that it was a valuable library that was meant. Just as quickly, scientists figured out that the inscription belongs to the times late Middle Ages. But the find only proves that in the 17th century the locals knew about the treasure or there were rumors about it.
.Mystery of the Kiev monks
During the time of Kievan Rus, books were mostly occupied by monks. During hostile raids or other great danger, they carried the most valuable things to underground passages. “I buried books from hostile invasions by monks in caves,” chroniclers wrote.
In caves where there is no sharp fluctuation in temperature and there is no high humidity.
And the place of the hiding place was kept in the strictest secrecy, which, unfortunately, could die along with the servants of the monasteries. Therefore, the library of Yaroslav the Wise could be kept in the underground labyrinths of one of the Kiev churches. And it is entirely probable that the parchment editions have retained a fairly good condition to this day. There are many versions regarding the specific location of the collection.
The Mezhigirsky monastery is also a contender for a place of storage for one reason. AT Soviet times During the construction of Postyshev's dacha in Mezhgorye, workers accidentally stumbled upon a basement filled to the brim with ancient books. But whether this was the treasure of Yaroslav the Wise is unknown. Books were then covered with earth, and later researchers could no longer find that cellar. Another place where the library was stored could be a complex of caves near the Vydubitsky Monastery. At different times, many interesting and mysterious things were found here. Kiev Caves Monastery and the Lavra dungeons of the oldest monastery could also become a reliable hiding place for such a valuable treasure.
discussions continue, but most scientists still consider the existence of the library of Yaroslav the Wise a historical fact
Treasure hunters believe that in the future someone will be lucky to find folios from the collection of Yaroslav - one of the greatest treasures of the ancient Ukraine- Kiev Russia
translation from Ukrainian -my.
Old Russian book miniature from her early masterpiece - the Ostromir Gospel (XI century)
to another masterpiece - the Khitrovo Gospel (beginning of the 15th century).
Ostromir Gospel
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The historical past today is practically systematized. Science knows periods, major events and prominent figures. However, centuries continue to keep secrets. Gaps in knowledge about the existence and life of previous generations are contained in the secret manuscripts of history, which have not yet been understood and deciphered by scientists. Perhaps their discovery will change the understanding of the universe and time. Today, ten of the most mysterious are distinguished from the most famous specimens.
1. Voynich Manuscript
A 250-page book found in the 15th century contains images of plants, space objects and naked women. story plot or individual stories have not been unraveled by historians and other scientists. Although one researcher claims to have deciphered 10 words from the text of an old edition.
discovered antique book in 1912 Wilfid Voynich. Analysis of the content showed that some of the characters have distinctive features real language. Whether Voynich speculated on the find, presenting it as a valuable artifact, or whether this document is a real cultural treasure remains a mystery. The object is in storage at Yale University.
Voynich manuscript
2. Handbook of ritual rites
The history of the ancient manuscript on 20 pages began about 1300 years ago. It is written in the ancient Coptic language of the Egyptian Christians. It contains many magical spells and formulas, including love spells, as well as spells for black jaundice and instructions for conducting exorcism sessions.
The text may have been written by a group of Sethians, an ancient Christian sect led by Seth, who claims to be the third son of Adam and Eve. In an ancient message, there is an indication of a certain mysterious figure - Baktiota, whose identity is unknown.
Researchers who translated and analyzed the text ancient manuscript book, called him conditionally " Handbook of ritual rites". It is currently housed at the Macquarie University Museum of Ancient Cultures in Sydney, Australia. The manuscript was handed over in 1981 from private collection Michael Fakelmann. Where he got the text from is not disclosed.
Directory of ritual rites 3. Code of Grolier
The so-called Grolier Code, named after the New York club where the copy was exhibited, presents the writings of the Mayan peoples with ancient hieroglyphs that demonstrate the number system and religious beliefs of the civilization. The content contains a description of observations of the movement of the planet Venus. A collector from Mexico named Josue Saenz claims that he acquired the manuscript from Madoders in the 1960s. Scientists are still arguing about the authenticity of the artifact.
Recent studies have shown that the paper on which the Code is written is approximately 800 years old. The illustrations are painted with a blue paint characteristic of Maya, which still cannot be synthesized in the laboratory. This confirms the value historical document. Along with other signs, for example, the content of hieroglyphs and images, such a conclusion speaks of the authenticity of the ancient message.
Grolier Code 4. Copper Scroll
The library of ancient manuscripts is represented by Hebrew text on several sheets. They were discovered in a cave at Qumran in the Judean Desert along with other Dead Sea Scrolls. The text indicates the location huge amount treasures with silver, coins, gold and vessels. The message dates from about 70 AD, that is, the time when the Roman army besieged and destroyed the shrines of Jerusalem. It is believed that this is the oldest manuscript, the contents of which are unknown to science.
Researchers do not get tired of arguing about the reality and mythical nature of the described treasure. To date, the jewels mentioned in the text have not been found either in Israel or in Palestine. If the scroll is authentic, then perhaps the treasures were found back in ancient times.
Copper Scroll 5. Popol Vuh
The title of this manuscript translates as " Legal Counsel's Book". It contains mythical story, told by the descendants of the Mayan peoples who settled in Guatemala. According to their legends, the forefathers of all living things, Tepev and Kukumatz, created the Earth from a water void, endowed it with animals and plants. Michael Coe of Yale University in Maya, Thames and Hudson, 2011.
The book indicates that the founders of the world experienced difficulties in creating people. At the end, it is described that they got the twin heroes Ahpu and Xbalanque. They traveled a lot and became the masters of the underworld.
The earliest surviving copy of the Popol Vuha dates from 1701. The codex was written in Spanish priest Frasisco Jimenez from the Dominican Republic. A copy is held by the Newberry Library in Chicago.
Popol Vuha manuscript 6. Treatise of the judgments
The codex contains the first Hebrew text indicating the location of treasures from King Solomon's temple. It tells about the fate of the Ark of the Covenant. The scripture indicates that these artifacts " cannot be found until the coming of the Messiah, the son of David...«
The earliest copy dates from 1648. It was made by James Davil, a professor at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, who studied and translated this ancient manuscript.
In analyzing the content, he relied on traditional methods biblical exegesis (interpretation) to understand where the treasures might be. Under his pen, history took on the appearance of a fantastic adventure, rather than a real guide to finding valuable artifacts.
Treatise of the Courts - an ancient manuscript 7. Gospel of Judas
In 2006 the National geographical society(National Geographic) has published a third-century translation of a text called the Gospel of Judas.
The secrets of an ancient manuscript are revealed in relation to the biblical figure of Judas Iscariot, who, according to the New Testament, betrayed Jesus. The manuscript, written in the Coptic language used by Egyptian Christians, describes Jesus asking Judas for betrayal so that he could be crucified on a cross so that he could ascend to heaven.
However, experts disagree on the translation and interpretation of the text. Aprel DeConick, professor of religion at Rice University in Houston, says the text actually contains an indication that Judas was a "demon". Analysis of the manuscript and comparison of its content with the Gospel confirmed that the text is authentic. The research was carried out by a team led by Joseph Barabe of the McCrone Association in Illinois.
Gospel of Judas 8. Dresden Codex
The age of the artifact is about 800 years. It is composed of 39 illustrated pages with texts. Research, the results of which were published in 2016, indicates that the Codex records the phases of the planet Venus, according to which the ancient Maya performed their rites.
“These people did have complex ceremonies that were tied strictly to the calendar,” said Gerardo Aldan, a historian at the University of California, Santa Barbara. “Probably, they were active, the periods of which were associated with the phases of Venus.”
The code has been submitted to Royal Library Dresden, Germany, in 1730. How he got to Europe is unknown. It is known that many texts belonging to the Mayan culture were destroyed by Christian missionaries seeking to eradicate any other mention of another faith.
Dresden List 9. Gospel of Mary Lota
The manuscript is written in Egyptian Coptic and is approximately 1500 years old. The Gospel does not tell about the life of Jesus, but his name is mentioned in 37 predictions.
The text contains a story about the creation of the scripture: " The gospel of Mary, mother of Jesus Christ, from Gabriel the Archangel, who brought good news from the One who will go forward and receive according to his own heart and be reckoned with him.”
The message of antiquity is kept at Harvard University. It was deciphered and the details published in 2014 by Enna Marie Luijengic, Professor of Religion at Princeton University. In his book " Forbidden Oracles. Gospel of Mary Lota” she says that the gospel is a prediction, an attempt to predict the future. A person looking for an answer could choose one of 37 oracles to find a solution to their problem. How the system worked remains unknown.
The edition was donated to Harvard in 1984.
Gospel of Mary Lote 10. Liber Linteus
Ancient texts found in silk covers of an Egyptian mummy. They were written in the Etruscan language used in Italy in antiquity. The artifact dates from around 200 BC. The mummy with the robe is in the Zagreb Museum in Croatia.
The meaning of the message of antiquity is not clear. It is presented as a ritual calendar, although there are only six months in it, said Lammert Bouke van der Meer, a professor at the University of Leiden in the book “ Prayers, places and rituals in Etruscan religion(Brill, 2008).
For ancient egypt was characterized by the reuse of materials for wrapping mummies or making death masks. At that time, trade in the Mediterranean was widespread. Nothing unusual in the fact that the fabric came from Italy to Egypt is not seen.
Liber Linteus They probably contained Egyptian magic spells, but the text is written in unknown to science language. Who knows, maybe any of these ancient manuscripts can turn the prevailing ideas about the universe and history.
A low vaulted cell or a simple wooden hut. Dim light falls from a tiny window, and in the evenings and at night it pours from a small lamp. On a small low table is everything you need for writing: an inkwell and cinnabar, a sandbox with a small river line for sprinkling just written (instead of a blotter), two knives - one for sharpening feathers, the other for erasing mistakes, for the same purpose lies pumice and sponge; right there, to line the page, there is a ruler, a compass, a chain and a special metal or bone awl, with which the line of the line is pressed. And a man is sitting next to him. He has a manuscript on his lap. In hand goose feather. He's writing. Writes a book. This is an ancient Russian scribe, or copyist. He was completely absorbed in his difficult, painstaking and intense work. The text he is copying from is right there on the table. Here the scribe looked up from the manuscript lying on his knees, looked at the text, found the right place, read it and again bent over his work, repeating aloud the words that his hand was deriving at that time. And so letter by letter, word by word, line by line, page by page.
He carefully watches so as not to miss a letter or (God forbid!) A line - it also happens if attention weakens and the eye accidentally jumps from right place to another. If an error is found immediately, in the move is on a knife, and the wrong letter or line is scraped out, the missing word is inscribed. At the end of the book, the scribe turns to the future reader with a request to forgive him for his mistakes: “And Kozma Popovich wrote, but where will I hesitate (mistake) in my rudeness and drunkenness, fathers and brethren, read more correctly ... but don’t slander me.”
The tired copyist was not averse to reminding the future reader of the book of his existence, to tell about the situation in which the book was born. Thus, postscripts appeared in the margins, according to which it is easy to imagine the life and work of a book copyist.
It's already night outside. Everyone has long since fallen asleep. And only two people bent over their manuscripts: "All people sleep, but we, our two scribes, do not sleep." But sleep overpowers them too, attention weakens, and a postscript appears in the margins: “Oh Lord, help, oh Lord, hurry up! Drowsiness is inapplicable, and in this row (line) I went crazy (wrong). And so all night, and in the morning the tired scribe will again remind himself in the fields of his work: "the night is successful, and the day is approaching." They flooded the stove, smoked it, and the scribe said: “It’s already smoky, we’ll climb into another hut.”
Many postscripts remind of the scribe's appetite: "Cook, by God, sturgeon fish and fresh pike," he writes in the margins; or: "How can we not overeat, if they put jelly with milk."
“The merchant rejoices, having made a purchase, and the helmsman in peace, the bailiff, and the wanderer has come to his fatherland; the book writer rejoices in the same way, having reached the end of books; so is I, the thin, unworthy and many-sinful servant of God Lavrenty of mine. I began to write this book, the verbal chronicler, of the month of January at 14, .., and I finished on March at 20 ... ”We will find such a record on the oldest of the lists of the annals that have come down to us, which is called by its “writer” Laurentian.
There were entries that were shorter, but no less expressive: “Like the groom rejoices over the bride, the scribe rejoices, seeing last page»; or: “... It’s like the hare escaped the net, so glad the scribe wrote the last line.”
In most cases, the copyists of books were laymen - artisans who devoted themselves entirely to this hard work. There were cases when such a scribe went to a monastery, continuing to practice his craft there. Perhaps in XVI-XVII centuries there were special workshops for copying books. Sometimes scribes could be found among the boyar household: the serf scribe copied books for his enlightened master scribe.
They wrote with feathers - goose, swan, even peacock. The latter, of course, are much rarer, and in such cases the scribe did not miss the opportunity to boast: "I wrote with a paw pen." But more often he bitterly stated something completely different: "A dashing pen, it is not free to write with it." The very process of preparing the pen for writing demanded high art from the scribe.
For the manufacture of ink, old (or other objects made of old iron) were used, which were dipped into kvass or sour cabbage soup; oak or alder bark was added for viscosity.
It was more difficult with the material on which to write. The most ancient material for writing in Russia was parchment. The word itself appears in our country only in the 17th century. Prior to this, books on parchment were called "Kharatia" (from. "haratos"), or even more often "books on the skin" or "on veal" (they wrote: "the book was written in ten on veal") - after all, they made parchment, as a rule , from calfskin.
Since the 14th century, paper appeared in Russia, at first only imported paper, then its own, domestic paper. Up until the 19th century. paper was made by hand. Hemp or linen rags were soaked for a long time and boiled together with ash or lime until a continuous mushy mass was obtained. Then this mass was scooped from the vat with a special device, consisting of a rectangular stretcher, wire mesh and a removable frame. The water drained, and the mass remained on the grid and, drying, turned into a thin paper layer, which was then smoothed and polished. The way of production affected appearance ancient paper. If you look at it in the light, you will immediately notice the wire mesh imprinted on it, on which the paper was dried. And in the center of the sheet (or on the side) we will definitely find some kind of pattern, letter, emblem. These are watermarks, or filigree, made from the same wire as the mesh. Each workshop had its own filigree. Therefore, researchers are now closely studying these watermarks, which often help to date the manuscript.
One way or another, the scribe bought paper or "veal" and finally set to work. He writes on notebooks folded in half or four times - the work of the binder is still ahead. "Artist" too will come later. And the scribe leaves room for future miniatures, headpieces, initial letters.
Miniature from an old Russian book.
Isn't the scribe himself an artist! With what taste and skill he arranges the lines on a white field. How much grace in each letter, written out separately with great care. Especially beautiful and majestic are the most ancient books written in the charter: the letters are almost square, with regular lines and roundings, even pressure, they stand straight on the line, without inclination, one separately from the other, at an equal distance from each other.
The charter was used to write the oldest of the dated books that have come down to us (1056-1057), rewritten for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir. That is why it is now called “Ostromir Gospel”.
Starting from the 14th century, a semi-ustav appears - this handwriting is smaller than the statute, the letters are written with an inclination, quickly and sweepingly. Therefore, in the lines of the semi-charter, there is no longer that geometric accuracy that in the charter, the letters are not spaced from each other at the same distance.
From the 15th to the 17th centuries the third type of handwriting is spreading more and more - cursive. Despite the fact that the name itself suggests that this handwriting was used in business writing and did not seem to set itself aesthetic goals, nevertheless, many cursive manuscripts are surprisingly beautiful: big variety in writing the same letters, the freedom of pressure and strokes of the pen give cursive writing an intricate sophistication, a kind of elegance. Under the hand of an experienced clerk, cursive was no less attractive than charter. And although she did not have the statutory solemnity, she looked warmer and softer.
Finally, the scribe finished his work. Correspondence of the book sometimes lasted several months. The manuscript came into the hands of the artist. On the places left by the scribe, he entered capital letters, painted headpieces and miniatures. Looking at the ornaments of ancient Russian initial letters and screensavers, we seem to fall into the unknown fairy world with amazing plants, animals and birds.
Here you can meet a dragon or a monstrous snake, curved like the letter B, and the magical bird Sirin. Here is a fish - O. No less amazing is the floral ornament of intricately intertwining stems, herbs, leaves and flowers of the most diverse shapes and colors.
Sometimes, from the world of the miraculous, we find ourselves in the very thick of ancient Russian life. Here is a hunter who has caught a hare (letter P), here he guts this hare (letter L), here is a hunter with a falcon and prey (H), and here is some drunkard who spread his legs like the letter X. Very often, the letter D was depicted in the form gusliara - "buzzer". Finally, we have the scribe himself. He holds a manuscript in one hand and a pen in the other. This is the letter B. Since the XIV century, a ligature appears in Russian books - special way writing a title, in which several letters are combined into one whole, or some letters written in small letters are placed in others written in large ones. All this creates a special, pretentious ornament, in which it is not immediately possible to discern the outlines of individual letters. To do this, the book must be raised by one horizontal plane with your eyes, and then you can hardly read what is written. Here are examples of Old Russian ligature.
While scribes and artists are working on the book, there is no book as such yet. It represents so far a pile of individual sheets. Sometimes, to speed up the work, several scribes work on the book. It happens that for this purpose it is necessary to divide the text into its component parts, from which it is necessary to write off. Each scribe receives his lesson. In this case, this can also happen: individual parts do not match. One scribe finished at the beginning of one sheet, and next started continue from the beginning of another sheet. So there will be free space.
Finally, both the scribe and the artist will put down their pen and brush with relief: it's done. Now you can give the book to the binder. In ancient times, the binding was based on a board (it is not for nothing that they say: read from board to board). The board was covered with leather, fabric, sometimes brocade or velvet. Sometimes especially valuable books decorated with gold, silver, precious stones, then the jeweler put his hand to it.
In the armory Historical Museum and other collections, we can see books that are high examples of jewelry art. The book was thick. Therefore, fasteners were necessarily attached to the binding. It was considered a great sin not to close the book with fasteners. Now the book is ready. What is her future fate?
If the copyist was a serf, the book entered the library of his master. If the scribe was a monk, the book remained in the monastery library. If it was written to order, the customer received it. On one book we find the following postscript: “Vasily Stepanov’s notebooks, but they were written to Vasily Olferyev, and he didn’t pay anything for them, and (I) didn’t give him notebooks.”
In the 17th century in Moscow there was a "book row" where they sold handwritten and printed books. There was also a brisk trade in books in the vegetable row, along with overseas fruits and engravings. What was the price of the book ancient Russia! In the 13th century, Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich paid 8 hryvnia kunas for a small prayer book. Around the same time, he bought the village for 50 hryvnia kunas. On one of the books of the end of the 16th century, an entry was made in 1594: three rubles were given. In those same years, 4 rubles were paid for a gelding. Very much valued chronicle books- in the 17th century they cost 4-5 rubles, a very considerable amount at that time.
It is clear that very few people could afford to collect the library. Some information about ancient Russian libraries has come down to us. The largest collections of books in those days were most often at the monasteries. A big library was in the Kirillovo-Belozersky monastery in the 17th century. There were 473 books here. In the Trinity-Sergius Lavra there were 411 books, in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery - 189. Of the boyars, the favorite of Princess Sophia, Prince V.V. Golitsyn, had the largest library.
The book enjoyed special respect in ancient Russia. In The Tale of Bygone Years we find a real panegyric to books; “Behold, these are the rivers that water the universe; behold, these are the fountains of wisdom!” - exclaims the chronicler. Love for the book was reflected in fine arts ancient Russia. writing man, a man with a book - very common subjects of ancient Russian painting.
AT mid-sixteenth century, the first printing house appeared in Moscow, the first Moscow printed book. But for a long time, throughout the 17th and even the 18th centuries, the work of the scribe remained a living, undying profession. Only in the 19th century did the printed book completely replace the handwritten one, and only works that for some serious reason did not get into print continue to go on the lists, like Griboedov's "Woe from Wit", Pushkin's ode"Liberty", Lermontov's "On the Death of a Poet".
These books are several thousand years old. They are invaluable both for culture and history, and for us, ordinary readers.
The Tale of Gilgamesh
Most full version poem about Gilgamesh was found in mid-nineteenth century during the excavations of the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in ancient Nineveh. The excavations were carried out by the English archaeologist Austin Henry Layard. The epic was written in cuneiform on 12 six-column clay tablets in the Akkadian language and included about 3,000 verses. Scientists date the epic to the 8th-7th centuries BC. e. Tablets with the text of the epic are stored in the British Museum, where they were transferred in 1852 by the archaeologist's assistant Ormuzd Rasam.
Thanks to the legend, we have an idea about the religion of ancient people and about their philosophy. The main characters of the epic were the demigod Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk and the clay man Enkidu. The great popularity of the epic among modern readers is explained by the story of Deluge which is included in it.
book of the dead
This mystical collection of ancient Egyptian texts includes prayers, chants and spells that were supposed to ease the afterlife for the deceased.
The name "Book of the Dead" was coined by the Egyptologist Karl Lepsius, although the collection has a more accurate title: "Chapters on the Exit to the Light of Day."
It was created from the VI to the I century BC. e. Most of the texts were found in the burials of the city of Thebes, where they were written on papyri and decorated with excellent drawings depicting scenes of the burial of the dead and the afterlife.
The most significant papyri are kept in the British Museum.
Codex Sinaiticus
The most ancient book format familiar to us - the Codex Sinaiticus dates from the 4th century AD. e. The first 43 pages of the codex were found by the German scholar Konstantin Tischendorf in 1844 in the library of the monastery of St. Helena on the Sinai Peninsula.
The scientist found them in a pile of waste paper prepared for destruction. Another 86 pages he found as a result of targeted searches. Tischendorf took them to Europe and made them public. He wanted to return to the monastery to take out the rest, but the monks didn't even let him look at the pages.
The situation was saved by the Russian Emperor Alexander II, who paid 9 thousand rubles, after which Tischendorf took the pages to Russia. On the thinnest white parchment in Greek was written incomplete text the Old Testament, the complete New Testament, and two works by early Christian authors: The Epistle of Barnabas and The Shepherd of Hermas. Until 1933, the Codex Sinaiticus was kept in the Imperial National Library in Russia, but the Bolsheviks decided to get rid of it and "conceded" it to the British Museum.
Now 347 pages of this book have four owners: the National Russian Library, British museum, the University of Leipzig and the monastery of St. Helena.
Gospels of Garima
The two Gospels of Garima are kept in Ethiopia, in the monastery of St. Garima, which is located near the city of Adua. Created in the period from 330 to 650. According to legend, Saint Garima rewrote them on a vow in one day. The gospels are written in sacred written language ancient Abyssinia geez.
The gospels were found in 1950 by British art historian Beatrice Plain. But the books ended up with a barbarian bookbinder, who wove pages of the 15th century into one of them. And only in 2006, scientists were able to return the books to their original state and date them. Unfortunately, it was not possible to restore the books, and they remained in the monastery.
The gospels are framed in the same manner, but rewritten in different handwriting. The first book has 348 pages and 11 illustrations, the binding is made of boards covered with gilded copper. The second book contains 322 pages, 17 miniatures, including portraits of the four evangelists. The binding is made of silver. Scientists have found that the artist and copyist worked at the same time, and the illustrations were made by African artists.
Diamond Sutra
The Diamond Sutra, the world's second printed book containing the founding text of Buddhism, was printed using the woodcut printing method. The book is a scroll of six sheets of text and one engraving depicting the Buddha.
A scroll almost five meters long was found by archaeologist Mark Stein in the Magao cave near the city of Danhuang in western China in 1900. He bought the scroll from the Taoist monk Wan Yuanlu and took it to the UK. The book was printed by a man named Wang Ji on behalf of his parents on the 15th day of the 4th moon of the Xiantong year, that is, May 11, 868. Stored in the British Library.
Torah
In 2013, the oldest Torah manuscript was found in the University Library of Bologna in Italy. It is a 36-meter scroll made of soft sheepskin.
Nothing was known about the book due to an error in determining the age of the book, which occurred in 1889. The librarian then dated the book to the 17th century.
The error was discovered by university teacher Mauro Perani. He examined the manuscript and saw that the style of narration belonged to the tradition ancient Babylon, which means the parchment may be older. In addition, the text contained details that had been forbidden to be reproduced since the 12th century. The age of the Torah was determined by radiocarbon analysis twice: in Italy and in the USA. It became clear that the Torah was written over 850 years ago.
Ostromir Gospel
The oldest precisely dated book of Russia. Stored in the Russian National Library (St. Petersburg). Written in 1056-1057 by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, a relative of Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavovich. The book is unique there, that after canonical text the deacon wrote in detail about the circumstances of its manufacture and indicated the date from the creation of the world.
The gospel was found among the property of the Resurrection Church of the Verkhospassky Cathedral in 1701. By order of Peter I, she was sent to St. Petersburg. It was rediscovered in the chambers of Empress Catherine after her death and presented to Alexander I. The Emperor handed over the Gospel to the Imperial Public Library.
It was thanks to the Ostromir Gospel that the modern dictionaries and grammar of the Old Slavonic language.
