one of the highest mountain systems of the Earth, which is located in the northwest of South America, with a very large number of active volcanoes that make up the Andean volcanic belt, with frequent earthquakes, large glaciers, rich in natural resources in the form of gas, oil, non-ferrous metals

Andean definition, Andean geography, northern Andes, central Andes, southern Andes, peaks of the Andes, Andean population, Andean parks, Andean climate, Andean vegetation and soils, Andean wildlife, Andean ecology, Andean industry, Andean mining, Andean agriculture , interesting in the Andes

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Andes is, definition

Andes is the longest mountain, as well as one of the highest mountain systems in the world, from the system of which the rivers of the basin flow to the east Atlantic Ocean, and to the west the rivers of the Pacific Ocean basin flow, these are mountains where formations have not yet ended and continue, therefore it is possible to meet many active volcanoes here, and also here are frequent, the Andes mountain system runs through the territory of 7 countries of America (South), should note that the Andes sound like "Copper Mountains".

Andes is mountains that serve as the most important climatic barrier, isolating the territory to the west of the Cordillera Main from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

Andes is mountains that lie in 5 climatic zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

Andes is revived mountains erected by the latest uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillera) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the largest Alpine folding systems on the planet (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement).

Andes is the longest mountain range in the world, it is still growing.

Andes what it is the longest and one of the highest mountain systems of the Earth.

Andes, what is it - is it burn, where the plates of the earth's crust collide, volcanoes act, mountains rise.

Andes where it is along South America in a giant chain, there are many rocky peaks and fire-breathing mountains.

Geography of the Andes

Andes - revived mountains erected by the latest uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillera) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the largest Alpine folding systems on the planet (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement). The formation of the Andes dates back to the Jurassic.

For Andean mountain system characteristically formed into triacetrogs, subsequently filled with layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of considerable thickness. Large massifs of the Main Cordillera and the coast, the Coastal Cordillera are Cretaceous granitoid intrusions.

Intermountain and marginal troughs (Altiplano, Maracaibo, etc.) formed in the Paleogene and Neogene times. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that a subduction zone passes along the Pacific coast of South America: the Nazca and Antarctic plates go under the South American one, which contributes to mountain building processes.

The extreme southern part of South America, Tierra del Fuego, is separated by a transform fault from the small Scotia plate. Beyond the Drake Passage, the Andes continue with the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula.

The Andes are rich in ores mainly (vanadium, tungsten, bismuth, molybdenum, arsenic, antimony, etc.); the deposits are confined mainly to the Paleozoic structures of the eastern Andes and the vents of ancient volcanoes; in Chile - large copper deposits. In the advanced and foothill troughs there is oil and gas (in the foothills of the Andes within Argentina), in the weathering crusts - bauxites.

The volcano was conquered in 1937 by Polish climbers Justin Wojznis and Jan Szczepanski. On the way to the summit, which only experienced climbers can reach, the researchers found traces of Inca sacrificial altars.

Apparently, the Ojos del Salado volcano was revered by the Indians as a sacred mountain. On April 21, 2007, the Chilean athlete Gonzalo Bravo managed to climb the slope of Ojos del Salado to a height of 6,688 meters on a modified Suzuki Samurai (Suzuki SJ), thus setting a world record for climbing.

Climbing the world's highest volcano Ojos del Salado

The summit of Monte Pissis (height 6793 m)

Monte Pissis is an extinct volcano in the province of La Rioja, Argentina, located about 550 km north of Aconcagua. Due to its location in the Atacama Desert, snow is only available at its peak during the winter. It was named after Pedro José Amadeo Piz in 1885, a French geologist who worked for the Chilean government. The first ascent to the top of the mountain was made by Polish climbers Stefan Osiecki and Jan Szczepanski on February 7, 1937.

Monte Pissis

Mount Huascaran (height 6768 m)

Huascaran is a mountain in the Andes with a height of 6768 m, the highest point in Peru and the fourth highest mountain in South America. Huascaran is located in the national park of the same name and is part of the Cordillera Blanca massif.

In addition to the main peak of Huascaran Sur, the mountain has two more - Chopicalki and Huascaran Norte. The first ascent was made in 1932 by a group of German and Austrian climbers. Annie Smith-Peck was the first American to climb Huascaran Norte in 1908. Mount Huascaran is known for catastrophic events.

On December 13, 1941, the outburst of Lake Palcochocha caused a mudflow that destroyed the city of Huaraz, killing 5,000 people. On January 10, 1962, a glacier that fell off Mount Huascaran gave rise to a mudflow with a volume of 13 million cubic meters, as a result of which 4,000 people died.

On May 31, 1970, due to an earthquake on the northern slope, a large ice collapse occurred, which caused a mudflow that buried the Czechoslovak climbing group, the city of Yungay and the surrounding valley, 20,000 people died. It turned out that on Mount Huascaran, the value of the acceleration of free fall is the lowest on Earth - 9.7639 m / s².

Peak of Cerro Bonete (height 6759 m)

Cerro Bonete is a mountain in the north of the province of La Rioja, Argentina, near the border with the province of Catamarca. The height of its peak is 6759 m above sea level (SRTM data (English) Russian), which makes it the fifth highest mountain in America (after Aconcagua, Ojos del Salado, Monte Pissis and Huascarana).

Cerro Bonete

Summit of Mercedario (height 6720 m)

Mercedario is the highest peak of the Cordillera de la Ramada. and the eighth highest mountain of the Andes. In Chile, it is known as La Liga (Spanish: La Ligua). Located 100 km north of Aconcagua, in the Argentine province. The first ascent of the mountain was made in 1934 by Adam Karpinsky and Viktor Ostrovsky, members of the Polish expedition.

Nevado Tres Cruces Volcanic Massif (heights 6749 m and 6629 m)

Nevado Tres Cruces is a volcanic massif in South America, belongs to the Andes mountain range, located on the border of Argentina and Chile. Its length is from eight to twelve kilometers from north to south and consists of four main peaks. The two highest peaks are Tras Cruces Sur with a height of 6749 m and Tras Cruces Central, 6629 m. The Nevado Tres Cruces National Park in Chile is named after the mountain.

Volcano Lullaillaco (height 6739 m)

Lullaillaco is an active volcano in the Western Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes, on the border of Chile and Argentina. It is located in an area of ​​very high volcanoes on the high plateau of Puna de Atacama in the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places in the world. It has an absolute height of 6739 m, relative - almost 2.5 km. At the top - eternal glaciation. The last explosive eruption dates back to 1877, and the volcano is currently in the solfataric stage. Llullaillaco is the highest active volcano on the planet, the second highest volcano in the world and the seventh highest peak in the Western Hemisphere. The snow line on the western slope exceeds 6.5 thousand meters ( highest position snow line on the ground).

Mount Incahuasi (height 6621 m)

Incahuasi is a volcano in the province of Catamarca, in the northwest of Argentina. It is located in the east of the Atacama Desert. This volcano has two large peaks. The volcano has a 3.5 km wide caldera. Four pyroclastic cones are located 7 km to the northeast.

Population of the Andes

Modern population The inner plateau of the Andes consists mainly of the Quechua Indians, whose ancestors formed the basis of the Inca state. The Quechua practice irrigated agriculture, tame and breed llamas.

On the shores of Lake Titicaca, the Aymara people live, engaged in fishing and making various products from reeds growing along the low shores of the lake.

Parks in the Andes

They found traces of cultivation of peanuts, pumpkins, and other crops in the Andes. These plants do not grow wild near their location, which means they have been domesticated elsewhere. The development of agriculture testifies to the sedentary life of ancient people, their transition from primitive communal ways of obtaining food, less dependence on nature, and also the creation of the foundations for the development of inequality and the state.

Republic of Peru

Accidents in the Andes

Accident - destruction of structures and (or) technical devices used at a hazardous production facility, uncontrolled explosion and (or) release of hazardous substances.

Passenger bus accident in the Andes

The bus went off the road and fell into the abyss, only eight people were saved. On Thursday morning, for unknown reasons, a passenger bus left the highway in the Peruvian Andes and fell into a gorge. Only eight people were rescued with serious injuries. The rest of the rescuers found already dead.

At least 42 people died in a terrible accident in the south of the Peruvian Republic

“The bus is completely broken at the bottom of the plain, and the worst thing is that we are isolated here, there is no connection, like many cities in Peru,” RIA Novosti quotes the words of Mayor Velil, who, along with local residents, helped the victims.

Bus fell off a cliff in Peru

"Miracle in the Andes", involved in cannibalism

October 13, 1972 in the Andes crashed a plane with a junior rugby team from Montevideo. On the eleventh day, they heard that the rescuers of the three countries had stopped their search. To survive, the survivors were forced to eat their dead comrades.

What happened to the Uruguayan rugby team was later called the "miracle in the Andes." In fact, the plane with five crew members and forty passengers on board took off on October 12th. This was chartered flight, which Uruguayan rugby juniors, as well as their relatives and coaches, flew from Carrasco to Santiago.

Due to bad weather conditions, the plane was forced to land at the airport in the Argentine city of Mendoza. On October 13, bad weather did not allow flying directly to Santiago, so he was taken to another Chilean city - Curico. Having passed it, the pilots received the command from the air traffic controller to descend on Santiago, but because of the cyclone, they had to do it blindly, which was the fatal mistake of the crew.

Coming out of the cyclone, the plane was right in front of the mountainside. Despite all the efforts of the pilots, it was not possible to avoid the collision. The car, striking a mountain, lost its tail and wings, and then the fuselage rushed at breakneck speed down the slope and crashed into a huge snowdrift. During the crash, out of 45 flying people, 12 people died, five more were missing.

The next day they will be found dead. A day later, another victim of a plane crash dies. Two weeks later, a snow avalanche will cover the survivors, and there will be no more eight passengers. Three will die from wounds and frostbite in the following days. Of the 45 passengers, only 16 will survive.

Chile and Argentina searched for the plane for eight days. But since the fuselage was white, it merged with the snow, making it difficult to search. On the ninth day, the search was stopped. When the first shock passed, the surviving passengers began to inspect things scattered during the disaster. So we managed to find several bottles of wine, crackers and chocolate bars. Water was obtained by melting snow in the sun. To do this, they threw it on the metal parts of a collapsed aircraft. Nobody had warm clothes. Therefore, they slept, leaning against each other.

When the meal was over, the question arose of what to do next. Given the fact that there was nowhere to wait for salvation, the living decided to eat the dead. It didn't come easy for everyone. After all, many of the dead were someone's relatives or close friends. And yet hunger forced rugby players to become cannibals.

Moreover, one of those who survived after a while will say that if it were not for the avalanche, then everyone would have died. The snow not only sheltered the shattered fuselage from the winds, but, horribly, gave eight more bodies to the survivors. Even then it was obvious that they would have to save themselves, that is, the crossing through the Andes was inevitable. The surviving pilot claimed that the green valleys were not so far from the crash site. But winter was in full swing, so even determined rugby players were afraid to set off.

stay alive

Finally, when waiting longer was tantamount to death, the passengers of the crashed charter made up their minds. We were going to go four, but one of the athletes died from blood poisoning. Three people set off - Nando Parrado, Roberto Canessa and Antonio Vizintin. Almost immediately, they stumbled upon the tail section of the plane, where they found some food, clothing, and cigarettes. Also, batteries.

On the first night, the weather deteriorated sharply, and the trio almost froze. I had to go back to the fuselage, and all together sew a sleeping bag from pieces of cloth obtained in the tail. Batteries were useless. At first they wanted to use them to transmit a distress signal, but nothing happened. Batteries issued D.C., but a variable was needed.

Trapped in the Andes

And again, three brave ones set off in search of saving valleys. But on the third day they realized that they would have to go for a long time, so Parrado and Canessa sent Vizintin back to the camp, and they themselves, having taken supplies of human meat from him, went further. Only on the ninth day of the journey did they meet a Chilean farmer, to whom they explained the situation. He fed them and called rescuers.

Parrado himself, as stronger, became a conductor. The next day helicopters to the crash site. The rescuers could not believe their eyes. 72 days after the disappearance of Flight 571, they saw living passengers. Unfortunately, not all of them. health care. They were treated for altitude sickness and dehydration, scurvy and malnutrition.

Married, has two children. Enjoys racing.

No one survived the plane crash in the Andes

Rescuers carefully examined the crash site of the Venezuelan ATR42 aircraft and the command issued a final report on the search operation. The conclusions drawn are very disappointing.

All 46 people on board the plane were killed. "The circumstances of the disaster do not allow us to hope that any of the passengers or crew members could survive," said General Ramon Vinas, head of Venezuela's civil aviation. Earlier it was reported that the plane crashed into a mountain and fell apart upon impact into small pieces.

The general added that a search operation continues at the crash site. Rescuers are delivered to the emergency site by helicopter, and then they have to go down the mountain terraces to the place where the airliner crashed into the mountain. Fragments of the aircraft are scattered over a large area, which also makes the operation difficult, according to FOX News.

Recall that the ATR42 twin-engine aircraft, owned by the Venezuelan airline, was flying from Merida to Caracas. Shortly after takeoff, the plane disappeared from radar screens. Later it turned out that he crashed into a mountain.

Football team plane found missing in Andes in 1961

Santiago, February 12th. In the Andes, at an altitude of more than three thousand meters, climbers discovered the wreckage of an aircraft that crashed in 1961, MIR 24 reports. There were eight football team Green Cross, they all died.

The crash site of the plane about three hundred kilometers south of the capital of Chile - Santiago

Three killed in helicopter crash in Andes

Three people died in a helicopter crash in the Chilean Andes, among them the former Chilean ambassador to Chile. The accident occurred on Saturday morning, 570 kilometers south of the Chilean capital Santiago. According to RIA Novosti with reference to Agence France-Presse, there were four people on board, one of them managed to escape by jumping from the helicopter before it crashed. He was taken to the hospital after the rescue team arrived at the crash site. The bodies of the victims were removed from the scene of the accident a few hours later.

If there are uninteresting mountains in the world, then these are definitely not the Andean Cordillera. Standard tourist routes can be on foot and horseback, one-day and long, but they all make you feel the differences between the two cultures colliding in the mountains. Small colonial cities, built by Europeans arriving on the mainland, and old forts oppose themselves to stone palaces and temples, remembering the times when there was no Amerigo and Christopher here at all.

Since the mountain range passes through seven countries, the diversity of cultures is really impressive. The distant descendants of the indigenous population of the mainland mixed in the most bizarre way with the conquering Europeans and brought slaves, and therefore the traditional beliefs of the locals are very different from the Catholicism that exists in everything else civilized world. For tourists, perhaps the most interesting will be such cities in the region as La Paz and Cusco.

Moreover, all visitors will be satisfied - the local flavor is unique, so lovers of souvenirs and national cuisine will be especially pleased to wander around very cheap, in European terms, local establishments. The only danger threatening visitors is to experience some discomfort at first due to the fact that La Paz is located at an altitude of more than 3.5 thousand km above sea level.

All lovers of outdoor activities should pay attention to hiking trails, running through all the places, more or less of interest to modern spoiled tourists. One of the most remarkable areas of the mountain range, where the Andes mountains pass, is the territory of the modern Peruvian Republic.

Dormant volcano El Misti

The next must-see place is Lake Titicaca, which is the highest mountainous and navigable reservoir. In order to see it, you don’t need to go far, the address is the border of Bolivia and the Republic of Peru, the Central Highlands.

Probably, many are familiar with the Grand Canyon, which the native and non-native Americans are so proud of, but the Colca Canyon (Peru) surpasses it by an order of magnitude, having a depth of more than 4 thousand km.

Equatorial evergreen forests with an abundance of exotic plants - bamboo, myrtle and tree fern - give the impression of absolute primitiveness, and on the first walk n It does not leave the feeling of traveling to the prehistoric era, when huge lizards still roamed the earth.

Crossing the mark of 3 thousand km above sea level, the traveler sees a landscape that has changed dramatically, in which the main place is now occupied by lichens, cacti and dwarf shrubs.

When planning a trip to South America, it should be borne in mind that it is impossible to see all the places where the Andes are located, because even on the map the mountains are too large, and the variety of architectural and historical monuments, natural areas and landscapes, tourist routes and cultural events makes them completely immense.

Horse crossing over the Andes

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Cordillera or Andes (Cordilleros de Los Andes) - the Spanish name for a huge mountain system (from the Peruvian word Anti, copper); the ranges near Cuzco were formerly called by this name, but later the mountain range of South America became so called. Spaniards and Hispanic Americans also call the Cardillera and part of the ranges Middle America, Mexico and the SW of the United States, but it is completely wrong to call the mountains of these countries with the same name as the huge mountain range of South America, which, starting in the extreme south, at Cape Horn, stretches almost parallel to the Pacific Ocean, along the entire south.

America to the Isthmus of Panama, for almost 12,000 km. The mountain ranges of the western part of the North American mainland have no connection with the South American Cordillera or the Andes; in addition to a different direction of the ridges - they are separated from the Andes by the lowlands of the Isthmus of Panama, Nicaragua and the Isthmus of Teguanten.

To prevent misunderstanding, therefore, it is better to call the South American Cordillera Andes. For the most part they consist of a whole series of high ridges, running more or less parallel to one another and covering with their uplands and slopes almost 1/6 of the entire south. America.

General description of the Andean mountain system.

Description of the Andean mountain system.

The mountain system of great extent, with complex orography and diverse geological structure, differs sharply from the eastern part of South America. It is characterized by completely different patterns of relief formation, climates and a different composition of the organic world.

The nature of the Andes is exceptionally diverse. This is explained, first of all, by their huge length from north to south. The Andes lie in 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes Northern, central and southern parts of the Andes differ from each other no less than, for example, the Amazon from the Pampas or Patagonia.

The Andes appeared due to a new (Cenozoic-Alpine) folding, the time of manifestation of which is from 60 million years to the present day. This also explains the tectonic activity manifested in the form of earthquakes.

Andes - revived mountains, erected by the latest uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillera) folded geosynclinal belt. The Andes are rich in ores, mainly non-ferrous metals, in the advanced and foothill troughs - in oil and gas. They consist mainly of meridional parallel ranges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie the internal plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altipano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions.

The Andes are interoceanic watershed, they originate the Amazon and its tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River. In the Andes lies the highest mountain lake in the world - Titicaca.

Windward wet slopes from the Northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with mountainous equatorial and tropical rainforests. In the Subtropical Andes - evergreen dry subtropical forests and shrubs, south of 38 ° south latitude - humid evergreen and mixed forests. The vegetation of the alpine plateaus: in the north - the mountain equatorial meadows of Paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Pune - the dry alpine-tropical steppes of Halka, in the west of Pune and in the entire Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation.

The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, potatoes and other valuable plants.

Andean classification.

Depending on the position in a particular climatic zone and on differences in orography and structure, the Andes are divided into regions, each of which has its own relief, climate and altitudinal zonality.

They distinguish among the Andes: the Caribbean Andes, the Northern Andes, lying in the equatorial and subequatorial zones, the Central Andes of the tropical zone, the subtropical Chilean-Argentine Andes and the Southern Andes, lying within the temperate zone. The island region - Tierra del Fuego - is especially considered.

From Cape Horn, the main chain of the Andes runs along West Bank Tierra del Fuego and consists of rocky peaks from 2000 - 3000 heights above sea level; the highest of them is Sacramento, 6910 above sea level. The Patagonian Andes run straight north to 42°S. sh., accompanied by parallel rocky, mountainous islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Chilean Andes stretch from 42° S. sh. to 21°S sh. and form a continuous chain, dividing in a northerly direction into several ridges. The highest point not only of this region, but of all the Andes, is Aconcogua 6960 above sea level).

Between the Chilean Cordillera and the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of 200-375 km., there are huge plains lying at an altitude of 1000-1500 above sea level. In the south, these plains are covered with rich vegetation, but the higher mountainous regions are completely devoid of it. The Bolivian Andes form the central part of the entire system and head north of 21°S. up to 14°S huge masses of rocks stretching in length for almost seven degrees of latitude, and in width for a distance of 600 - 625 km. About 19°S sh. the mountain chain is divided into two huge longitudinal parallel ridges to the east - the Cordillera Real and to the west - Coastal. These ridges enclose the Dezaguadero Highlands, which stretches for 1000 km. in length and 75 - 200 km. in width. These parallel ridges of the cordillera stretch for a distance of about 575 km. one from the other and are connected, at some points, by huge transverse groups or single ridges, cutting them like veins. The slope to the Pacific Ocean is very steep, it is also sheer to the east, from where the spurs diverge to the low plains.

The main peaks of the Coastal Cordillera: Sajama 6520m. 18°7′ (S and 68°52′ W, Illimani 6457m. 16°38 S and 67°49′ W, Peruvian Cordillera. separated from the Pacific Ocean by a desert of 100 - 250 km wide, extending from 14 ° to 5 °, and are divided into two eastern spurs - one running northwest, between the Marañón and Guallaga rivers, the other between Guallaga and Ucayalle.Between these spurs lies the Pasco or Guanuco highlands The Cordillera of Ecuador begins at 5°S and blows northward to the Quito Highlands surrounded by the most magnificent volcanoes in the world in the eastern branch: Sangay, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, in the western branch - Chimborazo.On the eastern chain, at 2°N There is a mountain junction of Paramo, from which there are three separate chains: Suma Paz - to the northeast past Lake Maracaibo to Caracas, by the Caribbean Sea; Kuindiu to the northeast, between the rivers Cauca and Magdalena.

Choco - along the Pacific coast to the Isthmus of Panama. Here the Tolimo volcano is 4°46′ N latitude. and 75°37′ W. The giant Andes mountain range intersects between 35°S. and 10° N many, for the most part, narrow, steep and dangerous passages and roads at heights equal to the highest peaks of European mountains, such as, for example, the passages: between Arequipa and Pune, (and the highest passage between Lima and Pasco. The most convenient of these are accessible only by travel on mules and llamas or carrying travelers on the backs of the natives Along the Andes for 25,000 km., there is a large trade road from Trujillo to Papaya.

Peru has a railway through the main Cordillera range, from the ocean to the east to the basin of Lake Titicaca. Minerals found here: salt, gypsum and, at high altitudes, veins of coal; the Cordillera are especially rich in gold, silver, platinum, mercury, copper, iron, lead, topazes, amethysts and other precious stones.

Andes.

Caribbean Andes.

The northern latitudinal segment of the Andes from the island of Trinidad to the Maracaibo lowland differs from the system of the Andes proper in terms of orographic features and structure, as well as the nature of climatic conditions and vegetation, and forms a special physical and geographical country.

The Caribbean Andes belong to the Antilles-Caribbean folded region, which, in terms of structural and developmental features, differs both from the Cordillera of North America and from the Andes proper.
There is a point of view according to which the Antilles-Caribbean region is the western sector of the Tethys, separated as a result of the "opening" of the Atlantic Ocean.

On the mainland, the Caribbean Andes consist of two anticlines, which correspond to the Cordillera da Costa and Sierra del Interior ranges, separated by a wide valley of an extensive synclinal zone. At the Bay of Barcelona, ​​the mountains are interrupted, breaking up into two links - western and eastern. From the side of the platform, the Sierra del Interior is separated by a deep fault from the oil-bearing Subandian trough, which merges in relief with the Orinoco lowland. A deep fault also separates the Caribbean Andean system from the Cordillera de Mérida. In the north, a syncline trough, flooded by the sea, separates the anticlinorium of the Margarita-Tobago Islands from the mainland. The continuation of these structures can be traced to the Paraguana and Goajira peninsulas.

All mountain structures of the Caribbean Andes are composed of Paleozoic and Mesozoic folded rocks and are penetrated by intrusions of various ages. Their modern relief was formed under the influence of repeated uplifts, the last of which, accompanied by subsidence of synclinal zones and faults, occurred in the Neogene. The entire Caribbean Andean system is seismic, but has no active volcanoes. The relief of the mountains is blocky, medium-altitude, the highest peaks exceed 2500 m, mountain ranges are separated from each other by through erosional and tectonic depressions.

Located on the border between the subequatorial and tropical belts, The Caribbean Andes, especially the islands and peninsulas of Paraguana and Goajira, have a drier climate than neighboring areas. Throughout the year they are under the influence of tropical air brought by the northeast trade wind. Annual precipitation does not exceed 1000 mm, but more often they are even lower than 500 mm. Most of them fall from May to November, but in the driest northern regions, the wet period lasts only two to three months. From the mountains to the side caribbean small short streams flow down, carrying to the shore a large number of clastic material; places where limestones come to the surface are almost completely waterless.

The lagoon coasts of the mainland and the islands are covered with wide strips of mangrove thickets; on the dry lowlands, thickets such as moyte dominate, consisting of candelabra-shaped cacti, prickly pear, euphorbia, and mosquito. Among this gray-green vegetation, gray soil or yellow sand shines through. More abundantly irrigated mountain slopes and valleys open to the sea are covered with mixed forests, which combine evergreen and deciduous species, coniferous and deciduous trees. The upper parts of the mountains are used as pastures. At a low altitude above sea level, groves or single specimens of royal and coconut palms stand out as bright spots. The entire northern coast of Venezuela has been turned into a resort and tourist area, with beaches, hotels and parks.

In a wide valley, separated from the sea by the Cordillera da Costa, and on the slopes of the surrounding mountains, the capital of Venezuela, Caracas, is located. The mountain slopes and plains cleared from the forest are occupied by plantations of coffee and chocolate trees, cotton, tobacco, and sisal.

Northern Andes

Under this name is known the northern segment of the Andes proper from the Caribbean coast to the border between Ecuador and Peru in the south. Here, in the region of 4-5 ° S, there is a fault separating the Northern Andes from the Central.

Off the coast of the Caribbean Sea in Colombia and Venezuela, fan-shaped ridges alternate with foothill depressions and wide intermountain valleys, reaching a total width of 450 km. In the south, within Ecuador, the entire system narrows to 100 km. In the structure of the main part of the Northern Andes (approximately between 2 and 8 ° N), all the main orotectonic elements of the Andean system are clearly expressed. A narrow, low and heavily dissected Coast Range stretches along the Pacific coast. It is separated from the rest of the Andes by the longitudinal tectonic depression of the Atrato River. To the east, the higher and more massive ranges of the Western and Central Cordilleras rise parallel to each other, separated by a narrow valley of the Cauca River. The Cordillera Central is the highest mountain range in Colombia. On its crystalline base, individual volcanic peaks rise, among which Tolima rises to a height of 5215 m.

Still further east, beyond the deep valley of the Magdalena River, is the less high ridge of the Eastern Cordillera, which is composed of highly folded sedimentary rocks and is divided in the central part by extensive basin-like depressions. In one of them, at an altitude of 2600 m, is the capital of Colombia, Bogotá.

About 8° N. sh. The Eastern Cordillera is divided into two branches - the submeridian Sierra Perija and the Cordillera de Merida, which extends to the northeast and reaches a height of 5000 m. On the middle massif located between them, a vast intermountain depression of Maracaibo was formed, occupied in the central part by the lake of the same name - lagoon. To the west of the Sierra Perija ridge, the swampy lowland of the lower Magdalena - Cauki, corresponding to the young intermountain trough, extends. At the very coast of the Caribbean Sea, the isolated massif Sierra Neva da de Santa Marta (Cristobal Colon - 5775m) rises, which is a continuation of the anticlinorium of the Central Cordillera, separated from its main part by the Magdalena valley trough. The young deposits that fill the depressions of Maracaibo and Magdalena-Cauca contain the richest deposits of oil and gas.

From the side of the platform, the entire zone of the Northern Andes is accompanied by a young Subandian trough, which also differs
oil content.

In the southern part of Colombia and in the territory of Ecuador, the Andes narrow and consist of only two parts. The coastal Cordillera disappears, and in its place a rolling coastal plain appears. The Central and Eastern Cordillera merge into one ridge.

Between the two mountain ranges of Ecuador lies a depression with a fault line, along which extinct and active volcanoes rise. The highest of them are the active volcano Cotopaxi (5897 m) and the extinct volcano Chimborazo (6310 m). Within this tectonic depression at an altitude of 2700 m is the capital of Ecuador - Quito.

Active volcanoes also rise above the Eastern Cordillera of South Colombia and Ecuador - these are Cayambe (5790 m), Antisana (5705 m), Tunnuragua (5033 m) and Sangay (5230 m). The regular cones of these snow-capped volcanoes are one of the most striking features of the Ecuadorian Andes.

The northern Andes are characterized by a clearly defined system of altitudinal belts. In the lower part of the mountains and on the coastal lowlands it is humid and hot, the highest average annual temperature of South America (+ 2°C) is observed there. At the same time, there are almost no seasonal differences. In the lowlands of Maracaibo, the average temperature in August is + 29 ° С, the average in January is + 27 ° С. The air is saturated with moisture, precipitation falls almost the entire year, their annual amounts reach 2500-3000 mm, and on the Pacific coast -5000-7000 mm.

The entire lower belt of mountains, called local population"hot land", unfavorable for human life. High and constant air humidity and sweltering heat have a relaxing effect on the human body. Vast swamps are breeding grounds various diseases. The entire lower mountain belt is occupied by tropical rainforest, along appearance not different from the forests of the eastern part of the mainland. It includes palm trees, ficus trees (among them - rubber castilloa, cocoa tree, bananas, etc. On the coast, the forest is replaced by mangroves, and in wetlands - extensive and often impenetrable reed swamps.

In place of cleared wet rainforest sugar cane and bananas are grown in many areas of the coast - the main tropical crops of the northern regions of South America. On the oil-rich lowlands along the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, large areas of tropical forests have been reduced, and in their place have appeared "forests" of countless oil rigs, numerous workers' settlements, and large cities.

Above the lower hot mountain belt is the temperate zone of the Northern Andes (Perga Getriaya), rising to a height of 2500-3000 m. This belt, like the lower one, is characterized by an even temperature variation throughout the year, but due to the height there are quite significant daily amplitudes. temperature. Strong heat, characteristic of the hot zone, does not happen. The average annual temperature ranges from +15 to +20°C, the amount of precipitation and humidity are much less than in the lower zone. The amount of precipitation is especially strongly reduced in closed high-mountain basins and valleys (no more than 1000 mm per year). The original vegetation cover of this belt differs greatly in composition and appearance from the forests of the lower belt. Palm trees disappear and tree-like ferns and bamboos predominate, the cinchona tree (Strinopa species), the coca bush, the leaves of which contain cocaine, and other species unknown in the forests of the "hot land" appear.

The temperate belt of mountains is the most favorable for human life. Because of the uniformity and moderation of temperature, it is called the belt of eternal spring. A significant part of the population of Northern Hades lives within its boundaries, the largest cities are located there and agriculture is developed. Maize, tobacco and the most important Colombian crop, the coffee tree, are widespread.

The local population calls the next belt of mountains "cold land" (Pegga /g/a). Its upper limit lies at an altitude of about 3800 m. Within this zone, a uniform temperature is maintained, but it is even lower than in the temperate zone (only +10, +11 ° С). This belt is characterized by an alpine hylaea, consisting of low and twisted trees and shrubs. A variety of species, an abundance of epiphytic plants and lianas bring the alpine hylaea closer to the lowland tropical forest.

The main representatives of the flora of this forest are evergreen oaks, heather, myrtle, undersized bamboos and tree ferns. Despite the high altitude, the cold zone of the Northern Andes is inhabited. Small settlements along the hollows rise to a height of 3500 m. The population, predominantly Indian, cultivates corn, wheat and potatoes.

The next altitudinal belt of the Northern Andes is alpine. Among the local population, it is known as "paramos". It ends at the border of eternal snows at an altitude of about 4500 m. The climate is severe within this belt. With positive daytime temperatures in all seasons, there are strong night frosts, snow storms and snowfalls. There is little precipitation, and evaporation is very strong. The vegetation of paramos is peculiar and has a pronounced xerophytic appearance. It consists of rare, growing turf grasses, cushion-shaped, rosette-shaped or tall (up to 5 m), strongly pubescent composite plants with bright inflorescences. On flat areas of the surface, large areas are occupied by moss swamps, and completely barren rocky spaces are characteristic of steep slopes.

Above 4500 m in the Northern Andes begins a belt of eternal snow and ice with a constantly negative temperature. Many massifs of the Andes have large alpine-type glaciers. They are most developed in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Central and Western Cordillera of Colombia. The high peaks of the Tolima, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi volcanoes are covered with huge caps of snow and ice. There are also significant glaciers in the middle part of the Cordillera de Mérida.

Central Andes

The Central Andes stretch for a huge distance from the state border between Ecuador and Peru in the north to 27 ° S. on South. This is the widest part of the mountain system, reaching a width of 700,800 km within Bolivia.

In the south, the middle part of the Andes is occupied by plateaus, which are accompanied on both sides by the Eastern and Western Cordillera ranges.

The Western Cordillera is a high-mountain chain with extinct and active volcanoes: Ojos del Salado (6880 m), Coropuna (6425 m), Huallagiri (6060 m), Misti (5821 m) and others. Within Bolivia, the Western Cordillera forms the main watershed of the Andes .

In Northern Chile, a chain of the Coastal Cordillera appears from the Pacific Ocean, reaching a height of 600-1000 m. It is separated from the Western Cordillera by the Atacama tectonic depression. The coastal Cordillera breaks off directly into the ocean, forming a straight rocky coast, very inconvenient for ships. Rocky islands protrude from the ocean along the coasts of Peru and Chile, where, as on coastal rocks, billions of Birds nest, depositing masses of guano - the most valuable natural fertilizer widely used in these countries.

The Andean plateaus, called by the local population of Chile and Argentina "poons", and Bolivia "altiplano", located between the Western and Eastern Cordillera, reach a height of 3000-4500 m. products. In some places depressions are distinguished, partly occupied by lakes. An example is the basin of Lake Titicaca, located at an altitude of 3800 m. Somewhat southeast of this lake at an altitude of 3700 m above sea level at the bottom of a deep gorge cut into the surface of the plateau, and on its slopes lies main city Bolivia - La Paz - the highest mountain capital in the world.

The surface of the plateaus different directions cross high ridges, exceeding their average height by 1000-2000 m. Many peaks of the ridges are active volcanoes. Since the watershed runs along the Western Cordillera, the plateaus are crossed by rivers flowing to the east and forming deep valleys and wild gorges.

In its origin, the pun - altiplano zone corresponds to the median massif, consisting of leveled folded structures of the Paleozoic age, which experienced subsidence at the beginning of the Cenozoic and did not undergo such a strong uplift in the Neogene as the Eastern and Western Cordillera.

The high Eastern Cordillera has a complex structure and forms the eastern margin of the Andes. Its western slope, facing the plateaus, is steep, the eastern slope is gentle. Since the eastern slope of the Central Andes, in contrast to all other parts of the region, receives a significant amount of precipitation, it is characterized by deep erosional dissection.

Above the crest of the Eastern Cordillera, reaching an average height of about 4000 m, individual snowy peaks rise. The highest of them are Ilyampu (6485 m) and Illimani (6462 m). There are no volcanoes on the Eastern Cordillera.

Throughout the Central Andes in Peru and Bolivia there are large deposits of ores of non-ferrous, rare and radioactive metals. The coastal and Western Cordillera within Chile occupy one of the first places in the world in terms of copper mining, in Atacama and on the Pacific coast there is the world's only deposit of natural saltpeter.

The Central Andes are dominated by desert and semi-desert landscapes. In the north, 200-250 mm of precipitation falls annually, with most of it occurring in the summer. The highest average monthly temperature is +26°C, the lowest is +18°C. The vegetation has a sharply xerophytic appearance and consists of cacti, prickly pear, acacia and hard grasses.

Further south it gets much drier. Within the Atacama Desert Basin and on the neighboring section of the Pacific coast, less than 100 mm of precipitation falls annually, and in some places even less than 25 mm. At some points east of the Cordillera Coast it never rains. In the coastal strip (up to a height of 400-800 m), the lack of rain is somewhat compensated by the high relative humidity of the air (up to 80%), fogs and dews, which usually occur in the winter season. Some plants are adapted to live on this moisture.

The cold Peruvian current moderates the temperature on the coast. The average January from north to south varies from +24 to + 19°С, and the average July from + 19 to +13°С.

Soils and vegetation are almost non-existent in the Atacama. Individual ephemeral plants that do not form a dense cover appear during the foggy season. Large areas are occupied by saline surfaces, on which vegetation does not develop at all. The slopes of the Western Cordillera, facing the Pacific Ocean, are also very dry. Deserts rise here to a height of 1000 m in the north and up to 3000 m in the south. The slopes of the mountains are covered with rarely standing cacti and prickly pear. The annual course of temperatures, precipitation within the Pacific desert and relative humidity of the desert are relatively few oases. In the central part of the Pacific coast, natural oases exist along the valleys of small rivers starting from glaciers. Most of them are located on the coast of Northern Peru, where plantations of sugar cane, cotton and coffee trees grow green among desert landscapes on irrigated and fertilized guano sites. The largest cities are also located in oases on the coast, including the capital of Peru - Lima.

The deserts of the Pacific coast merge with a belt of mountainous semi-deserts known as the dry puna. Dry puna extends to the southwestern part of the interior plateaus, to an altitude of 3000 to 4500 m, in some. places going down and down.

Precipitation in the dry puna is less than 250 mm, with a maximum in the summer. In the course of temperature, the continental climate is manifested. The air is very warm during the day, but cold winds in the warmest season can cause severe cooling. In winter, there are frosts down to -20°C, but the average monthly temperature is positive. The average temperature of the warmest months is +14, +15°C. In all periods of the year, there is a great difference in the temperatures of day and night. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of rain and hail, but there are also snowfalls in winter, although there is no snow cover.

The vegetation is very sparse. Dwarf shrubs predominate, among which representatives are called tola, which is why the entire landscape of dry puna is often called tola. Some cereals are mixed with them, such as reed grass, feather grass and various lichens. There are also cacti. Salt areas are even poorer in plants. They grow mainly wormwood and ephedra.
In the east and north of the Central Andes, the annual rainfall gradually increases, although other climate features remain unchanged. The exception is the area adjacent to Lake Titicaca. The huge water mass of the lake (area over 8300 km2, depth up to 304 m) has a very tangible impact on climatic conditions surroundings. In the lakeside region, temperature fluctuations are not so sharp and the amount of precipitation is higher than in other parts of the plateau. Due to the fact that the amount of precipitation increases in the east to 800 mm, and in the north even up to 1000 mm, the vegetation becomes richer and more diverse, the mountain semi-desert turns into mountain steppe, which the local population calls "puna".

The vegetation cover of the puna is characterized by a variety of grasses, especially fescue, feather grass and reed grass. A very common type of feather grass, called "ichu" by the local population, forms rarely sitting hard turfs. In addition, various cushion-shaped shrubs grow in the puna. In some places, there are also individual stunted trees.

The Punas occupy vast territories in the Central Andes. In Peru and Bolivia, especially along the shores of Lake Titicaca and in the most humid valleys, before the arrival of the Spaniards, they were inhabited by cultural Indian peoples who formed the state of the Incas. The ruins of ancient Inca buildings, stone-paved roads and the remains of irrigation systems are still preserved. The ancient city of Cusco in Peru at the foot of the Eastern Cordillera was the capital of the Inca state.

The modern population of the inner plateaus of the Andes consists mainly of the Quechua Indians, whose ancestors formed the basis of the Inca state. The Quechua practice irrigated agriculture, tame and breed llamas.

Agriculture is practiced at high altitudes. Potato plantings and crops of some cereals can be found up to a height of 3500-3700 m, quinoa is grown even higher - an annual plant from the haze family, which gives a large crop of small seeds, which are the main food of the local population. Around large cities (La Paz, Cusco), the surface of the puns has been turned into a "patchwork" landscape, where fields alternate with groves of eucalyptus trees introduced by the Spaniards and thickets of gorse and other shrubs.

On the shores of Lake Titicaca, the Aymara people live, engaged in fishing and making various products from reeds growing near the low shores of the lake.
Above 5000 m in the south and 6000 m in the north, the temperature is negative throughout the year. Glaciation is insignificant due to the dryness of the climate, only on the Eastern Cordillera, which receives more precipitation, there are large glaciers.

The landscapes of the Eastern Cordillera differ significantly from the landscapes of the rest of the Central Andes. Humid winds bring a significant amount of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean in summer. Partly through through valleys, it penetrates the western slope of the Eastern Cordillera and the adjacent parts of the plateaus, where abundant "cages" fall out. Therefore, the lower parts of the slopes of the mountains up to a height of 1000-1500 m are covered with dense tropical forests with palm trees and cinchona. Within this belt, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa and various tropical fruits are grown in the valleys. Up to a height of 3000 m, undersized evergreen mountain forests grow - dense thickets of bamboo and ferns with lianas. Thickets of bushes and alpine steppes rise above. Native American villages huddle in the through river valleys, surrounded by fields and groves of eucalyptus trees. And in one of the valleys belonging to the Amazon basin, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera, there are the ruins of an ancient Inca fortress, created during a fierce struggle with the Spanish conquerors - the famous Machu Picchu. Its territory has been turned into a museum-reserve.

Chilean-Argentine Andes.

AT subtropical zone between 27 and 42° S within Chile and Argentina, the Andes narrow and consist of only one mountain range, but reach their greatest height.

Along the coast of the Pacific Ocean stretches a strip of a low plateau of the Coastal Cordillera, which serves as a continuation of the Coastal Cordillera of the Central Andes. Its average height is 800 m, some peaks rise up to 2000 m. Deep river valleys divide it into table plateaus, which abruptly break off to the Pacific Ocean. Behind. The coastal Cordillera lies a tectonic basin parallel to it of the Central, or Longitudinal, Valley of Chile. It is an orographic continuation of the Atacama Basin, but is separated from it by the transverse spurs of the Andes. Similar spurs of the main range divide the valley into a series of isolated depressions. The height of the valley floor in the north is about 700 m, to the south it decreases to 100-200 m. Isolated cones of ancient volcanoes rise above its hilly surface, reaching several hundred meters relative height. The valley is the most populated area Chile, it is the capital of the country Santiago.

From the east, the Central Valley is bounded by the high chain of the Main Cordillera, along the crest of which the border of Chile and Argentina runs. In this part of the Andes, they are composed of highly folded Mesozoic deposits and volcanic rocks and reach an enormous height and integrity of the uplift. The highest peaks of the Andes - Aconcagua (6960 m), Mercedario (6770 m), active volcanoes Tupungato (6800 m), Milo (5223 m) protrude above the wall of the main ridge. Above 4000 m, the mountains are covered with snow and ice, their slopes are almost sheer and impregnable. The whole strip of mountains, including also the Central Valley, is subject to seismic and volcanic phenomena. especially frequent and destructive earthquakes are found in Central Chile. catastrophic earthquake erupted in Chile in 1960. Repeated aftershocks reached 12 points. Waves caused by the earthquake crossed the Pacific Ocean and huge force hit the shores of Japan.

In the coastal part of the Chilean Andes, the climate is subtropical, with dry summers and wet winters. The area of ​​distribution of this climate covers the coast between 29 and 37 ° S. sh., the Central Valley and the lower parts of the western slopes of the Main Cordillera. In the north, a transition to semi-deserts is planned, and to the south, an increase in precipitation and the gradual disappearance of the summer drought period mark the transition to the conditions of an oceanic climate in temperate latitudes.

As you move away from the coast, the climate becomes more continental and dry than on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. In Valparaiso, the temperature of the coolest month is + 11 ° C, and the warmest + 17, + 18 ° C, seasonal temperature amplitudes are small. In the Central Valley, they are more palpable. In Santiago, the average temperature of the coldest month is +7, +8°C, and the warmest is +20°C. Precipitation is scarce, increasing from north to south and from east to west. In Santiago, about 350 mm falls, in Valdivia - 750 mm. Farming in these areas requires artificial irrigation. To the south, annual precipitation increases rapidly and the differences in their distribution between summer and winter are almost erased. On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera, precipitation increases, but on its eastern slope it again becomes very small.

The soil cover is very variegated. The most common are typical brown soils, characteristic of dry subtropical regions. Dark-colored soils resembling chernozems are developed in the Central Valley.

The natural vegetation has been severely exterminated, since almost the entire population of the country, engaged mainly in agriculture, lives in the middle part of Chile. Therefore, most of the land suitable for plowing is occupied by crops. different cultures. The natural vegetation is characterized by the predominance of thickets of evergreen shrubs resembling maquis. Southern Europe or chaparral of North America.

In the past, forests covered the slopes of the Andes up to a height of 2000-2500 m. On the eastern dry slopes, the upper boundary of the forest lies 200 m lower than on the wetter western ones. Now the forests have been destroyed and the slopes of the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera are bare. Woody vegetation occurs mainly in the form of artificial plantations in settlements and along fields. On conical volcanoes rising from the bottom of the valley within Santiago, you can see groves of eucalyptus, pine and araucaria, plane trees, beeches, in the undergrowth - thickets of brightly flowering geraniums and gorse. In these plantations, local flora is combined with species imported from Europe.

Above 2500 m in the Andes there is a belt of mountain meadows, within which narrow strips of stunted forest and shrubs enter along the valleys. The vegetation cover of mountain meadows includes species of those genera of plants that are also found in the alpine meadows of the Old World: buttercup, saxifrage, oxalis, primrose, etc. Some shrubs are also common, such as currant and barberry. There are areas of peat bogs with typical bog flora. Mountain meadows are used as summer pastures.

The cultivated vegetation is similar to the vegetation of the regions of Europe and North America corresponding in terms of climate. Most of the subtropical crops were brought to South America from the Mediterranean countries of Europe. These are grapevine, olive tree, citrus and other fruit trees. The largest part of the plowed area is occupied by wheat, much less - by corn. On the slopes of the mountains, farmers grow potatoes, beans, peas, lentils, onions, artichokes and capsicum on small plots. In the most convenient areas at the site of deforestation, there are artificial tree plantations.

Southern (Patagonian) Andes.

In the extreme south, within the temperate zone, the Andes are lowered and fragmented. Coastal Cordillera south of 42°S sh. turns into thousands of mountainous islands of the Chilean archipelago. The longitudinal valley of Central Chile in the south descends, and then disappears under the waters of the ocean. Its continuation is a system of bays and straits that separate the islands of the Chilean archipelago from the mainland. The main Cordillera is also heavily declining. Within Southern Chile, its height rarely exceeds 3000 m, and in the extreme south it does not even reach 2000 m. Many fjords cut into the coast, cutting the western slope of the mountains into a number of isolated peninsular sections. Fjords are often continued by large glacial lakes, the basins of which cross a low ridge and, leaving on its eastern Argentinean slope, facilitate overcoming the mountains. The whole area along the Pacific Ocean is very reminiscent of the Norwegian coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula, although the fjords of the Chilean coast are not as grandiose as those of Norway.

Glacial landforms are widespread in the Southern Andes. In addition to fjords and glacial lakes, one can find there large cirques, valleys with a typical trough-shaped profile, hanging valleys, moraine ridges, which often serve as dams for lakes, etc. Forms of ancient glaciation are combined with powerful modern glaciation and the development of glacial processes.

The climate of Southern Chile is humid, with little difference in temperature between summer and winter, and is very inhospitable to humans. The coast and the western slopes of the mountains are under the constant influence of strong western winds, bringing a huge amount of precipitation. With an average amount of up to 2000-3000 mm, in some areas of the western coast, up to 6000 mm of precipitation falls annually. On the eastern slope, leeward of the western air currents, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply. Constant high winds and rainfall over 200 days a year, low cloud cover, fog and mild temperatures throughout the year - characteristics climate of southern Chile. On the coast itself and the islands, constant storms rage, bringing huge waves ashore.

With an average winter temperature of +4, +7°C, the average summer temperature does not exceed +15°C, and in the extreme south it drops to +10°C. Only on the eastern slope of the Andes do the amplitudes of fluctuations between the average temperature of summer and winter increase somewhat. At high altitudes in the mountains, negative temperatures prevail throughout the year; on the highest peaks of the eastern slope, frosts down to -30°C last for a long time. In connection with these features of the climate, it is snowy, the border in the mountains lies very low: in the north of the Patagonian Andes, at an altitude of about 1500 m, in the south - below 1000 m. Modern glaciation occupies a very large area, especially at 48°S, where a thick ice cover covers an area of ​​more than 20,000 km2. This is the so-called Patagonian Ice Sheet. From it to the west and east powerful valley glaciers, the ends of which lie well below the snow line, sometimes near the ocean itself. Some glacial tongues of the eastern slope end in large lakes.

Glaciers and lakes feed a large number of rivers flowing into the Pacific and partly into the Atlantic Ocean. The river valleys are deeply cut into the surface. In some cases, they cross the Andes, and rivers starting on the eastern slope empty into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers are winding, full-flowing and turbulent, their valleys usually consist of lake-like extensions, followed by narrow rapids.
The slopes of the Patagonian Andes are covered with moisture-loving subantarctic forests, consisting of tall trees and shrubs, among which evergreen species predominate: at 42 ° S. sh. there is an array of araucaria forests, and mixed forests are common to the south. Due to the density, abundance of species, multi-layered, variety of lianas, mosses and lichens, they resemble forests of low latitudes. Soils under them are like burozems, in the south - podzolic. There are many swamps on flat areas.

The main representatives of the flora of the forests of the South Andes are species of evergreen and deciduous southern beech, magnolias, giant conifers, bamboos and tree ferns. Many plants bloom with beautiful fragrant flowers, especially decorating the forest in spring and summer. The branches and trunks of trees entangle lianas and put on a lush moss and lichen cover. Mosses and lichens, along with leaf litter, cover the surface of the soil.

With the rise in the mountains, the forests are thinned out and their species composition is depleted. In the extreme south, forests are gradually replaced by tundra-type vegetation.
On the eastern slope of the mountains, facing the Patagonian plateau, precipitation is much less than in the west.

There grow forests less dense and poorer in species composition than on the Pacific coast. The main forest-forming species of these forests are beeches, to which some double beech trees are mixed. At the foot of the mountains, the forests turn into dry steppes and shrubs of the Patagonian plateau.

The forests of the South Andes contain huge reserves of high-grade timber. However, so far they have been used unevenly. Araucaria forests have undergone the greatest deforestation. In the southern, least accessible areas, there are still significant forests, almost untouched by man.

Fire Earth.

Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago of dozens of large and small islands located off the southern coast of South America between 53 and 55 ° S. sh. and owned by Chile and Argentina. The islands are separated from the mainland and from one another by narrow winding straits. The easternmost and most large island called Tierra del Fuego or the Big Island.

Geologically and geomorphologically, the archipelago serves as a continuation of the Andes and the Patagonian plateau. The coasts of the western islands are rocky and deeply indented by fjords, while the eastern ones are flat and slightly dissected.

All Western part The archipelago is occupied by mountains up to 2400 m high. Ancient and modern glacial forms in the form of heaps of boulders, trough valleys, "ram's foreheads" and dammed moraine lakes play an important role in the relief of the mountains. Mountain ranges dissected by glaciers rise from the ocean itself, narrow winding fjords cut into their slopes. In the eastern part of big island a vast plain spread out.

The climate of Tierra del Fuego is very humid, with the exception of the extreme east. The archipelago is under the constant influence of sharp and humid southwesterly winds. Precipitation in the west falls up to 3000 mm per year, and drizzling rains prevail, which go 300-330 days a year. In the east, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply.

The temperature throughout the year is low, and its seasonal fluctuations are negligible. We can say that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago is close to the tundra in summer temperature, and to the subtropics in winter.
The climatic conditions of Tierra del Fuego are favorable for the development of glaciation. The snow line in the west lies at an altitude of 500 m, and the glaciers break directly into the ocean, forming icebergs. Mountain ranges are covered with ice, and only individual sharp peaks rise above its cover.

In a narrow coastal strip, mainly in the western part of the archipelago, forests of evergreen and deciduous trees are widespread. Particularly characteristic are southern beeches, canelo, magnolia, blooming with white fragrant flowers, and some conifers. The upper boundary of the forest vegetation and the snow boundary almost merge with each other. In some places above 500 m, and sometimes near the sea (in the east), forests give way to sparse subantarctic mountain meadows without flowering plants and peat bogs. In areas where constant strong winds blow, sparse and low twisted trees and shrubs grow in groups with "flag-shaped" crowns inclined in the direction of the prevailing winds.

The fauna of the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego and the Southern Andes is approximately the same and rather peculiar. Along with the guanaco, the blue fox, fox-like, or Magellanic, dog, and many rodents are common there. An endemic, underground tuco-tuco rodent is characteristic. Numerous birds: parrots, hummingbirds.
Of domestic animals, sheep are the most common. Sheep breeding is the main occupation of the population.

Ecological problems in the Andean zone.

Careless use of natural resources.

Among the minerals mined in the Andes, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals (copper, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, silver, antimony, lead and zinc) of igneous and metamorphic origin stand out. Platinum, gold and precious stones are also mined there. On the eastern highlands, large deposits of zirconium, beryl, bismuth, titanium, uranium, and nickel are associated with igneous rocks; deposits of iron and manganese - with outcrops of metamorphic rocks; deposits of bauxite containing aluminum - with a weathering crust. Oil, natural gas and coal deposits are confined to platform troughs, intermountain and foothill depressions. In a desert climate, the biochemical decomposition of seabird droppings formed deposits of Chilean saltpeter.

Also, enough rapidly forest resources are being used at such a pace that they are no longer renewable. The three main problems in the area of ​​forest conservation are: deforestation for pastures and agricultural land illegal deforestation by local people to sell wood or use it as fuel for heating houses, due to economic reasons.

Countries located in the Andean zone are faced with a number of environmental problems in coastal and marine areas. First of all, these are large volumes of fish catch, which is actually not controlled in any way, which creates a threat of extinction of many species of fish and marine animals, given that the catch is constantly increasing. The development of ports and transport has led to serious pollution of coastal areas, where landfills, equipment depots and ship fuel depots are often located. But the most serious damage is caused by the release of sewage waste, as well as industrial waste into the sea, which negatively affects coastal zones, flora and fauna.

It must be said that it is rather difficult to obtain sufficiently reliable information on emissions into the atmosphere. greenhouse gases, since statistical data on this issue are either absent or do not look quite reasonable. However, it is reliably known that industrial production and power generation are the cause of air pollution in 50% of cases. In addition, there is a trend to abandon the promising direction in the field of renewable energy in favor of fuel combustion, both in power generation and in the transport sector. The largest share of air pollution in South America and in the Andes in particular comes from thermal power plants and steel and iron factories, while transport pollution accounts for 33% of all emissions.

The most active industrial activity unfolded on the territory of the pampas, an area of ​​vast green steppes. Mines are located here oil wells, smelters and oil refineries, which significantly pollute the surrounding areas. Oil refineries in particular damage water and underground sources by polluting them with heavy metals such as mercury and lead and other chemicals. Oil refining activities in Salta have led to soil erosion, deterioration of water quality, negatively affecting the agriculture of the regions. Southern territories Patagonia has been significantly affected by mining activities in mountainous areas, which adversely affected the flora and fauna of the area, which in turn had a negative impact on tourism, which is one of the most important sources of income for local budgets.

Since ancient times, the states of South America were mostly agrarian countries. Therefore, soil degradation is a serious problem for the economy. Soil degradation is caused by erosion, pollution from misuse of fertilizers, deforestation and poor management of agricultural land. For example, the production of soybeans for export forced the Argentine Ministry of Agriculture to expand the use of new technologies, which led to pesticide contamination of a large area in the north of the country. Misuse pastures led to land desertification in the Argentine steppes, where 35% of fertile land was lost. Wrong distribution land and economic instability leads to overuse of land for quick profits, while this picture observed throughout the Andes. If appropriate measures are not taken to protect land resources, soil degradation will continue and countries will face serious agricultural difficulties.

The Andes area is richly inhabited by various biological species, but many animals and birds are threatened due to the spread of agriculture and human activity in coastal zones. Thus, more than 50% of birds and mammals are endangered. Although a large number of reserves are used in many countries, many natural areas are not sufficiently assessed in terms of risk. Moreover, many protected areas are such only on paper and are practically not protected in any way.

Possible ways out of the problem.

The main environmental problems of the Andes are:

• soil and coastal degradation
• illegal logging and desertification
• destruction of biological species
• pollution ground water and atmosphere
• recycling problems and heavy metal pollution

The main challenge for Latin American governments today is to improve economic situation in their countries in order to cope with environmental problems. The first priority is to eliminate environmental problems in urban areas, where more than 1/3 of the population lives. Improving the sanitary situation, solving transport problems and problems with poverty and unemployment - these are the directions in which the authorities need to act. Conservation of biological diversity is the second most important task.

Gradually, Latin America is beginning to realize the need to protect its natural resources. But further implementation of the government program on environmental protection is possible only after the improvement of the economic situation in the countries.

However, we must not forget that the forests located on the territory of Latin America, especially in the Amazon basin, are, and have long been recognized, the lungs of our planet, and how forests are cut down and burned are not only the poor countries of Latin America, but rich countries are to blame, coldly pumping out of the bowels of these countries are natural resources, not caring about the future, living according to the principle: “After us, at least the flood.”

The Andes Mountains serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Cordillera Main from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains lie in 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern and western slopes.

Due to the considerable length of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other. By the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - the Northern, Central and Southern Andes. The Andes stretched through the territories of seven states of South America - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.

Highest point: Aconcagua (6962 m)

Length: 9000 km

Width: 500 km

Rocks: igneous and metamorphic

Andes - revived mountains erected by the latest uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillera) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the largest Alpine folding systems on the planet (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement). The formation of the Andes dates back to the Jurassic. The Andean mountain system is characterized by troughs formed in the Triassic, subsequently filled with layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of considerable thickness. Large massifs of the Main Cordillera and the coast of Chile, the Coastal Cordillera of Peru are Cretaceous granitoid intrusions. Intermountain and marginal troughs (Altiplano, Maracaibo, etc.) formed in the Paleogene and Neogene times. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that a subduction zone passes along the Pacific coast of South America: the Nazca and Antarctic plates go under the South American one, which contributes to the development of mountain building processes. The extreme southern part of South America, Tierra del Fuego, is separated by a transform fault from the small Scotia plate. Beyond the Drake Passage, the Andes continue the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula.

The Andes are rich in ores, mainly of non-ferrous metals (vanadium, tungsten, bismuth, tin, lead, molybdenum, zinc, arsenic, antimony, etc.); the deposits are confined mainly to the Paleozoic structures of the eastern Andes and the vents of ancient volcanoes; in Chile - large copper deposits. There is oil and gas in the forward and foothill troughs (in the foothills of the Andes within Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina), and in the weathering crusts - bauxites. In the Andes there are also deposits of iron (in Bolivia), sodium nitrate (in Chile), gold, platinum and emeralds (in Colombia).

The Andes consist mainly of meridional parallel ranges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie the internal plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altipano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions. The width of the mountain system is mainly 200-300 km.

One of the highest and longest mountain systems in the world are Andes(the Andes), consisting of ridges, between which lie plateaus, depressions and plateaus. The Andes are often compared to the Dragon lying on the west coast. The head of the Dragon rests at, the tail is immersed in the ocean at, the back is strewn with thorns.

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Description and characteristics

The worlds of the Andes are amazing, hard to reach and little studied. The length of the mountain range is more than 8000 km, the average width of the Andes is 250 km (maximum - 700 km). Average Height Andes - 4000 meters above sea level. In the extreme south of the continent, where the Andes descend to the ocean, giant icebergs break off from glaciers and are considered the most insidious strait on the planet. In the south of the Andes lies the glacier San Rafael, which moves, squeezing the slopes of the mountains.

Before today the Andes continue to grow, over the past 100 years they have “grown” by more than a dozen meters. Here, the air currents from the Pacific Ocean cool, falling as precipitation, and already dry air moves to the east. In these young mountains go active educational processes, from this there are many active volcanoes, earthquakes often occur.

Mountain ranges run through the territories of seven South American countries:

• Northern Andes - , and;
• Central Andes - and;
• Southern Andes - and.

It is in the Andes that it originates greatest river.

most highest point Andes and the highest peak of the Southern Hemisphere is, whose height is 6962 m above sea level.

The highest mountain lake in the world

Lying in the Andes at an altitude of 3820 m (on the border of Bolivia and Peru), contains the richest fresh water reserves in South America.

Since the outline of the lake resembles a puma, its name consists of the words "rock" and "puma". The lake and its surroundings remember the civilization of the Incas, they built their temples on the islands and along the banks. This lake is often mentioned in Indian myths about the origin of the world and the birth of the gods.

Lake Titicaca

The most "desert" desert

The desert in the Andes is the driest place on earth. Not a single rain fell here for centuries.

Here the height of the Andes is about 7000 m, but there are no glaciers on the peaks, and the rivers dried up many centuries ago. Local residents collect water with the help of special fog eliminators made of nylon threads; up to 18 liters of condensate flowing down them per day is collected!

There is a place in the Atacama called the Valley of the Moon, where salt hills create an unearthly landscape that is constantly changing with the action of the winds. Many fantastic films about alien civilizations were filmed on this huge film set created by nature.

Alpine field of geysers

El Tatio, located in the Andes at an altitude of 4200 m (the border of Bolivia and Chile), is the highest field of geysers in the world and the most extensive in the Southern Hemisphere.

There are about 80 geysers here, which in the morning shoot hot water and steam to a height of about a meter, although sometimes hot water fountains reach 5-6 m. paintings. Near the geysers there are thermal wells, the water of which has a temperature of 49 ° C and a rich mineral composition swimming in it is good for health.

Or the South American Cordilleras, a mountain system stretching in a narrow strip for western outskirts. The ridges of the Andes, when crossing with each other, form peculiar nodes with the highest peaks. There are many active and extinct here.

Andes

The Andes are composed of meridional ridges. Due to the huge length from north to south, the Andes are located in several. In the mountains, altitudinal zonation is clearly manifested. The sequence of changes in altitudinal belts depends on the position of the foothills of the Andes in a particular natural zone, as well as on the height, width and direction of the slopes of the ridges. Many intermountain valleys and slopes have long been inhabited and mastered by man. Here are the most mountain towns peace - (3690 m), Sucre (2694 m).

Northern Andes

They consist of several ridges separated by deep troughs. There are more than 30 active and many extinct volcanoes, among which the most famous are Cotopaxi and Chimborazo.

In the altitudinal zone of humid tropical mountain forests at an altitude of 1 to 3 km, where average monthly temperatures (+16 - +22 ° C) are lower than on neighboring plains, most of the population of the Northern Andes lives. Here, at an altitude of more than 2500 m, are the cities of Santa Fe de Bogota and. Coffee, corn, and tobacco are grown on gentle mountain slopes.

Central tropical Andes

The widest part of the mountain system. There are internal high plateaus bordered on the east and west by mountain ranges.

The plateaus have long been inhabited Indian tribes. On one of them is ancient city- the capital of the Inca state. In the Western Cordillera there are large active volcanoes, including Llullalyaco, with a height of 6723 m.

In the southern part of the Central Andes, the Coastal Cordillera is separated from the Western Cordillera by a narrow depression. It stretches for 1000 km. In this depression is one of the most arid - Atacama. It receives less than 100 mm of precipitation per year, and heavy rains occur 2-4 times in 100 years. In Atacama it is much colder than in other areas located at the same latitude: the average annual temperatures are much lower than +20°C.

Southern Andes

Two ridges are well expressed in the relief: the Main Cordillera with the top of Aconcagua and the Coastal Cordillera. Between 33 and 55 °S is the third volcanic region of the Andes.

The slopes of mountain ranges in the subtropical zone up to a height of 2.5 km were once covered with heat-loving forests. At present, almost all of them have been cut down, and wherever the steepness of the slopes allows, subtropical crops are grown: olive trees, grapes, citrus fruits. The western slopes of the Andes in the temperate zone are covered with moisture-loving forests of beeches, magnolias, conifers, with bamboo, ferns and lianas.