ilhelm was the second son in the family, he was not prepared to inherit the throne and was given exclusively military education. In 1807 he was promoted to lieutenant, and from 1813 he participated in all campaigns against. Under fire, he invariably showed composure and courage. In 1814, in the battle of Bar-sur-Aube, seventeen-year-old Wilhelm led the Kaluga regiment into the attack, for which he was awarded the Russian St. George and Iron Prussian Crosses. In 1818 he was promoted to general and received an infantry brigade under his command, and in 1838 he was appointed commander of the guard. Long years Wilhelm was engaged exclusively in army affairs. The army became his religion: he breathed it, he lived it, he agreed to all sorts of sacrifices for it. But the army was not a toy for him and did not exist for divorces and parades; love for the army was closely intertwined with love for the motherland.

Wilhelm turned to politics only in 1840 after his elder brother's accession to the throne. Unlike his brother, who seriously thought about reforms, Prince Wilhelm showed himself to be a zealous and firm defender of "Old Prussia". He was adamantly opposed to any change in everything that concerned the absolute royalty, and could not allow the thought that a representative assembly would deal with the most fundamental issue for him - the army. During the March battles of 1848 in Berlin, Wilhelm was a supporter of the most severe measures, but did not have the strength to resist the revolutionary onslaught. The indignant crowd of people almost destroyed his house. Friedrich Wilhelm ordered his brother to leave the country. Fearing reprisals, Wilhelm shaved off his mustache and fled to England under the name of "postman Lehmann." Here he spent two months, and this time was not lost for him. Conversations with British constitutional ministers led him to the conviction that a constitution does not at all mean anarchy. Therefore, he announced that he was joining the new constitutional order that was bestowed on the people by his brother.

Elected deputy of one of the districts, Wilhelm returned to Berlin in June. A year later, in June 1849, he led the troops that cracked down on the rebels in Baden and the Palatinate. After the surrender of the Rishtatt fortress, he declared the agreement on its surrender invalid. Many insurgents were shot. This "feat" of Wilhelm secured him the nickname "card-card prince". In June 1857, after becoming incapable of ruling the state due to insanity and paralysis, Wilhelm became regent. According to Bismarck, at that time he "felt very vividly the lack of his education and worked day and night in order to make up for this gap." Wilhelm took his new duties very seriously. He never neglected them, did not smoke, did not play cards. The only entertainment for him was an evening visit to the theater.

In 1861, after brother's death, Wilhelm took the Prussian throne. new king was not outstanding personality, did not possess an ardent imagination and captivating manners of his predecessor. But he was distinguished by a penchant for diligent work, perseverance in carrying out his intentions, firm will, the ability to unravel people and use their talents to achieve their goals. He lacked initiative, but once he approved of this or that course of action, he held it with unshakable firmness. With all this, he had a practical mind, straightforwardness and a clear understanding of the actual conditions. modern life. Having received the crown, he immediately began to take care of the reorganization of the Prussian army. Wilhelm proposed to increase it strength, extend the service of reservists to three years and introduce a three-year term active duty. To cover military costs, the king proposed raising taxes by 25% and taxing the noble lands (prior to this, the nobles did not pay taxes). The discussion of this reform took such sharp character that it came to a constitutional conflict with the Chamber of Deputies.

In July 1861, an assassination attempt was made on the king in Baden-Baden. At this critical moment, Wilhelm seriously considered abdicating, but then decided to continue the fight. In September 1862 he appointed Minister-President Otto Bismarck, who then was the permanent first minister until his death. Next years took place in a fierce struggle for the military budget. After the lower house rejected it, and the upper house approved it without any change, the government adopted the law for execution. It was direct violation the Prussian constitution, which caused a storm of indignation. Bismarck ignored them. In 1863, he also managed without the approval of the budget. It is difficult to say how this confrontation between the two branches of power could have ended if the energetic foreign policy did not bring the support of the nation to the king and his minister. The first success was achieved in the war with Denmark. The conflict broke out after the Danish Reichstag adopted new constitution, valid for both Denmark and the German-speaking Duchy of Schleswig, after which Schleswig was to finally merge with Denmark. Wilhelm and Austrian emperor demanded the abolition of the Danish constitution in the German duchies, and when they refused, they declared war on Denmark.

On February 1, 1864, Prussian and Austrian troops occupied Schleswig. The weak Danish army, thrown back from its positions, hastened to evacuate to the islands. By mid-May, the entire peninsula up to Limfjord was in German hands. In the summer, the conquest of the islands began. At the beginning of August Danish king requested peace, which was signed on 30 October. Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were ceded by Denmark to the victors. This war served as a prologue to a new one - this time between Prussia and Austria. Friendly relations between the two great powers deteriorated after the desire of Bismarck and Wilhelm to annex Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia became clear. loudly protested against this turn of events. In response, a demonstrative rapprochement between Prussia and Italy began. The exchange of notes with Austria took on an increasingly sharp character. In mid-June 1866, hostilities began.

Not only the German governments, but also public opinion in Prussia itself was against this fratricidal war. Wilhelm himself, according to him, decided on it with a "heavy heart". However, the success of the Prussian weapons exceeded all expectations. Already July 3 Austrian army was defeated in a fierce battle at Sadovaya. This battle decided the fate of not only Austria, but the whole of Germany. In one day, Prussia, before the eyes of all Europe, grew into a powerful military power. No wonder the winner was dizzy. Wilhelm wanted the Prussian army to enter Vienna; he demanded major territorial acquisitions. Cold-blooded Bismarck cost great work temper his militant mood. A politician, he understood what the king and generals did not understand. Having occupied Vienna, Prussia received only Vienna and ... an enemy eager for revenge. If, on the other hand, generously limiting itself to the victory at Sadovaya, Prussia received all of Austria as a faithful satellite for the future. Bismarck insisted on very moderate peace terms: Austria was excluded from the German Confederation, Venice joined Italy, Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Casel, Frankfurt, Schleswig and Holstein went to Prussia.

A month later, Wilhelm solemnly entered Berlin. Not even a memory remains of the hostile mood of the opposition. The crowd greeted the king with noisy expressions of delight. From that time on, his popularity knew no bounds. The Chamber by a huge majority voted all government projects and gave all requested credits. One of the important consequences of the Austro-Prussian war was the formation of the North German Confederation, which, along with Prussia, included about 30 more states. All of them, according to the constitution adopted in 1867, formed a single territory with laws and institutions common to all. External and military policy Union was actually transferred into the hands Prussian king who was declared its president. A customs and military treaty was soon concluded with the South German states. These steps clearly showed that Germany was rapidly moving towards its unification under the leadership of Prussia.

More than others, he was alarmed by the formation of a powerful state near the borders of his state. military empire. French and Prussian interests kept clashing over various issues. However, the final break came in July 1870 in connection with Spanish affairs. Upon learning that King Wilhelm allowed Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern to take the Spanish throne (which the Cortes asked him to do), he sharply demanded that the Prussian government withdraw the candidacy of his prince. Wilhelm, who at that time did not want war at all, advised Leopold to refuse the offer of the Cortes. Napoleon was not satisfied with this and sharply demanded from Wilhelm to give obligations "and in the future not to allow the candidacy of Hohenzollern." This note seemed extremely offensive to the old king (and to all Prussians). Wilhelm himself proudly ignored the impudence of the emperor, but Bismarck gave a bilious and caustic refusal on his behalf. Frustrated, Napoleon declared war on Prussia.

It was big mistake on his part, since in the face of all of Europe the French found themselves in the role of the attacker and the wrong side. The German nation was seized by an unprecedented patriotic upsurge. The last obstacles that hindered the unification of Germany fell in these days under the pressure of a frenzied national enthusiasm. Sovereigns not only of the North, but also Southern unions declared themselves on the side of Prussia. Advanced years did not prevent Wilhelm from taking a personal part in the offensive of his army. The success of the Prussians this time exceeded all expectations. One victory followed another, and exactly one month after the outbreak of hostilities, a significant part French army was exactly iron ring, surrounded German troops under Sedan and capitulated.

He himself surrendered to William. To the credit of the Prussian king, at the sight of the defeated enemy, he did not experience malicious feelings, but expressed only compassion for him, as for a person who had experienced a cruel vicissitude of fate. Wilhelm wrote to his wife: "I cannot express what I felt, remembering how three years ago I saw the emperor at the height of his power." But the fall of the empire did not end the war. The French, seized with patriotism, heroically defended their land, but could no longer turn the tide of the war. Prussian army quickly approached Paris and began the siege of the French capital. In October Metz capitulated. Meanwhile, Wilhelm started negotiations with the South German sovereigns about their entry into the Northern Alliance. In November, at Versailles, the negotiations were brought to the desired end. The Northern Union ceased to exist, giving way to a single German Confederation.

In December, the Bavarian king offered to restore the German Empire, which had been destroyed in its time. This proposal was immediately accepted, and the Reichstag turned to Wilhelm with a request to accept the imperial crown. On January 18, 1871, all the German princes gathered in the mirror gallery of Versailles, and here Wilhelm was proclaimed German emperor. Shortly thereafter, Paris capitulated, and the peace talks. March 2 was concluded Treaty of Paris- heavy and humiliating for France. The border territories of Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to Germany. The vanquished had to pay 5 billion indemnities. This was finest hour for Emperor Wilhelm. He returned to Berlin in triumph, accompanied by widespread expressions of delight and love, which very rarely fell to the lot of any sovereign.

In later years, when Germany returned to peaceful life, the warm sympathies of the subjects faded somewhat. Prussian domination, initially accepted with such enthusiasm, began to seem very burdensome for the Germans. The stubborn struggle between the emperor and the imperial Reichstag for the further expansion of constitutional rights became perhaps the main phenomenon of the German political life A new danger was soon added to it - from the rapidly taking shape of the working-class socialist movement.

Third important point political life in Germany under Wilhelm was the struggle with the Catholic Church. After the unification of Germany, many Catholic deputies from the southern German regions appeared in the Reichstag. Soon they united in a party that fought against Prussian domination in Germany. Feeling threatened by this side, Bismarck hastened to cut the ground from under the feet of the clerics by passing several radical laws against catholic church. Schools were separated from the church, civil marriage was introduced, Jesuits were expelled, many bishops were deposed, exiled or imprisoned. But these measures only irritated the Catholic population. Fortunately, the death of the frantic pope allowed both sides to take steps towards reconciliation.

The new Pope, who had begun peace negotiations, was given the answer that true world can take place only under the condition of recognition of state laws by the Catholic clergy. strengthening outside world contributed to the friendly relations that Emperor Wilhelm maintained with the most powerful of foreign sovereigns. During his meetings with the Austrian emperor in Bad Ischl and Salzburg in 1871, an end was put to the enmity of 1866 and an old friendship was restored. During the meeting of the three emperors in Berlin, which took place from September 6 to 11, 1872, the consent of the three monarchs was established in all major political issues. These visits were joined by a visit by Emperor Wilhelm in 1873 to St. Petersburg and Vienna and the visit of the king to Berlin. For a visit last emperor responded with a trip to Milan, where on October 18, 1873, he received a sympathetic reception from the population.

The internal affairs of the empire, the debates of the Reichstag and the Prussian Diet, Wilhelm gave the liveliest attention. There was almost no national festival in which he did not take a personal part. technical improvement German army he devoted most of all to his work. Sparing no effort, he invariably participated in the maneuvers of the troops, which took place annually in the Northern and Southern Germany. These maneuver trips were not without political significance: they served to maintain friendly relations between the emperor and his relatives and the population various parts German Empire. Center of gravity European policy was moved to Berlin.

Among these successes, an unexpected attempt was made on the life of Emperor Wilhelm. On May 11, 1878, the apprentice tinsmith Gödel fired two shots at the emperor with a revolver when Wilhelm was driving in an open carriage, with the Grand Duchess of Baden, along Unter den Linden. The emperor remained unharmed, and the attacker was detained. The result of this was the introduction of the Socialist Law into the Reichstag, but on May 24 it was rejected. On June 2, when the emperor, sitting alone in a carriage, was driving to the Tiergarten, two shots were fired at him from the window of the second floor of house number 18 along Unter den Linden, and the emperor received several serious wounds. The perpetrator of the assassination, Dr. Karl Eduard Nobiling, who inflicted a dangerous wound on himself, was arrested at the scene of the crime. Gödel was beheaded in Berlin on August 16, 1878; Nobiling died on September 10, 1878 from the effects of a self-inflicted wound. During the emperor's illness, he entrusted the crown prince with the conduct of higher government affairs.

After two assassination attempts, Bismarck succeeded in getting the infamous "anti-socialist law" through the Reichstag. On the basis of this law, many newspapers and societies were closed, often very far from socialism. This could not but cause indignation on the part of the left forces, but the emperor continued to consider the adoption of the law a "world-historical" act until his death, which was supposed to curb the enemy, who threatened "the death of the entire state order."

On December 5, the emperor again entered into government. On June 11, 1879, the imperial couple celebrated their golden wedding. More than 600 pardon decrees granted freedom to those imprisoned for various crimes on this day. At the end of his reign, William conceived social reforms. He addressed the Reichstag with messages dated November 17, 1881 and April 14, 1883, as a result of which the law on funds for sick workers was issued in 1883, in 1884 the law on insurance against accidents, and in 1885 both these laws were extended on workers serving in various transport institutions, and in 1886 - on agricultural and forestry workers. In the emperor's rescript of January 4, 1882, the desire of the opposition parties to introduce a parliamentary form of government was opposed by the constitutional right of the Prussian king to personally direct the policy of his government. The "cultural struggle" was stopped, relations with the Vatican were resumed, all vacancies bishops replaced.

The cooling of the old friendship between Prussia and Russia, which came after the Berlin Congress, prompted Wilhelm to arrange a meeting with the emperor in Alexandrov on September 3, 1879. Since this meeting was unsuccessful, he signed the defensive alliance concluded by Prince Bismarck on October 15, 1879 with Austria-Hungary, to which Italy joined in 1883. Thanks to the annual meetings that took place between the emperors Wilhelm and in Gastein, this alliance became stronger and closer. On September 9, 1881, the emperor had a meeting with Wilhelm in Danzig, on September 15-17, 1884 - in the Polish castle in Skierniewice. Wilhelm's appointment with the emperor, which took place on August 8-10, 1886, was an event great importance, as the reason for it was the emergence of dangers in the East and West, and its purpose was to discuss general events in case of famous events. On January 1, 1887, the emperor celebrated the 80th anniversary of his entry into the army, and on March 9 of the following year he died.

ilhelm was the second son in the family, he was not prepared to inherit the throne and was given an exclusively military education. In 1807 he was promoted to lieutenant, and from 1813 he participated in all campaigns against. Under fire, he invariably showed composure and courage. In 1814, in the battle of Bar-sur-Aube, seventeen-year-old Wilhelm led the Kaluga regiment into the attack, for which he was awarded the Russian St. George and Iron Prussian Crosses. In 1818 he was promoted to general and received an infantry brigade under his command, and in 1838 he was appointed commander of the guard. For many years, Wilhelm was engaged exclusively in army affairs. The army became his religion: he breathed it, he lived it, he agreed to all sorts of sacrifices for it. But the army was not a toy for him and did not exist for divorces and parades; love for the army was closely intertwined with love for the motherland.

Wilhelm turned to politics only in 1840 after his elder brother's accession to the throne. Unlike his brother, who seriously thought about reforms, Prince Wilhelm showed himself to be a zealous and firm defender of "Old Prussia". He was an adamant opponent of any change in everything that concerned absolute royal power, and could not allow the idea that a representative assembly would touch on the most fundamental issue for him - the army. During the March battles of 1848 in Berlin, Wilhelm was a supporter of the most severe measures, but did not have the strength to resist the revolutionary onslaught. The indignant crowd of people almost destroyed his house. Friedrich Wilhelm ordered his brother to leave the country. Fearing reprisals, Wilhelm shaved off his mustache and fled to England under the name of "postman Lehmann." Here he spent two months, and this time was not lost for him. Conversations with British constitutional ministers led him to the conviction that a constitution does not at all mean anarchy. Therefore, he announced that he was joining the new constitutional order that was bestowed on the people by his brother.

Elected deputy of one of the districts, Wilhelm returned to Berlin in June. A year later, in June 1849, he led the troops that cracked down on the rebels in Baden and the Palatinate. After the surrender of the Rishtatt fortress, he declared the agreement on its surrender invalid. Many insurgents were shot. This "feat" of Wilhelm secured him the nickname "card-card prince". In June 1857, after becoming incapable of ruling the state due to insanity and paralysis, Wilhelm became regent. According to Bismarck, at that time he "felt very vividly the lack of his education and worked day and night in order to make up for this gap." Wilhelm took his new duties very seriously. He never neglected them, did not smoke, did not play cards. The only entertainment for him was an evening visit to the theater.

In 1861, after the death of his brother, Wilhelm took the Prussian throne. The new king was not an outstanding personality, did not have the ardent imagination and captivating manners of his predecessor. But he was distinguished by a penchant for diligent work, perseverance in carrying out his intentions, a strong will, the ability to unravel people and use their talents to achieve their goals. He lacked initiative, but once he approved of this or that course of action, he held it with unshakable firmness. With all this, he had a practical mind, straightforwardness and a clear understanding of the actual conditions of modern life. Having received the crown, he immediately began to take care of the reorganization of the Prussian army. Wilhelm proposed to increase its strength, extend the service of the reservists to three years and introduce a three-year term of active service. To cover military costs, the king proposed raising taxes by 25% and taxing the noble lands (prior to this, the nobles did not pay taxes). The discussion of this reform took on such a heated character that it came to a constitutional conflict with the Chamber of Deputies.

In July 1861, an assassination attempt was made on the king in Baden-Baden. At this critical moment, Wilhelm seriously considered abdicating, but then decided to continue the fight. In September 1862, he appointed Otto Bismarck Minister-President, who then was the permanent first minister until his death. The following years passed in a fierce struggle for the military budget. After the lower house rejected it, and the upper house approved it without any change, the government adopted the law for execution. This was a direct violation of the Prussian constitution, which caused a storm of indignation. Bismarck ignored them. In 1863, he also managed without the approval of the budget. It is difficult to say how this confrontation between the two branches of power could have ended if an energetic foreign policy had not brought the support of the nation to the king and his minister. The first success was achieved in the war with Denmark. The conflict erupted after the Danish Reichstag adopted a new constitution, valid for both Denmark and the German-speaking Duchy of Schleswig, after which Schleswig was to finally merge with Denmark. Wilhelm and the Austrian emperor demanded the abolition of the Danish constitution in the German duchies, and when they refused, they declared war on Denmark.

On February 1, 1864, Prussian and Austrian troops occupied Schleswig. The weak Danish army, thrown back from its positions, hastened to evacuate to the islands. By mid-May, the entire peninsula up to Limfjord was in German hands. In the summer, the conquest of the islands began. In early August, the Danish king requested peace, which was signed on 30 October. Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were ceded by Denmark to the victors. This war served as a prologue to a new one - this time between Prussia and Austria. Friendly relations between the two great powers deteriorated after the desire of Bismarck and Wilhelm to annex Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia became clear. loudly protested against this turn of events. In response, a demonstrative rapprochement between Prussia and Italy began. The exchange of notes with Austria took on an increasingly sharp character. In mid-June 1866, hostilities began.

Not only the German governments, but also public opinion in Prussia itself was against this fratricidal war. Wilhelm himself, according to him, decided on it with a "heavy heart". However, the success of the Prussian weapons exceeded all expectations. Already on July 3, the Austrian army was defeated in a fierce battle at Sadovaya. This battle decided the fate of not only Austria, but the whole of Germany. In one day, Prussia, before the eyes of all Europe, grew into a powerful military power. No wonder the winner was dizzy. Wilhelm wanted the Prussian army to enter Vienna; he demanded major territorial acquisitions. The cold-blooded Bismarck took great pains to moderate his militant mood. A politician, he understood what the king and generals did not understand. Having occupied Vienna, Prussia received only Vienna and ... an enemy eager for revenge. If, on the other hand, generously limiting itself to the victory at Sadovaya, Prussia received all of Austria as a faithful satellite for the future. Bismarck insisted on very moderate peace terms: Austria was excluded from the German Confederation, Venice joined Italy, Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Casel, Frankfurt, Schleswig and Holstein went to Prussia.

A month later, Wilhelm solemnly entered Berlin. Not even a memory remains of the hostile mood of the opposition. The crowd greeted the king with noisy expressions of delight. From that time on, his popularity knew no bounds. The Chamber by a huge majority voted all government projects and gave all requested credits. One of the important consequences of the Austro-Prussian war was the formation of the North German Confederation, which, along with Prussia, included about 30 more states. All of them, according to the constitution adopted in 1867, formed a single territory with laws and institutions common to all. The foreign and military policy of the union was actually transferred into the hands of the Prussian king, who was declared its president. A customs and military treaty was soon concluded with the South German states. These steps clearly showed that Germany was rapidly moving towards its unification under the leadership of Prussia.

More than others, he was alarmed by the formation of a powerful military empire near the borders of his state. French and Prussian interests kept clashing on various issues. However, the final break came in July 1870 in connection with Spanish affairs. Upon learning that King Wilhelm allowed Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern to take the Spanish throne (which the Cortes asked him to do), he sharply demanded that the Prussian government withdraw the candidacy of his prince. Wilhelm, who at that time did not want war at all, advised Leopold to refuse the offer of the Cortes. Napoleon was not satisfied with this and sharply demanded from Wilhelm to give obligations "and in the future not to allow the candidacy of Hohenzollern." This note seemed extremely offensive to the old king (and to all Prussians). Wilhelm himself proudly ignored the impudence of the emperor, but Bismarck gave a bilious and caustic refusal on his behalf. Frustrated, Napoleon declared war on Prussia.

This was a big mistake on his part, because in the face of all of Europe, the French found themselves in the role of the attacker and the wrong side. The German nation was seized by an unprecedented patriotic upsurge. The last obstacles that hindered the unification of Germany fell in these days under the pressure of a frenzied national enthusiasm. The sovereigns of not only the Northern, but also the Southern Unions declared themselves on the side of Prussia. Advanced years did not prevent Wilhelm from taking a personal part in the offensive of his army. The success of the Prussians this time exceeded all expectations. One victory followed another, and exactly one month after the outbreak of hostilities, a significant part of the French army was, like an iron ring, surrounded by German troops near Sedan and capitulated.

He himself surrendered to William. To the credit of the Prussian king, at the sight of the defeated enemy, he did not experience malicious feelings, but expressed only compassion for him, as for a person who had experienced a cruel vicissitude of fate. Wilhelm wrote to his wife: "I cannot express what I felt, remembering how three years ago I saw the emperor at the height of his power." But the fall of the empire did not end the war. The French, seized with patriotism, heroically defended their land, but could no longer turn the tide of the war. The Prussian army quickly approached Paris and began the siege of the French capital. In October Metz capitulated. Meanwhile, Wilhelm started negotiations with the South German sovereigns about their entry into the Northern Alliance. In November, at Versailles, the negotiations were brought to the desired end. The Northern Alliance ceased to exist, giving way to a single German Union.

In December, the Bavarian king offered to restore the German Empire, which had been destroyed in its time. This proposal was immediately accepted, and the Reichstag turned to Wilhelm with a request to accept the imperial crown. On January 18, 1871, all the German princes gathered in the mirror gallery of Versailles, and here Wilhelm was proclaimed German emperor. Shortly thereafter, Paris capitulated and peace negotiations began. On March 2, the Treaty of Paris was concluded - difficult and humiliating for France. The border territories of Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to Germany. The vanquished had to pay 5 billion indemnities. It was a high point for Emperor Wilhelm. He returned to Berlin in triumph, accompanied by widespread expressions of delight and love, which very rarely fell to the lot of any sovereign.

In subsequent years, when Germany returned to peaceful life, the ardent sympathies of the subjects faded somewhat. Prussian domination, initially accepted with such enthusiasm, began to seem very burdensome for the Germans. The stubborn struggle between the emperor and the imperial Reichstag for the further expansion of constitutional rights became perhaps the main phenomenon of German political life. A new danger was soon added to it - from the rapidly taking shape of the socialist workers' movement.

The third important moment in the political life of Germany under Wilhelm was the struggle with the Catholic Church. After the unification of Germany, many Catholic deputies from the southern German regions appeared in the Reichstag. Soon they united in a party that fought against Prussian domination in Germany. Feeling threatened by this side, Bismarck hastened to cut the ground from under the feet of the clerics by passing several radical laws against the Catholic Church. Schools were separated from the church, civil marriage was introduced, Jesuits were expelled, many bishops were deposed, exiled or imprisoned. But these measures only irritated the Catholic population. Fortunately, the death of the frantic pope allowed both sides to take steps towards reconciliation.

The new Pope, who began peace negotiations, was given the answer that true peace could take place only under the condition that state laws be recognized by the Catholic clergy. The strengthening of the outside world was facilitated by the friendly relations that Emperor Wilhelm maintained with the most powerful of foreign sovereigns. During his meetings with the Austrian emperor in Bad Ischl and Salzburg in 1871, an end was put to the enmity of 1866 and an old friendship was restored. During the meeting of the three emperors in Berlin, which took place from September 6 to 11, 1872, the consent of the three monarchs was established in all major political issues. These visits were joined by a visit by Emperor Wilhelm in 1873 to St. Petersburg and Vienna and the visit of the king to Berlin. The emperor responded to a visit to the latter with a trip to Milan, where on October 18, 1873, he received a sympathetic reception from the population.

The internal affairs of the empire, the debates of the Reichstag and the Prussian Diet, Wilhelm gave the liveliest attention. There was almost no national festival in which he did not take a personal part. He devoted most of his activity to the technical improvement of the German army. Sparing no effort, he invariably participated in the maneuvers of the troops, which took place annually in Northern and Southern Germany. These trips to the maneuvers were not without political significance: they served to maintain the friendly relations of the emperor with his relatives and with the population of various parts of the German Empire. The center of gravity of European politics was transferred to Berlin.

Among these successes, an unexpected attempt was made on the life of Emperor Wilhelm. On May 11, 1878, the apprentice tinsmith Gödel fired two shots at the emperor with a revolver when Wilhelm was driving in an open carriage, with the Grand Duchess of Baden, along Unter den Linden. The emperor remained unharmed, and the attacker was detained. The result of this was the introduction of the Socialist Law into the Reichstag, but on May 24 it was rejected. On June 2, when the emperor, sitting alone in a carriage, was driving to the Tiergarten, two shots were fired at him from the window of the second floor of house number 18 along Unter den Linden, and the emperor received several serious wounds. The perpetrator of the assassination, Dr. Karl Eduard Nobiling, who inflicted a dangerous wound on himself, was arrested at the scene of the crime. Gödel was beheaded in Berlin on August 16, 1878; Nobiling died on September 10, 1878 from the effects of a self-inflicted wound. During the emperor's illness, he entrusted the crown prince with the conduct of higher government affairs.

After two assassination attempts, Bismarck succeeded in getting the infamous "anti-socialist law" through the Reichstag. On the basis of this law, many newspapers and societies were closed, often very far from socialism. This could not but cause indignation on the part of the left forces, but the emperor continued to consider the adoption of the law a "world-historical" act until his death, which was supposed to curb the enemy, who threatened "the death of the entire state order."

On December 5, the emperor again entered into government. On June 11, 1879, the imperial couple celebrated their golden wedding. More than 600 pardon decrees granted freedom to those imprisoned for various crimes on this day. At the end of his reign, Wilhelm conceived social reforms. He addressed the Reichstag with messages dated November 17, 1881 and April 14, 1883, as a result of which the law on funds for sick workers was issued in 1883, in 1884 the law on insurance against accidents, and in 1885 both these laws were extended on workers serving in various transport institutions, and in 1886 - on agricultural and forestry workers. In the emperor's rescript of January 4, 1882, the desire of the opposition parties to introduce a parliamentary form of government was opposed by the constitutional right of the Prussian king to personally direct the policy of his government. The "cultural struggle" was stopped, relations with the Vatican were resumed, all the vacant places of bishops were filled.

The cooling of the old friendship between Prussia and Russia, which came after the Berlin Congress, prompted Wilhelm to arrange a meeting with the emperor in Alexandrov on September 3, 1879. Since this meeting was unsuccessful, he signed the defensive alliance concluded by Prince Bismarck on October 15, 1879 with Austria-Hungary, to which Italy joined in 1883. Thanks to the annual meetings that took place between the emperors Wilhelm and in Gastein, this alliance became stronger and closer. On September 9, 1881, the emperor had a meeting with Wilhelm in Danzig, on September 15-17, 1884 - in the Polish castle in Skierniewice. Wilhelm's meeting with the emperor, which took place on August 8-10, 1886, was an event of great importance, since the emergence of dangers in the East and West served as the reason for it, and its purpose was to discuss general measures in case of known events. On January 1, 1887, the emperor celebrated the 80th anniversary of his entry into the army, and on March 9 of the following year he died.

William I the Conqueror (William of Normandy or William the Illegitimate; English William I the Conqueror, William the Bastard, French Guillaume le Conquérant, Guillaume le Bâtard; 1027/1028 - September 9, 1087) - Duke of Normandy (as William II; since 1035 ) and King of England (since 1066).

Wilhelm was born in Falaise, Normandy. He was illegitimate son Robert I, who was a Norman duke. At the age of 8, Wilhelm inherited his father's title. Wilhelm was constantly bullied by rivals. He was called "bastard" (geek). Only thanks to the patronage of the French king Henry I, Wilhelm was able to live to adulthood. At a more adult age, Wilhelm showed talents to conduct military affairs and inspire warriors. As an adult, Wilhelm ended internecine wars and established himself on the throne. He consolidated power over Normandy by force. Immediately afterwards, William invades Brittany and the province of Maine. The duke conquered these lands almost without problems.

William expanded his holdings in France. Now he was deciding what else to win. The land across the English Channel was just what you needed. The duke's great-aunt was the mother of King Edward of England. Wilhelm proclaimed himself heir to the throne based on this fact. The King of England was childless, which made it easier for William. It was 1051 and William was able to convince the King of England to support his desire for the English crown. William achieved this by keeping the king's brother-in-law, Harold Godwin, in France. The duke decided to keep him until Edward agreed. In 1066 the King of England died. Harold Godwin proclaimed himself King of England. Duke Wilhelm gathers an army. He hired soldiers from different countries. Soon he had twenty-five thousand warriors.

William arrived in England and learned that Harold's troops were eight miles from Hastings. On the hills The troops of Duke Wilhelm moved as close as possible to the enemies, and his archers began to shower the enemy army with a hail of arrows. This was followed by an attack by spearmen. As a result, Harold's army was able to defend their lands. They even repulsed the attack of the cavalry, led by William the Conqueror himself. It began to seem that Wilhelm's whole undertaking was about to collapse. His troops began to retreat. Enemies began to pursue Wilhelm's army with might and main. The duke led the horse troops against the infantry, and the archers began to shoot from the hill. The battle came to a turning point, and Harold was mortally wounded by an arrow. He ordered the British troops to retreat. Now the Normans were pursuing the English.

William captured Dover. On December 25, 1066, he entered London as a victor. He was crowned as William I. For the next five years, he fought hard against the rebellions. The new king spoke exclusively French, but this did not prevent him from creating a very strong system of government in the country. Wilhelm was known as a ruthless and cruel ruler. However, he provided a synthesis of Norman culture and Anglo-Saxon. He created the state that influenced the life of the whole world for several centuries. In 1086 William I published the Book doomsday».

The Battle of Hastings changed the course of history. 1066 is one of the turning points in historical development. Wilhelm I rendered a huge impact for the development of England. He also influenced the lives of future monarchs. They are still sitting on the throne.

From the Hohenzollern family. King of Prussia in 1861 -- 1888 it. Emperor

Germany in 1871 - 1888 Son of Friedrich Wilhelm III and Louise Mecklenburg

Wilhelm was the second son in the family, he was not prepared for succession

throne and gave exclusively military education. In 1807 he was

promoted to lieutenant, and from 1813 participated in all campaigns against

Napoleon. Under fire, he invariably showed composure and courage. In 1814

in the battle of Bar-sur-Aube, seventeen-year-old Wilhelm dragged him into

attack the Kaluga regiment, for which he was awarded the Russian Georgievsky and Iron

Prussian crosses. In 1818 he was promoted to general and received under his

began an infantry brigade, and in 1838 he was appointed commander of the guard. Long

years Wilhelm was engaged exclusively in army affairs. The army became

his religion: he breathed it, he lived it, he agreed to all sorts of sacrifices for its sake.

But the army was not a toy for him and did not exist for divorces and parades;

love for the army was closely intertwined with love for the motherland. To Politics Wilhelm

converted only in 1840 after his elder brother's accession to the throne

Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Unlike his brother, who seriously thought about

reforms, Prince Wilhelm proved to be a zealous and firm defender

"Old Prussia". He was adamantly opposed to any change in

everything that concerned absolute royal power, and could not admit the thought of

that the representative assembly should deal with the most fundamental for him

the issue is the army. During the March battles of 1848 in Berlin, Wilhelm was

supporter of the toughest measures, but did not have the strength to resist the revolutionary

onslaught. The indignant crowd of people almost destroyed his house. Friedrich Wilhelm

ordered his brother to leave the country. Fearing reprisals, Wilhelm shaved off his mustache and

fled to England under the name of "postman Lehmann". Here he spent two months

and that time was not lost to him. Conversations with English constitutional

ministers led him to the conviction that a constitution does not at all mean

anarchy. So he announced that he was joining that new

constitutional system, which was bestowed on the people by his brother. Chosen One

deputy of one of the districts, Wilhelm returned to Berlin in June. In a year,

in June 1849, he led the troops that cracked down on the rebels in Baden and

Palatinate. After the surrender of the Rishtatt fortress, he announced an agreement on its surrender

invalid. Many insurgents were shot. This "feat"

Wilhelm assigned him the nickname "card-card prince". In June 1857, after

after Frederick William IV, due to insanity and paralysis, became

unable to rule the state, Wilhelm became regent. According to

Bismarck, he at that time "very vividly felt the lack of his

education and worked day and night to make up for this gap.

Wilhelm took his new duties very seriously. He never

neglected them, did not smoke, did not play cards. The only entertainment for

he had an evening visit to the theatre. In 1861, after the death of his brother,

Wilhelm took the Prussian throne.

The new king was not an outstanding personality, did not have an ardent imagination and

captivating manners of his predecessor. However, he had a tendency

to diligent work, perseverance in carrying out their intentions, strong will,

the ability to unravel people and use their talents to implement

their goals. He lacked initiative, but once approving this or that

mode of action, he held it with unshakable firmness. With all this

he had a practical mind, straightforwardness and a clear understanding of the actual conditions

modern life. Having received the crown, he immediately began to take care of the reorganization

Prussian army. Wilhelm proposed to increase its numerical strength, extend

reservist service up to three years and to introduce a three-year period of validity

services. To cover the military costs, the king proposed to raise taxes on

25% and tax the noble lands (prior to this, the nobles did not pay

taxes). The discussion of this reform took on such a heated character that the matter

came to a constitutional conflict with the Chamber of Deputies. In July 1861 in

Baden-Baden, an attempt was made on the king. At this critical moment

Wilhelm seriously considered abdicating, but then decided to continue

fight. In September 1862 he appointed Otto Bismarck Minister-President,

who then served as permanent first minister until his death. Next

years passed in a fierce struggle for the military budget. After the bottom

the chamber rejected it, and the upper one approved it without any change,

the government passed the law. This was a direct violation of the Prussian

constitution, which caused a storm of indignation. Bismarck ignored them.

In 1863, he also managed without the approval of the budget. It's hard to say what

this confrontation between the two branches of power could have ended if the energetic

foreign policy did not bring the support of the nation to the king and his minister.

The first success was achieved in the war with Denmark. The conflict erupted after

after the Danish Reichstag adopted a new constitution valid for both

Denmark, and for the German-speaking Duchy of Schleswig, after which

Schleswig was to finally merge with Denmark. Wilhelm and the Austrian

Emperor Franz Joseph demanded the abolition of the Danish constitution in German

Prussian and Austrian troops occupied Schleswig. Weak Danish army,

thrown back from their positions, hastened to evacuate to the islands. To

mid-May, the entire peninsula to Limfjord was in the hands of the Germans. Summer

the conquest of the islands began. At the beginning of August, the Danish king sued for peace,

were ceded by Denmark to the winners.

This war served as a prologue to a new one - this time between Prussia and

Austria. Friendly relations between the two great powers deteriorated

after it became clear the desire of Bismarck and Wilhelm to annex

Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia. Franz Joseph protested loudly against this

turn of events. In response, a demonstrative rapprochement began between Prussia

and Italy. The exchange of notes with Austria took on an ever sharper character. AT

in mid-June 1866 hostilities began. Not only German

government, but public opinion in Prussia itself was against this

fratricidal war. Wilhelm himself, according to him, decided on it with

"heavy heart". However, the success of the Prussian weapons exceeded all expectations. Already

the battle decided the fate of not only Austria, but the whole of Germany. Into one

day Prussia, before the eyes of all Europe, grew into a powerful military

power. No wonder the winner's head was spinning. Wilhelm wished

for the Prussian army to enter Vienna; he demanded large territorial

acquisitions. The cold-blooded Bismarck took great pains to moderate him.

militant mood. He insisted on very moderate terms of peace:

Austria was expelled from the German Confederation, Venice joined

Italy, Hannover, Nassau, Hesse-Kasel, Frankfurt, Schleswig and Holstein

went to Prussia. A month later, Wilhelm solemnly entered Berlin. From

the hostile mood of the opposition is not even a memory. Crowd

greeted the king with noisy expressions of delight. From that time on it

popularity knew no bounds. The House voted by a huge majority

all government projects and gave all requested loans.

One of the important consequences of the Austro-Prussian war was the formation

North German Confederation, which, along with Prussia, included about 30 more

state All of them, according to the constitution adopted in 1867, formed

a single territory with laws and institutions common to all. External and

the military policy of the alliance was actually placed in the hands of the Prussian king,

who was declared its president. With the South German states soon

signed a customs and military treaty. These steps clearly show that

Germany is rapidly moving towards its unification under the leadership of Prussia. Napoleon

III more than others was alarmed by the formation at the borders of his state

powerful military empire. French and Prussian interests now and then

encountered on various issues. However, the final break came in July

1870 in connection with Spanish affairs. Upon learning that King William allowed

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern to take the Spanish throne (as he was asked

Cortes), Napoleon sharply demanded that the Prussian government recall

candidacy of his prince. Wilhelm, who at that time did not want war at all,

advised Leopold to refuse the offer of the Cortes. Napoleon is not

was satisfied with this and sharply demanded that Wilhelm give obligations "and in

not allow the candidacy of Hohenzollern in the future." This note seemed

to the old king (and indeed to all Prussians) extremely insulting. Wilhelm himself

the ordo ignored the audacity of the emperor, but Bismarck gave on his behalf a gall and

caustic refusal. Frustrated, Napoleon declared war on Prussia. It was

a big mistake on his part, because in the face of all of Europe, the French

turned out to be the attacker and the wrong side. The German nation has been embraced

unprecedented patriotic enthusiasm. The last obstacles that prevented

unification of Germany, fell these days under the pressure of a violent national

inspiration. The sovereigns of not only the Northern, but also the Southern Unions declared

himself on the side of Prussia.

Advanced years did not prevent Wilhelm from taking a personal part in

advance of his army. The success of the Prussians this time exceeded all expectations.

One victory followed another, and exactly one month after the start of the war

actions, a significant part of the French army was, like an iron ring,

surrounded by German troops near Sedan and capitulated. Napoleon himself

surrendered to William. To the credit of the Prussian king, he, at the sight

defeated enemy, did not experience malicious feelings, but expressed only

compassion for him, as for a person who has experienced a cruel vicissitude

fate. Wilhelm wrote to his wife: "I cannot express what I felt,

remembering how three years ago I saw the emperor on top of his

power. "But with the fall of the empire, the war did not end. The French,

captured by patriotism, heroically defended their land, but could not

to turn the tide of the war. The Prussian army quickly approached Paris and began

siege of the French capital. In October Metz capitulated. Meanwhile, Wilhelm

started negotiations with the South German sovereigns about their entry into the North

union. In November, at Versailles, the negotiations were brought to the desired end.

The Northern Alliance ceased to exist, giving way to a single German

union. In December, the Bavarian king offered to restore the German Empire and

German imperial dignity, destroyed in due time by Napoleon.

This proposal was immediately accepted, and the Reichstag turned to Wilhelm with

gathered in the mirror gallery of Versailles, and here Wilhelm was proclaimed

German emperor. Shortly thereafter, Paris capitulated, and the

humiliating for France. The border territories of Alsace and Lorraine were withdrawn

to Germany. The vanquished had to pay 5 billion indemnities. This is

was a high point for Emperor Wilhelm. He returned to Berlin as

triumphant, accompanied by universal expressions of delight and love,

which very rarely fell to the lot of any sovereign.

In subsequent years, when Germany returned to civilian life, hot

the sympathy of the subjects has somewhat faded. Prussian domination, at first

accepted with such enthusiasm, began to seem very burdensome for

Germans. Stubborn struggle between the emperor and the imperial Reichstag for

further expansion of constitutional rights has become almost the main

phenomenon of German political life. To it was soon added a new

the danger is from the side of the rapidly taking shape socialist worker

movement. The threat from this side began to be felt especially sharply after

how in the summer of 1878 an attempt was made on the life of the emperor. Then

Bismarck succeeded in getting through the Reichstag the infamous "law against

socialists". On the basis of this law, many newspapers were closed and

societies, often very far from socialism. This could not have caused

indignation on the part of the left forces, but the emperor continued until his death

curb the enemy, who threatened "the death of the entire state order."

The third important moment of the political life of Germany under Wilhelm

began to struggle with the Catholic Church. After the unification of Germany in the Reichstag

many Catholic deputies from the southern German regions appeared. Soon they

united in a party that fought against Prussian domination in Germany.

Sensing a threat from this side, Bismarck hastened to cut the ground from under his feet.

among the clerics by the passage of several radical laws against the Catholic

churches. Schools were separated from the church, civil marriage was introduced,

Jesuits, many bishops were deposed, exiled or imprisoned. But measures

these only irritated the Catholic population. Fortunately, the death of the berserk

Pope Pius IX allowed both sides to take steps towards reconciliation.

WILHELM I

Wilhelm I, son of the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm III, was the second son in the family and therefore did not prepare for succession to the throne. His parents gave him an exclusively military education. In 1807, at the age of ten, he was promoted to lieutenant, and from 1813 he participated in all campaigns against Napoleon. Under fire, he invariably showed composure and courage. In 1814, in the Battle of Bar-sur-Aube, seventeen-year-old Wilhelm led the Kaluga regiment into the attack, for which he was awarded the Russian St. George and Iron Prussian Crosses. In 1818 he was promoted to general and received an infantry brigade under his command, and in 1838 he was appointed commander of the guard. For many years, Wilhelm was engaged exclusively in army affairs. The army became his religion: he breathed it, he lived it, for its sake he agreed to all sorts of sacrifices. But the army was not a toy for him and did not exist for divorces and parades; love for the army was closely intertwined with love for the motherland.

Wilhelm turned to politics only in 1840 after the accession to the throne of his older brother Frederick William IV, and after in June 1857 he became unable to rule the state due to insanity and paralysis, Wilhelm became regent. According to Bismarck, at that time he "felt very vividly the lack of his education and worked day and night in order to make up for this gap." Wilhelm took his new duties very seriously. He never neglected them, did not smoke, did not play cards. The only entertainment for him was an evening visit to the theater. In 1861, after the death of his brother, Wilhelm took the Prussian throne.

The new king was not an outstanding personality, did not have the ardent imagination and captivating manners of his predecessor. But he was distinguished by a penchant for diligent work, perseverance in carrying out his intentions, a strong will, the ability to unravel people and use their talents to achieve their goals. He lacked initiative, but once he approved of this or that course of action, he held it with unshakable firmness. With all this, he had a practical mind, straightforwardness and a clear understanding of the actual conditions of modern life. Having received the crown, he immediately began to take care of the reorganization of the Prussian army. Wilhelm proposed to increase its strength, extend the service of reservists to three years and introduce a three-year term of active service. To cover military costs, the king proposed raising taxes by 25% and taxing the noble lands (prior to this, the nobles did not pay taxes). The discussion of this reform took on such a heated character that it came to a constitutional conflict with the Chamber of Deputies. In July 1861, an assassination attempt was made on the king in Baden-Baden. At this critical moment, Wilhelm seriously considered abdicating, but then decided to continue the fight. In September 1862, he appointed Otto Bismarck Minister-President, who then was the permanent first minister until Wilhelm's death. The following years passed in a fierce struggle for the military budget. After the lower house rejected it, and the upper house approved it without any change, the government adopted the law for execution. This was a direct violation of the Prussian constitution, which caused a storm of indignation. Bismarck ignored them. In 1863, he also went without approval of the budget. It is difficult to say how this confrontation between the two branches of power could have ended if an energetic foreign policy had not brought the support of the nation to the king and his minister.

The first success was achieved in the war with Denmark. The conflict erupted after the Danish Riksdag adopted a new constitution, valid for both Denmark and the Duchy of Schleswig, after which the German-speaking Schleswig was to finally merge with Denmark. Wilhelm and the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph demanded the abolition of the Danish constitution in the German duchies, and when they refused, they declared war on Denmark. On February 1, 1864, Prussian and Austrian troops occupied Schleswig. The weak Danish army, thrown back from its positions, hastened to evacuate to the islands. By mid-May, the entire peninsula up to Limfjord was in German hands. In the summer, the conquest of the islands began. In early August, the Danish king requested peace, which was signed on 30 October. Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were ceded by Denmark to the victors.

This war served as a prologue to a new one - this time between Prussia and Austria. Friendly relations between the two great powers deteriorated after the desire of Bismarck and Wilhelm to annex Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia became clear. Franz Joseph protested loudly against this turn of events. The exchange of notes with Austria took on an increasingly sharp character. In mid-June 1866, hostilities began. Not only the German governments, but also public opinion in Prussia itself was against this fratricidal war. Wilhelm himself, according to him, decided on it with a "heavy heart". However, the success of the Prussian weapons exceeded all expectations. Already on July 3, the Austrian army was defeated in a fierce battle at Sadovaya. This battle decided the fate of not only Austria, but the whole of Germany. In one day, Prussia, before the eyes of all Europe, grew into a powerful military power. No wonder the winner was dizzy. Wilhelm wanted the Prussian army to enter Vienna; he insisted on large territorial acquisitions. The cold-blooded Bismarck took great pains to moderate his militant mood. He insisted on very moderate peace terms: Austria was excluded from the German Confederation, Venice joined Italy, Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Casel, Frankfurt, Schleswig and Holstein went to Prussia. A month later, Wilhelm solemnly entered Berlin. Not even a memory remains of the hostile mood of the opposition. The crowd greeted the king with noisy expressions of delight. Since that time, his popularity has not known eclipses. The Chamber by a huge majority voted all government projects and gave all requested credits.

One of the important consequences of the Austro-Prussian war was the formation of the North German alliance, which, along with Prussia, included about 30 more states. All of them, according to the constitution adopted in 1867, formed a single territory with laws and institutions common to all. The foreign and military policy of the alliance was effectively placed in the hands of the Prussian king, who was declared its president. A customs and military treaty was soon concluded with the South German states. These steps clearly showed that Germany was rapidly moving towards its unification under the leadership of Prussia. french emperor Napoleon III, more than others, was alarmed by the formation of a powerful military empire near the borders of his state. French and Prussian interests kept clashing on various issues. However, the final break came in July 1870 in connection with Spanish affairs. Upon learning that King Wilhelm allowed Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern to take the Spanish throne (which the Spanish Cortes asked him to do), Napoleon sharply demanded that the Prussian government withdraw the candidacy of his prince. Wilhelm, who at that time did not want war at all, advised Leopold to refuse the offer of the Cortes. Napoleon was not satisfied with this and sharply demanded that Wilhelm make commitments "and in the future not to allow the candidacy of Hohenzollern." This note seemed extremely offensive to the old king (and to all Prussians). Wilhelm himself proudly ignored the impudence of the emperor, but Bismarck gave a bilious and caustic refusal on his behalf. Frustrated, Napoleon declared war on Prussia. This was a big mistake on his part, because in the face of all of Europe, the French found themselves in the role of the attacker and the wrong side. The German nation was seized by an unprecedented patriotic upsurge. The last obstacles that hindered the unification of Germany fell in these days under the pressure of a frenzied national enthusiasm. The sovereigns of not only the Northern, but also the Southern Unions declared themselves on the side of Prussia.

Advanced years did not prevent Wilhelm from taking a personal part in the offensive of his army. The success of the Prussians and this time surpassed all expectations. One victory followed another, and exactly one month after the outbreak of hostilities, a significant part of the French army was surrounded by German troops near Sedan like an iron ring and capitulated. Napoleon himself surrendered to William as a prisoner. To the credit of the Prussian king, at the sight of the defeated enemy, he did not experience malicious feelings, but expressed only compassion for him, as for a person who had experienced a cruel vicissitude of fate. Wilhelm wrote to his wife: "I cannot express what I felt, remembering how three years ago I saw the emperor at the height of his power." But the fall of the empire did not end the war. The French, seized with patriotism, heroically defended their land, but could no longer turn the tide of events. The Prussian army quickly approached Paris and began the siege of the French capital. In October Metz capitulated. Meanwhile, Wilhelm started negotiations with the South German sovereigns about their entry into the Northern Alliance. In November the negotiations were brought to the desired end at Versailles. The Northern Alliance ceased to exist, giving way to a single German Union. In December, the Bavarian king offered to restore the German Empire and the German imperial dignity, destroyed in his time by Napoleon. This proposal was immediately accepted, and the Reichstag turned to Wilhelm with a request to accept the imperial crown. On January 18, 1871, all the German princes gathered in the mirror gallery of Versailles and here Wilhelm was proclaimed German emperor. Shortly thereafter, Paris capitulated and peace negotiations began. On March 2, the Treaty of Paris was concluded - difficult and humiliating for France. The border territories of Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to Germany. The vanquished had to pay 5 billion francs indemnity. It was a high point for Emperor Wilhelm. He returned to Berlin in triumph, accompanied by widespread expressions of delight and love, which very rarely fell to the lot of any sovereign.

In subsequent years, when Germany returned to peaceful life, the ardent sympathies of the subjects faded somewhat. Prussian domination, initially accepted with such enthusiasm, began to seem very burdensome for the Germans. The stubborn struggle between the emperor and the imperial Reichstag for the further expansion of constitutional rights became perhaps the main phenomenon of German political life. A new danger was soon added to it - from the rapidly taking shape of the working-class socialist movement. The threat from this side began to be felt especially sharply after an attempt was made on the life of the emperor in the summer of 1878. Then Bismarck managed to get through the Reichstag the infamous "law against socialists." On the basis of it, many newspapers and societies were closed, often very far from socialism. This could not but cause indignation on the part of the left forces, but the emperor continued to consider the adoption of this law a “world-historical” act until his death, which was supposed to curb the enemy, who threatened “the death of the entire state order”.

The third important moment in the political life of Germany was under Wilhelm the struggle with the Catholic Church. After the unification of Germany, many Catholic deputies from the southern German regions appeared in the Reichstag. They soon united in a party that fought against Prussian domination in Germany. Feeling threatened by this side, Bismarck hastened to cut the ground from under the feet of the clerics by passing several radical laws against the Catholic Church. Schools were separated from the church, civil marriage was introduced, Jesuits were expelled, many bishops were deposed, exiled or imprisoned. But these measures only irritated the Catholic population. Fortunately, the death of the frantic Pope Pius IX allowed both sides to take steps towards reconciliation.

Wilhelm died in March 1888, just short of his 91st birthday.

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