Document Analysis
Experiment
Testing
Observation
Question 2. Methods of sociology and psychology of management.
Used in sociology and management psychology methods can be subdivided according to purpose of application on the:
1. diagnostic methods;
2. regulatory methods.
Diagnostic methods. Target- study of the object of management (employee, group, team, organization) by collecting information about its state and ongoing changes.
2. Survey (oral: conversation, interview; writing: questioning)
| Method | Information content |
| Daily observation of an employee in various production situations | Manifestations of temperament, character, relationships with other people, compatibility, conflict, other personality traits |
| Conversation | Interests, needs, life plans, life problems |
| Questionnaire, interview | Employee's opinion specific issues life of the team, attitude to work, colleagues, administration |
| Testing | Professionally important qualities, suitability for certain duties, ability to leadership |
| Experiment, performance analysis | Initiative, work ethic, ability to cooperate, professional competence, Creative skills |
| Document analysis | Main steps life path, employee-specific ways of solving life problems, personality orientation |
regulatory methods. Target - changing the state of the control object in the right direction by influencing the object itself or its environment, the conditions of its activity.
| By way of influence | According to the purpose of the impact |
| 1. Direct methods (imply a direct impact on the control object, which is achieved by a direct requirement, request or proposal): a) belief; b) suggestion; in) mental infection; G) compulsion. 2. Indirect (group) methods (involving an indirect impact on the control object (either through an employee, a team, or by changing the conditions that change the behavior of the object in the right direction), which is achieved by creating conditions that make it necessary desired behavior and facilitating the desired action: a) socio-psychological training; b) group discussion; in) business game. | 1. Stimulating methods are aimed at influencing the motivation of the individual, they can be either incentive or contagious. 2. Tonic methods are aimed at emotional sphere personality, suggest its change, acting either exciting or calming. 3. Cognitive methods are aimed at the formation of a certain idea, concept, or, on the contrary, the destruction of any idea, stereotype of thinking or behavior. four. Communicative Methods provide an impact on people's relations, contributing either to their formation, simplification, stabilization, or, on the contrary, disintegration, aggravation, destabilization. |
Observation - represents specially organized perception of the studied object. The organization of observation includes the determination of the characteristics of the object, the goals and objectives of observation; choice of type of observation; development of the monitoring program and procedure; establishing observation parameters and developing a technique for recording results; analysis of results and conclusions.
In relation to the observer to the object of observation, there are two kinds observations - external and included .
With external observation, the interaction between the observer and the object is reduced to a minimum: the observer tries to exclude the influence of his presence on the behavior of the object in order to achieve maximum objectivity of the results.
When observation is turned on, the observer enters the observed process as its participant, i.e., achieves maximum interaction with the object of observation, without revealing, as a rule, his research intentions.
In practice, observation is most often used in combination with other methods, or when other methods are not possible.
Interview – based on the ability of the researcher to directly answer the researcher's questions.
Instead of watching a person, trying to find out his intentions or his attitude to what is happening, you can simply ask him about it. However, this simplicity is apparent - a person either cannot answer many questions or does not want to. The matter is often complicated by the fact that he can hide his ignorance or his unwillingness. Different kinds surveys in various ways seek to overcome these difficulties.
Main survey types – conversation, interview, questioning.
Conversation -verbal communication with the person being studied. A conversation can be called an observation, supplemented by communication, but also limited by this communication, i.e. this is observation during communication.
During the conversation, the researcher (manager, employee personnel service) analyzes not only speech responses, but the most diverse manifestations of a person’s feelings and thoughts - facial expressions, pantomime (body movements, postures), intonation of speech, observes the behavior of the interlocutor, trying to determine the degree of his sincerity and understanding of the subject of the conversation, his attitude towards the interlocutor and those discussed questions, his desire to participate in the conversation.
Interview, Unlike a conversation, it involves presenting a list of pre-formulated questions to the researcher.
As in a conversation, responses are recorded by the researcher himself. The formalization of questions, which in the same thoughtful form can be asked to a variety of people, makes it possible to significantly expand the circle of respondents. The survey-interview can be conducted by the performers, and not by the researcher himself - the developer of the interview, which is impossible in the conversation method that requires direct participation competent researcher.
Those. in an interview, a division of labor is possible between a developer - a researcher and an executor who collects information. The interview is a kind formalized conversation.
Questionnaire - written survey . Like an interview, a survey involves a set of clearly formulated questions that are asked to the respondent in a writing and to which he must answer in writing by filling out a questionnaire.
Questions may require free-form answers ( "open questionnaire") or in the given form ("closed questionnaire"), when the respondent chooses one of the answer options offered to him.
Advantages of the questionnaire method before other polling methods:
o reduced the time for registering respondents' answers due to "self-service";
o it became possible to cover the study with any number of respondents by printing the required number of questionnaires;
o Formalization of responses creates the opportunity to use automated processing of questionnaires and thus solves the problem of processing a huge amount of information.
o due to the anonymity of the questionnaire, it is decided major problem achieve sincerity in responses.
Disadvantages of the method:
How more formalized answers, the less their actual socio-psychological content, the less they reflect the personality of a particular person.
The more common is the question, the less socio-psychological information carries the answer to it.
Testing. Test is a specific test, including a task that is common for all subjects, involving the use of a strictly defined technique for assessing performance and obtaining numerical value result.
Any test must answer at least two basic requirements- to be reliable and valid.
Test reliability determined by the repeatability of its results at repeated tests and their degree of dispersion. Validity, or test suitability, is determined by the degree of compliance of the test as a model test with the real activity of which it is a model (test validity is a concept that indicates to us what the test measures and how well it does it).
intelligence tests, personality traits, general, special (musical) and professional (office) abilities - they all represent certain tasks, the results of which are used to judge the degree of development of a particular personality trait.
Document Analysis - this method is the establishment of the correctness of evidence, proof of what the document is, in other words, it involves a critical attitude to the information it carries.
Distinguish internal and external criticism of the document. Internal criticism means establishing the meaningfulness of the information, the consistency of the information reported in the document, their completeness, direction, nature of presentation, etc. External criticism means establishing the authenticity of the document, its author, time, place and thoroughness of writing.
An example of such documents that a manager has to deal with and must be able to analyze are employees' personal documents- personnel record sheet, CV, characteristics, etc. According to these documents, the manager must determine how suitable this employee is, whether he will be able to fit into the team, how conflict-prone he is or, on the contrary, complaisant. However, one can only indirectly judge these qualities of an employee by analyzing documents. This method, like the previous ones, is most productive not by itself, but in combination with other methods of studying employees.
Socio-psychological training - a generalized name for a group of methods aimed at developing communication skills, exacerbating sensitivity in the perception of people (intonation, facial expressions, postures), the ability to understand other people and oneself, i.e. personal development, which is achieved in conditions free communication and through specially organized communication.
One of main features socio-psychological training - the topics of communication in the group are not planned in advance, the subject of discussion is the events that arise directly in the process of communication. The content of communication is the mutual expression of the attitudes and feelings of the participants in the training. Groups can be made up of members who know or don't know each other. Optimal size groups - 7-15 people.
Successful work group, the main condition of which is to achieve an atmosphere of trust, is largely determined by the actions of the coach - the leader of the group, who acts as the bearer of the behavior model in the group, which sets the form of communication, the way of expressing feelings and perception of other people.
business games are constituent parts socio-psychological training. The business game is an imitation real situation, task or activity involving the division of functions and the interaction of participants. In this case, each of the participants plays certain role and, in accordance with this role, builds its relationships with other participants in the game.
Purpose of the method is to form in the course of training the skills of operational cooperation and interaction in the conditions of simulated activity. These skills are determined by the role, which prescribes the behavior of each of the participants. Participants must master the role, understand its content and expediency, comprehend its place in the system of relations of other participants.
essential reception of this method, which contributes to the understanding of the role and mutual understanding of the participants, is role reversal, when each of the participants in the game successively becomes each character in the game. This allows each time from a new position to consider and lose the relationship that arises in the course of the game.
Observation(can act, for example, in the form of self-observation or observation from the side of the actions, behavior and mental state of other people; “included” observation,
Interview(can be carried out in the form of interviews, conversations, questionnaires, testing, etc. A specific form of the survey is disputes and discussions, surveys public opinion mass media.
Study of documentary material(AT broad sense the words document are not only one or another form of information recorded on paper, but in general all products or traces human activity, knowledge of which is essential for understanding the nature and essence of the phenomena being studied.)
Correlation of methods of empirical and theoretical research. However, this is far from being complete characteristic methods, the application of which is necessary for the implementation of even empirical research. The latter becomes simply impossible without theoretical support and its methods already at the stage of empirical research design. The program of empirical research includes the implementation of the methods of conceptual analysis and modeling of the structural and functional features of the phenomenon under study, the definition of the problem field, the goals and objectives of the study, hypotheses regarding the nature of the processes under study, the results expected from the results of the study.
Information processing methods. After the necessary empirical material has been collected, the next stage of the study begins, which consists in determining the degree of reliability and representativeness of the information received, as well as in its quantitative processing. Required level reliability is ensured both by a combination of a number of methods, such as a survey or observation with an experiment and an analysis of objective indicators, and by the use of modern means computer science to process the received information. However, the problem of the accuracy of the study in social psychology is not limited to determining the degree of reliability and representativeness of empirical data. Not less than important condition the accuracy of the study are the rigor and orderliness of the logical system of science, scientific validity its principles, categories and laws.
When the degree of reliability of the initial data is determined, some kind of dependence, correlation between various elements of the object under study is established, the task of correlating previously formulated working hypotheses and models of the structure and mechanisms of the phenomenon under study with the obtained empirical data comes to the fore. At this stage, the system of fundamental theoretical principles of the researcher, the depth and consistency of the methodological apparatus of science acquire decisive importance. In accordance with this, we can talk not only about the totality of methods for obtaining, but also about the primary, quantitative processing of information, the system of methods for secondary, qualitative processing of empirical data in order to explain the established on the basis of analysis statistical material dependencies. (It would be more precise here to talk not just about the transition from quantitative to qualitative methods or methods qualitative analysis, but to methods for analyzing the quality of the phenomenon under study.)
The main methods at this stage of the study are the most important installations of social psychology, arising from socio-psychological theory, logical methods of generalization and analysis (inductive and deductive, analogy, etc.), the construction of working hypotheses and the modeling method. All these methods as a whole can be considered as ways of explaining the empirical data. Determining the place and significance of each of them in socio-psychological research can and should become the object of special work.
Following the construction of a working hypothesis and the corresponding model (at the stage preceding the start of collecting information), the stage of their verification begins. Here again all apply. known methods obtaining information to find out how it fits or does not fit, fits or does not fit new information to explain in terms of the established hypothesis and the corresponding model. However, the most effective and reliable method for testing working hypotheses and models is the method of socio-psychological experiment.
3. Methods of socio-psychological control. A special place in the arsenal of means of social psychology, along with methods of influence and research, is occupied by methods of socio-psychological control. Their specificity lies in the fact that they are applied, as a rule, firstly, on the basis of already available primary information about the object of observation; secondly, they go beyond purely research procedures; thirdly, they combine the methods of diagnostics and directed influence into one whole, subordinated to practical tasks.
Methods of socio-psychological control can be both an element of the research process, for example, an experiment, and have independent meaning. At the same time, the level of control is different: from simple one-act observation of a particular socio-psychological process to systematic observation, which involves regular removal of information from the object and measurements of its various parameters. Such is, for example, practice of socio-psychological monitoring.
Even more high level control is application of a whole range of methods, starting from diagnostics and ending with methods of purposeful corrective and regulatory influence on the object under examination.
Such is, for example, the practice of diagnosing (in this case, for the purpose of examination) and regulating the socio-psychological climate of the team (SPC). It includes the diagnosis of the entire set of components that make up the socio-psychological conditions of the life of a given team (its SPC, leadership style, leadership typology, the hierarchy of the main socio-psychological disagreements in the structure of both interpersonal and business relations between members of the collective), as well as a system of measures for correcting the horizontal and vertical structures of intra-collective relations and, thereby, the regulation of the SEC.
1. What are the main directions (orientations) in modern Western psychology.
2. Name the main postulates of the behavioral approach in social psychology, what theories implement this paradigm.
3. Describe the features of the psychoanalytic approach.
4. What is the essence of the cognitivist orientation? What theories can you name, what are their main ideas?
5. What is the fundamental difference between interactionism and other areas of social psychology?
6. What are the main ideas of interactionism?
7. What is the most important feature interactions (according to G. Mead)?
8. What methods does socio-psychological science use?
Psychological research is aimed at studying personality and mental qualities occurring in it. And for this, a toolkit is required, with the help of which it is necessary to measure how the properties and qualities of a person have changed. These measurements are subjected to special processing, the results of which are used to judge changes in the object of study.
Widely used in psychology various ways and techniques for processing results psychological research, their logical and mathematical analysis to obtain secondary results, i.e. factors and conclusions arising from the interpretation of the processed primary information. For this purpose, in particular, various methods mathematical statistics , without which it is often impossible to obtain reliable information about the phenomena being studied, and qualitative analysis methods.
The most commonly used data processing methods are statistical methods(finding average values, deviations from the average value, relationships between variables, significance level, reliability, identification of factors, etc.). Such methods allow revealing the existing patterns, presenting information in a generalized and visual form.
End of work -
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Discipline: psychology
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All topics in this section:
Methodological and theoretical foundations of psychology
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Special methodology of psychology (principles of psychological research)
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General principles of psychology
The principle of reflection. It reveals the understanding of the essence of the mental and its main functions, levels in the development of the human psyche. The peculiarity of the human psyche - a special form of reflection, due to
Principles of Integrative Psychology
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Private methodology of psychological science (methods of psychology)
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Organizational Methods
Comparative method– (the “cross cut” method) consists in comparing various groups people by age, education, activity and communication. For example, two large groups l
Experimental Methods
The experiment differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who systematically manipulates some factors and registers
Psychodiagnostic methods
Test - a system of tasks that measure the level of development of a certain quality (property) of a person. Achievement tests are one of the methods of psychodiagnostics
Interpretive methods
An important role is played by the methods of interpretation, which make it possible to give a content-psychological meaning to the data obtained. In other words, these methods allow you to translate received during the dia
Observation as a research method. Types of observation. The concept of experiment and its types
Observation - descriptive psychological research method, consisting in purposeful and organized perception and registration of the behavior of the studied about
According to the systematic distinction
Non-systematic observation, in which it is necessary to create a generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or a group of individuals under certain conditions and does not aim to fix under
Conscious observation
In conscious observation, the observed person is aware that he is being observed. Such an observation is carried out in the contact of the researcher with the subject, and the observed usually stays in
Peculiarities
The observer directly influences the actions and behavior of the observed, which, if the observation is incorrectly set up, can greatly affect its results. Observed subjects due to psychological
Unconscious inner observation
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Peculiarities
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Unconscious external observation
In unconscious external observation, the observed subjects are unaware that they are being observed, and the researcher conducts his observations without coming into direct contact with the object of observation.
Peculiarities
With this form of observation, the presence of the researcher in the role of an observer is not fixed by the observed, thereby reducing the impact on the naturalness of their actions. It is also possible to use technical
APA Code of Ethics and Observations
Code of Ethics of the American Psychological Association (permits observation subject to compliance with certain rules and taking certain precautions. Here are some of the
Advantages of the Observation Method
Observation allows you to directly capture and record acts of behavior. Observation allows you to simultaneously capture the behavior of a number of persons in relation to each other or to certain
Conversation. Survey methods. Generalization of independent characteristics. Analysis of activity products. Testing. Sociometry
The method of conversation is a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically oriented dialogue between a psychologist and a respondent in order to obtain information
Rules for compiling questions
· Each question should be logical and separate and combine separate sub-questions. · It is forbidden to use uncommon, obscure words and special terms. Question
Types of questions in accordance with the tasks to be solved
· Closed - open o Closed (structured) questions require the choice of an answer from a list. Closed questions can be dichotomous (“yes/no”) or multiple
The methods used in social psychology to collect empirical data are to a certain extent interdisciplinary and are used not only in social psychology, but also in other sciences, for example, in sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. The whole set of methods can be divided into two large groups: research methods and methods of influence. The latter belong to a specific area of social psychology, to the so-called "". Research methods, in turn, differ in the methods of collecting information and methods of processing it.
There are many other classifications of methods of socio-psychological research. For example, there are three groups of methods:
1) methods of empirical research;
2) modeling methods;
3) managerial and educational methods.
Among the methods of collecting information, one should name: studying documents (in particular, content analysis), different kind(questionnaires, interviews), various kinds of tests (including the most common sociometric test), and finally, an experiment (both laboratory and natural). In most cases, these methods are identical to those used in sociology and psychology.
Observation is the "oldest" method of social psychology and is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception phenomena in order to study their specific changes under certain conditions and to find the meaning of these phenomena, which are not directly given. In the case of obtaining data on open behavior, on the actions of individuals, the method of observation plays a very important role. the main problem The problem that arises when applying the observation method is how to ensure the fixation of some specific classes of characteristics so that the “reading” of the observation protocol is understandable and can be interpreted by another researcher in terms of a hypothesis.
The study of documents has great importance, because with the help of this method it is possible to analyze the products of human activity. Special problem arises here in connection with the fact that the document interprets - the researcher, i.e. a person with his own, inherent in him individual psychological characteristics. critical role when studying a document plays, for example, the ability to understand the text.
To overcome the "subjectivity" in the interpretation of the document by the researcher, a special technique is introduced, called "" (literally: "content analysis"). This is a special, more or less formalized method of document analysis, when special “units” are highlighted in the text, and then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to use the content analysis method only in cases where the researcher is dealing with a large amount of information, so that one has to analyze numerous texts.
A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Among the many, the most widespread in social psychology are interviewing and questioning (especially in studies of large groups).
Questionnaire method - a written survey in which communication between the researcher and the respondent, who is the source necessary information, mediated by the questionnaire.
Interviewing is a method of collecting information that involves oral appeal researcher to certain population people with questions whose content represents the problem under study. During the interview, all the ways of influencing one person on another described in social psychology are manifested, all the laws and norms of their communication are in effect.
The main methodological problems that arise when applying these methods lie in the design of the questionnaire. The first requirement here is the logic of its construction, ensuring that the questionnaire delivers exactly the information that is required by the hypothesis, and that this information is as reliable as possible.
A test is a special kind of test in which the subject performs either a specially designed task, or answers questions that differ from questions in questionnaires or interviews. Questions in tests are indirect. Tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, they are widely used in various areas psychology. When talking about the use of tests in social psychology, they mean most often personality tests, less often group tests. There are not many tests that are relevant for diagnosing a group. An example is the widely used sociometric test, which will be discussed specifically in the small group section.
There is no particular specificity in the application of this method in socio-psychological research: all methodological standards for the use of tests adopted in general psychology, are also valid here.
The experiment acts as one of the main research methods in social psychology. The specificity of the experiment lies in the fact that an artificial situation is deliberately and thoughtfully created in it, in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best possible way. In other words, the experiment creates an imitation of everyday processes. By varying one or two factors - called independent variables - the experimenter finds out how changing them affects people. Controversy around opportunities and limitations experimental method in this area is one of the most heated controversies on methodological issues at the present time.
By experimenting, social psychologists sometimes create situations that affect. In this case, scientists are required to follow professional ethical rules: obtain consent from the subjects, follow the principle of “do no harm”, after the completion of the experiment, fully disclose to the participants any temporary deception.
In social psychology, there are two main ones: laboratory and natural. For both types, there are general rules, expressing the essence of the method, namely: the arbitrary introduction by the experimenter of independent variables and control over them, as well as over changes in dependent variables. Also common is the requirement to isolate the control and experimental group so that the measurement results can be compared with some standard. However, along with these general requirements laboratory and natural experiments have their own rules.
Each science has its own methods of research and collection of information. Social psychology is no exception. Although, as independent science, it began to be allocated only to late XIX century. The methods of social psychology are used to study the main psychological phenomena in society and their patterns. The study of the totality of all indicators helps to reveal the essence and depth of the ongoing processes and phenomena in society.
All methods used in social psychology can be divided into two large groups:
1. The method of collecting information (observation, experiment, survey, test, study of documentary sources).
2. Information processing method (correlation and factor analysis, building typologies, etc.).
Observation
This method can rightly be called the most "ancient" and one of the most popular. It does not require special preparations and tools. True, there is a significant drawback - no clear plan data capture and interpretation. Each subsequent researcher will describe the data through the prism of his perception.
What is the subject of observation in social psychology? First of all, verbal and non-verbal acts in the behavior of one person, small or large group that are under certain conditions. social environment or situations. For example, answer the question?
Observation is of several types:
External observation is a method of collecting information that each of us often uses. The researcher, through direct observation from the outside, obtains information about the psychology and behavior of people.
Internal observation or self-observation is when a research psychologist wants to study a phenomenon of interest to him exactly in the form in which it is represented in consciousness. Sets a task and leads internal surveillance behind yourself.
Observation considers an object or phenomenon as a whole. This method of social psychology is not limited to a clear program of study. The observer can change the object of his observation at any time if he is interested in something that was not planned in advance. Using this method, it will not be possible to identify the cause of what is happening, and a lot of time will have to be spent.
Experiment
This method of psychological research is quite specific. The researcher, if necessary, can work and create artificial situation to study a certain property, which “here and now” will be best manifested.
The experiment is natural and laboratory. What distinguishes them is that the psychology and behavior of people can be studied in remote or close to reality conditions.
A natural experiment takes place under normal conditions. life situation. The researcher only fixes the data, without interfering in the course of events.
Laboratory experiment opposite. It takes place in a previously artificially created situation. This is done in order to study a certain property as best as possible.
Interview
One of the frequently used methods of social psychology can be safely called - a survey. This is usually a series of questions that the subjects must answer. Its biggest advantage is that it can be covered a large number of respondents in a short period of time.
Specialists use oral questioning when it is necessary to observe how a person behaves and how he reacts to questions. It, in contrast to the written one, will allow a deeper study of human psychology. However, it requires more special training and time.
In order to cover a large number of subjects, a written survey is used - a questionnaire.
If a written or oral survey is not limited to certain answers to questions, then it is called free. Its plus is that you can get interesting and non-standard answers.
For all of us famous tests It is also one of the methods of social psychology. With their help, the researcher receives accurate information, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
With the help of tests it is easy to compare psychology with each other different people, give assessments, study yourself. Probably, everyone at least once answered the questions of the tests?
Tests are divided into two types - task and questionnaire. We often come across questionnaires. They are based on a system of responses that are carefully selected and tested for reliability and validity. The test questionnaire allows you to study psychological qualities of people.
The test task will help to assess the psychological and behavioral qualities of a person based on what and how he does. This method is based on a series special assignments presented to the examinee. Based on the results of the test, we can talk about whether a person has a certain quality and how developed it is.
Sociometry is widely used in the study of the psychology and behavior of small groups.
Statistical method
Methods and models of mathematical statistics are widely used in social psychology. They help in the collection of information, as well as its processing, analysis, modeling and comparison of results.
In the article, we have listed the main methods of research in social psychology. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. Which method to choose depends on what goal the researcher sets for himself and what process or phenomenon he plans to study.
