Methodology and techniques of criminology
Given the above tasks, goals, functions and problems, it is necessary to deal with criminological methodology. This is one of the most difficult questions.
The methodology and methodology of any science has importance, since they are always tied to the subject of research and determine the reliability and validity of its results.
Methodology and methodology are two different definitions.
Methodological base of criminology - it is a system of principles and methods of organizing and building its activities, which determines the scientific reliability of research and its results. Methodology is a deep, comprehensive, true knowledge of social phenomena.
Methodology criminological research, like any other, depends on the subject and object of research, the tasks facing the researcher. The subject of criminological research is the patterns of criminal behavior, their determination, causality, susceptibility to various influences, and the object is crime in various manifestations that produce its influence and affect its phenomena, processes, the nature of the impact on crime and the consequences of such an impact.
Methodology modern domestic criminology, which determines the methods of criminological research, the general fundamental trend in the approach to assessing certain facts of social reality, is based "on the materialistic essence and the dialectical nature of the interaction of phenomena."
Under methodology means - a set of specific techniques, methods, methods, means (tools) for collecting, processing and analyzing information about crime, its causes and conditions and the personality of criminals, as well as measures to combat it. Despite their private nature, they also have general scientific significance, since they can be used in sciences related to criminology to study problems that are borderline with criminology (for example, problems of deviant behavior, etc.).
end result research should be practical implications with proposals, recommendations on improving the practice of combating crime, improving the activities of law enforcement agencies and other prevention subjects. Therefore, the concept of methodology should also include methods for developing such conclusions, proposals, and recommendations.
Criminological research is one of the types social research in his broad sense. It is carried out using all methods of use social phenomena. At the same time, the features of the subject and content of criminology are taken into account.
From general scientific methods criminology uses:
Description,
observation,
Experiment,
Climbing from the abstract to the concrete
Hypothesis,
System-structural analysis,
Comparison,
dynamic and statistical methods.
Description. This is a systematic presentation of information that characterizes the object under study in the aggregate or any one of its specially specified parameters. For example, a description of the phenomenon of juvenile delinquency, a description of the signs characterizing criminal professionalism, etc.
observation. This is the study of the subject of research directly in the process of life. In criminological research, this method is unique. It is used when examining the living conditions of persons who have committed crimes, when studying the process of correction and re-education of juvenile offenders, when analyzing the effectiveness preventive measures etc.
Distinguish three kinds observations: included, observation-participation and self-observation. The difference between them lies in the degree of activity of the observing person.
Particularly interesting, but of limited use, is the method included observation, in which the observer performs the role of a member of the observed group, being its full member.
Introspection can be carried out on the instructions of a researcher of a specific problem by a law enforcement officer, judge, lawyer, etc. invited to participate in the study of this problem.
Experiment. Planned in scientific purposes reproduction of any phenomenon or event is applicable in criminology on a very limited scale. It is impossible, for example, to experimentally reproduce a criminal act. At the same time, sometimes life itself sets up experiments, which the criminologist is obliged to study. For example, in a number of regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan, a jury trial will now be introduced. The study of the effectiveness of his activities, the impact of his practice on the state of crime is the task of criminology.
The method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Scientific abstraction means a distraction in the process of cognition from the non-essential aspects of the phenomenon under study in order to focus on its main, essential features. Scientific abstraction is a necessary step in the knowledge of the objective world. At the same time, it is important and practically to reveal, to study how scientific abstraction correlates with concrete facts, how it is embodied in reality.
Hypothesis. Anyone scientific research precedes the construction of a hypothesis, i.e. scientifically based assumption that determines general direction research.
Systems approach. This approach involves "consideration of the object under study (in our case, crime and society) as a certain complexly organized system that has a certain structure containing a certain number of interrelated elements." The use of this method means that crime is seen as social phenomenon, which is analyzed in conjunction with social system and her building blocks(politics, economics, culture, etc.).
historical method. This method is used to study crime in development; it traces the features of the development of crime over certain period time.
A variation of the historical method is comparative - historical, during the use of which it is possible to compare the state of crime in general or the same types of crime (for example, mercenary, mercenary-violent, violent) in different historical periods.
Dynamic (lasting, longitudinal) method. This method consists in studying the same object in different periods. Time intervals of study can be different - 3-5, 10-15 years, etc., it is only important that the study is carried out on the same object and according to the same methodology.
statistical method. He finds wide application in criminological research, which is quite understandable. Crime is a social phenomenon that can be represented through a number of quantitative indicators (the number of crimes registered per year, the number of persons prosecuted, the number solved crimes everything and certain types- murders, thefts, etc.
Also, criminology has its own "tools", determined selectively to study specific problems. They are, as mentioned earlier, called methods.
To solve a specific scientific problem the following methods of specific criminological research:
expert surveys,
questioning documents,
Techniques psychological analysis personalities and others.
Polls. Representatives may be interviewed depending on the purpose of the study. various groups of the population - criminals (recidivists, minors, etc.), law enforcement officers, etc. Poll modifications are conversations, interviews. Most often, surveys are conducted according to a pre-designed questionnaire containing a list of questions that the researcher would like to receive answers to.
Expert polls. Such surveys require for their conduct the selection of a highly qualified group of respondents, vital and professional experience which allows us to consider their opinion as a kind of standard in solving certain problems. As such, law enforcement officers are usually invited, researchers etc.
Questioning of documents. This is a way to get information from documents. As a rule, criminal cases and personal files of convicts held in correctional institutions are subject to questioning. However, it is also possible to obtain information from other documents: acts of various kinds of examinations, supervisory and observation proceedings, etc. To study the documents, it is advisable to draw up a questionnaire, a program. This allows you to strictly formalize the information received, and then use computing and computer technology.
Methods of psychological analysis of personality. This is testing a certain circle of people to identify the ability to certain kind activities, study intellectual capabilities, orientation towards aggression, etc.
Criminological research is one of the types of social research in its broadest sense. It is carried out using all methods of using social phenomena. At the same time, the features of the subject and content of criminology are taken into account. the following general scientific methods of cognition are used:
the ascent from the abstract to the concrete;
hypothesis;
system-structural analysis;
historical method;
comparison;
dynamic and statistical methods.
In criminology, the method of cognition is used - systems approach. This method involves considering the object under study as a certain unity of interacting elements, and the quality of the object is determined not so much by the set of its constituent elements as by the nature of the interaction between them.
In criminology, another general scientific method of cognition is also used - structural-functional analysis. Thus, the significance of crime prevention can be correctly explained only on the condition that crime prevention is studied in its interaction with other elements that are part of the system of crime prevention measures.
Among specific methods used to conduct crime research statistical and sociological methods.
Statistical methods are applied:
1) for the digital characteristics of quantitative and qualitative n indicators of crime;
2) to establish the relationship between juvenile delinquency and general crime and other social processes(for example, between the standard of living and crime);
3) to give a forecast about crime trends;
4) to assess the effectiveness of law enforcement agencies (for example, the level of disclosure awn of crimes).
Statistical observation is a collection of information about crime recorded and registered in the primary accounting documents that are maintained in law enforcement agencies. For example, in the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Prosecutor's Office of Russia, primary accounting documents containing information about crime include:
Statistical card for the identified crime (form No. 1);
- statistical card on the results of the investigation of crimes eniya (form No. 1.1);
- a statistical card for a crime for which a person, his owl rushed, established (form No. 1.2);
Statistical card for the person who committed the crime (form No. 2);
- statistical card on the progress of the criminal case (form No. 3);
Statistical card on the results of compensation for material damage and seizure of objects of criminal activity (form No. 4);
- statistical card on the results of the trial (form No. 6)
Grouping is the systematization of documents primary accounting, data counting, their distribution according to certain characteristics.
The summary involves bringing the results of data processing together and embodied in a form that is accessible to perception, i.e. in the form of tables, graphic images.
Statistical analysis is a generalization, comparison, comparison of the obtained data with each other.
Among the sociological (private scientific) methods, the most widely used methods are observation (included and not included), peer review, sociometry, questionnaire method, and analysis.
Application of specific sociological methods:
study of documents;
surveys in the form of questionnaires and interviews;
observation;
experiment;
testing;
interview;
Interview- a conversation, one of the participants of which asks questions, and the other answers them. Dignity - allows you to get necessary information faster and more complete. Variety of interviews - free and standardized.
Testing- method psychological diagnostics using standardized questions and tasks (tests). Three stages of testing: test selection, conduct and interpretation of the results.
Questionnaire method- this is a method of research by interviewing individuals or summarizing the information contained in criminal cases using a specially designed questionnaire.
There are closed and open questionnaires, as well as open-closed questionnaires.
Advantages of the method- makes it possible: short term and at low cost to cover a significant group of studied individuals; quickly conduct repeated surveys after a certain period of time; achieve the effect of anonymity of the respondents. Disadvantages of the method : gives information about opinions about actions. and not about the actions themselves; the possibility of erroneous entries due to a misunderstanding of the nature of the question is likely.
Sociometry- measurement of socio-psychological ties between people, which makes it possible to trace the criminological features of relationships.
Expert review - necessary for predicting certain phenomena. The result of the assessment of the factors influencing crime is based on the opinion of the relevant specialists, whose answers are summarized and analyzed to determine their average value.
documentary method involves the study of documents of interest in criminological research; generalization of judicial and investigative practice;
surveys of criminals, other persons; conducting psychological tests; sociograms.
Experiment and conditions. Terms- limited use due to ethical issues. Possibility of application for checking the action of socially positive factors, the effectiveness of preventive work.
Observation- the process of visual perception of the situation (situation). Types of observation: direct and included.
With direct observation of a situation (situation) of criminological significance, the researcher limits his activity by contemplative observation of a specific situation.
In the implementation of the included observation, the researcher is an active participant in the process under study in a team (group), where about its role in some cases may be unknown to anyone.
The above methods are successfully used to develop and implement comprehensive programs to combat crime at the national and regional levels.
Application methods: for the development and implementation of comprehensive programs to combat crime at the national and regional levels.
Criminological research is one of the types of social research in its broadest sense. It is carried out using all methods of studying social phenomena. At the same time, the features of the subject and content of criminology are taken into account.
The following general scientific methods of cognition are used:
1) ascent from the abstract to the concrete;
2) hypothesis;
3) system-structural analysis;
4) historical method;
5) comparison;
6) dynamic and statistical methods.
1. Climbing from the abstract to the concrete. This method of cognition involves a certain level of theoretical training of the researcher, hypotheses, the use of theoretical concepts and ideas, abstract thinking. It is important to keep in mind two points here.
The first is that the theoretical, methodological armament predetermines the volume, depth of knowledge of the researcher and his path. You should not "dance from the stove" every time. It is necessary to familiarize yourself with what has been done before. From this point of view, theoretical knowledge about crime, its determination, and the effectiveness of certain measures to combat it is of particular importance. It is not possible to formulate scientifically based provisions for someone who has not mastered the theory of criminology and proceeds only from ordinary ideas about crime.
The second side of the problem - the ascent from the abstract to the concrete - lies in the fact that one should constantly remember about the lack of knowledge of the phenomenon of "crime" and the processes of its production. In addition, crime is constantly changing. Therefore, in the process of research, it is important for a criminologist to be " open system"and not strive to "fit" new data into existing theoretical ideas and schemes. It is necessary to compare with them, take them into account, but you must be ready and reasonably change these schemes, theories. Creative development always involves new research, obtaining previously unknown data and understanding corresponding results Without this there is no creative development of theory.
2. Hypothesis. It gives direction to the search, focuses the researcher's attention on certain aspects of reality, and allows purposeful study.
The hypothesis, firstly, must be consistent with scientifically based provisions established in criminology; secondly, be characterized by a reasonable probability of the corresponding assumption.
It follows that not every assumption, strictly speaking, is a hypothesis. A hypothesis is usually understood as an assumption that deserves to be tested.
The advancement, formulation of a hypothesis requires an assessment of the already available theoretical and empirical data, their correlation with the subject, object and objectives of the study. This work is carried out in the process of preparing a research program.
For example, when studying the causes of regional differences in crime, the following hypotheses were put forward:
a) differences in crime in the territories, regions, republics are determined in part by a different degree of crime latency, i.e., its reflection in criminal statistics, and this forced the use of methods for detecting crime latency;
b) the differences are determined by the economic, socio-cultural characteristics of the regions, which was revealed by studying the economic, social, cultural conditions of people's lives;
c) the differences are determined by the characteristics of the population (in some regions there are more previously convicted alcoholics, social losers, etc.), and, accordingly, the processes of formation of the population of the region, the proportion of persons who have previously committed crimes, alcoholics who did not have permanent source of income, etc.;
d) differences are determined by the state of social control in the regions, including law enforcement. Accordingly, it was found out how the process of detecting, suppressing crimes, bringing to justice and punishing the perpetrators, how the regulatory authorities function, how the protection of public order is ensured, etc.
3. System approach. Now more and more often they talk about a systemic movement, which includes, along with systematic approach general systems theory, system analysis, philosophical understanding of the systemic nature of the world.
This method involves considering the object under study (in our case, crime and society) as a certain complexly organized system that has a certain structure containing a certain number of interrelated elements.
It is known that a car is a system consisting of a certain way assembled parts. If you take it apart and, without removing a single part, put everything together, it will already be a pile of parts, not a car. And what is crime: a lot of crimes or their system?
In criminology, the relationship between the two aspects of the application of the system-structural method is important.
Firstly, the consideration of crime as a set of interacting crimes and the persons who commit them, the detection of interactions between them. At the same time, the structure of crime, characteristics various elements, their interaction.
Secondly, crime is studied within a more common system- societies.
4. Historical method. Provides the study of crime in a historical context, in motion. When analyzing crime, it is usually taken a long period, which allows revealing the stable characteristics and trends of crime, as well as its relationship with other phenomena.
In recent years, several five-year periods have been distinguished, reflecting different stages in the life of Russian society: different socialist periods (increasing the pace of economic and social development and a period of stagnation), periods of perestroika and reforms.
When studying regional differences in crime, the comparative historical method is used as a kind of historical method. In this case, the following is carried out: a) comparison of the same type of phenomena over the same period (juvenile delinquency, youth, etc.) different regions; b) comparison of the same characteristics in different periods in each of the regions.
5. The comparative method is also widely used. Comparing crime in different states, in different regions of the state, the crime of persons of different sex, age, social position and others. At the same time, it becomes possible to obtain new data on the causes of crime, because the differences in crime are superimposed on differences in the socio-economic and other characteristics of states and regions.
When using the similarity method, the recurring characteristics of crime and the recurring conditions of people's lives are established, coinciding in spatio-temporal terms with the characteristics of crime. Corresponding coincidences serve as the basis for further research the fact and mechanism of the relationship between these conditions and crime.
When using the difference method, those characteristics of crime that are found in some states, regions and are not found in others are established. This kind of material also serves as a basis for putting forward and testing hypotheses about the causal dependence of crime on specific environmental conditions.
In criminology, the comparative method is of particular importance in identifying the specifics of something.
6. Dynamic and statistical methods are widely used in criminological research. Especially statistical methods designed for research mass phenomena one of which is crime.
Dynamic and statistical methods give different knowledge. Dynamic patterns are patterns of development. Their application leads directly to the discovery of causal relationships.
For example, for twenty years, a comprehensive study of the personal characteristics and fate of more than one hundred and forty people who committed crimes at a minor age was carried out. The first stage of the study is the study of subjects aged 14–17 years immediately after the commission of the crime; the second - in ten years; the third - in another ten years. This made it possible to establish with what circumstances and how exactly the criminal behavior at the first stage, the subsequent recurrence of crimes in some, the correction of others, and the extreme demoralization of others were connected.
At statistical study general indicators are used; They have the following basic requirements:
a) the studied population must be homogeneous in composition. It is impossible, for example, to compare serious crime registered before July 1, 1994 and after that time, since the number of those acts that the legislator began to classify as serious after July 1, 1994 has changed dramatically;
b) the population under study must be large enough, otherwise random deviations can affect the result. Therefore, criminologists do not analyze crime by months of the year, by quarters. If they need to identify seasonal fluctuations in crime, then a significant number of years are taken and only then a conclusion is made about the patterns of seasonal fluctuations in crime.
In the process of research, selective observation is often used, but it is important to ensure that representative (representative) data are obtained.
Criminological research uses the following general scientific methods of cognition.
- 1. Rising from the abstract to the concrete. This method knowledge requires a certain level theoretical training researcher, hypotheses, use theoretical concepts and performances abstract thinking. It is important to keep two points in mind here:
- a) you need to familiarize yourself with what has been done before. It is not possible to formulate scientifically grounded provisions for someone who has not mastered the theory of criminology, has not become familiar with the scientific data obtained by his predecessors, and proceeds only from ordinary ideas about crime;
- b) one should always remember about the lack of knowledge of the phenomenon of crime and the processes of its production, about the constant changes in this phenomenon. Therefore, in the process of research, it is important for a criminologist to be an open system and not strive with all his might to fit new data into existing theoretical concepts and schemes.
- 2. Formulation of hypotheses. The hypothesis gives direction to the search, focuses the researcher's attention on certain aspects of reality, and allows purposeful study.
The hypothesis must be consistent with scientifically based provisions established in criminology; be characterized by a reasonable probability of the corresponding assumption.
Not every assumption can be called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an assumption that deserves to be tested. The advancement, formulation of a hypothesis requires an assessment of the already available theoretical and empirical data, their correlation with the object, subject and objectives of the study. This work is carried out in the process of preparing a research program.
3. System-structural method involves considering the object under study (in our case, crime and society) as a certain complexly organized system that has a certain structure containing a certain number of interrelated elements. This means that crime is not a simple set of crimes, but their system, which is discussed in more detail in the following chapters.
In criminology, the relationship between the two aspects of the application of the system-structural method is important. Firstly, crime is considered as a set of interacting crimes and the perpetrators of them, interactions between them are found. At the same time, the structure of crime, the characteristics of various elements, and their interaction are analyzed. Secondly, crime is studied within the framework of a more general system - society and its substructure such as negative deviations (deviations). are revealed external links crime with different characteristics society and its various components, the main ones stand out among them, including causal relationships, i.e., generating crime.
Mathematical methods are usually widely used in the process of system-structural analysis. In criminology, their application is not yet sufficiently developed. Methods are limited mathematical modeling. At the same time, the practice of conducting correlation, cluster analysis and the use of some other mathematical methods using a computer.
4. historical method- the study of crime in a historical context, in motion. In the analysis of crime, as a rule, a long period is taken, which makes it possible to reveal the stable characteristics and trends of crime, as well as its relationship with other phenomena.
When studying regional differences in crime, it is used comparative historical method. In doing so, the following is carried out:
- a) comparison of the same type of phenomena over the same period (juvenile delinquency, youth, etc.) in different regions;
- b) comparison of the same characteristics in different periods in each of the regions.
- 5. Comparative method. Crime is compared in different states, in different regions of the state, the crime of persons of different sex, age, social status, etc.
Using comparative method recurring characteristics of crime and recurring living conditions of people are established, coinciding in spatio-temporal terms with the characteristics of crime. The corresponding coincidences serve as the basis for further research into the fact and mechanism of the relationship between these conditions and crime. When using the difference method, those characteristics of crime that are found in some states, regions and are not found in others are established. This kind of material also serves as a basis for putting forward and testing hypotheses about the causal dependence of crime on specific environmental conditions.
6. Dynamic and statistical methods widely used in criminological research. Especially statistical methods designed for the study of mass phenomena, one of which is crime. Dynamic and statistical methods give different knowledge.
Statistics, finding and measuring common properties, establishes general statistical patterns based on the operation of the law big numbers. She doesn't explain internal mechanism formation of patterns, does not isolate causal dependencies. The search for statistical patterns is carried out by finding and measuring common properties phenomena. For example, it has been statistically proven that 60 to 80% of repeat offenders committed their first crimes as minors. But what is this based on? statistical regularity? For an answer to this question dynamic patterns of behavior were studied and a continuing study of the personality of the criminal in its interaction with the social environment was carried out.
Dynamic patterns are patterns of development. Their application leads directly to the discovery of causal relationships. In particular, for 20 years comprehensive study personal characteristics and the fate of more than 140 people who committed crimes as minors. The first stage of the study is the study of subjects aged 14-17 years immediately after the commission of the crime;
the second - after 10 years; the third - in another 10 years. This made it possible to establish the circumstances with which the commission of crimes was connected and how exactly the relapse of crimes occurred in some, the correction of others, and the extreme demoralization of others.
Thus, the search for patterns is always associated with statistical research. But the discovery of their nature (causal, connection of states or otherwise) requires the use of a set of methods.
In statistical research, generalizing indicators are used. They have the following basic requirements:
- a) the studied population must be homogeneous in composition. It is impossible, for example, to mechanically compare crime that was registered before and after January 1, 1997, since with the introduction of the new Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, the circle of acts that the legislator classifies as crimes, the disposition of articles have changed, and subsequently the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation has been repeatedly amended and supplemented ;
- b) the population under study must be large enough, otherwise random deviations can affect the result.
In the process of research, selective observation is often used, but it is important to ensure that representative (representative) data are obtained.
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Issue price (points): 1
Answer options:
1. prevention of crime prevention, methodology for investigating crimes, identity of the perpetrator,
victim's identity
2. crime, causes and conditions of crime, the identity of the offender, prevention or prevention
crime
3. the identity of the victim, the identity of the perpetrator, the prevention and prevention of crime, crime
4. the identity of the offender, crime, the identity of the victim, the causes and conditions of crime
Correct answer: 1 Answer options: 4
QUESTION N 10. Criminology is most closely connected with non-legal sciences
Question type: 1. Choosing the only correct answer
Issue price (points): 1
Answer options:
1. psychology
2. sociology
3. statistics
4. psychology, sociology and statistics
Correct answer: 4 Answer options: 4
QUESTION N 11. The knowledge system of criminology consists of
Question type: 1. Choosing the only correct answer
Issue price (points): 1
Answer options:
1. The four elements that make up the subject of criminology
2. general and special parts
3. methods developed for crime prevention
4. signs characterizing the personality of the offender
QUESTION N 12. Dynamic method used in criminology for
Question type: 1. Choosing the only correct answer
Issue price (points): 1
Answer options:
1. philosophical reflection consistency of the world
2. Finding out the causes of crime
3. studying the patterns of development of crime
4. study of personality
QUESTION N 13. The methodology in criminology is
Question type: 1. Choosing the only correct answer
Issue price (points): 1
Answer options:
1. scientific support crime prevention
2. a set of indicators characterizing the state of crime
3. a set of techniques, methods, methods, means of collecting, processing and analyzing information about crime,
its causes and conditions, the identity of the offender, the measures to combat crime
4. organization of criminological research and forecasting
Correct answer: 3 Answer options: 4
QUESTION N 14. Feature methods of criminology are
Question type: 1. Choosing the only correct answer
Issue price (points): 1
Answer options:
1. carrying out examinations
2. efficiency
3. subjectivism
4. interdisciplinary and comprehensive
Correct answer: 2 Answer options: 4
