Iron Chancellor of the German Empire. Iron Chancellor Otto von Bismarck

At present, much is being said and written about Russia's relations with European countries, about the notorious EU sanctions against Russia, about the dubious course of Germany and its Chancellor Angela Merkel, who is trying to manage the European Union, torn by contradictions. It seems that the leaders of Germany have forgotten the lessons of the past. Both terrible world wars would not have happened if the German elites had not allowed Germany to be used as a military ram against Russia, and in their diplomacy they were more often guided by the advice of the founder of the united German state, Otto von Bismarck.

Experts say that the German diplomatic service is one of the most well organized and efficient. Let's try to analyze the correctness of these statements and trace the main milestones of its formation.

The birth of the German diplomatic service took place in close connection with the creation of a unified German state in the second half of the 19th century. The concept of Germany at that time meant the territory in the center of Europe, where numerous and rather weak politically German-speaking countries - kingdoms, principalities, duchies and free cities.

In line with the message Congress of Vienna In 1815, all of them were purely formally part of the German Union, the only central body of which was the Federal Seim (Bundestag) in Frankfurt am Main, which essentially had no real power and was nicknamed the “Frankfurt talking shop”. Habsburg Austria presided there, with which Prussia tried from time to time to argue. Such fragmentation hindered the development of industry, science and culture, and was an obstacle to the progress and unification of the German nation.

The reunification of Germany took place under the leadership of Prussia during three wars: first with Denmark (1864), then with Austria (1866), finally with France (1870-1871), as a result of which the German Empire was created, which included the rest of the German lands and principalities, and prussian king was proclaimed Kaiser - i.e. emperor.

It should be especially noted that in the process of consolidation of the German Reich huge role- in addition to strengthening military power- played the diplomacy of Prince Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck (1815 - 1898) was born in the family of a strong Prussian Junker, where the monarchical orders and devotion to the Hohenzollern dynasty were honored. Otto did not immediately become a diplomat and for a number of years was an official of the judicial and administrative departments before his abilities were appreciated. In the days of his youth, the Prussian diplomatic service was dominated by people bearing foreign names. Most of all, knowledge of the French language was valued, and later Bismarck wrote bitterly that "knowledge of this language, at least in the amount of knowledge of the head waiter, gave significant advantages in a diplomatic career."

During the revolution of 1848, he showed himself as a supporter of decisive action in defense of royalty and hard-nosed politics. Later, Bismarck was the representative of Prussia in the Federal Diet in Frankfurt am Main, served as envoy in St. Petersburg and Paris, and then served as Chancellor of Prussia for 28 years and German Empire. This was prominent politician, which entered the history of diplomacy as statesman of exceptional energy and ability, and who can be compared with such figures of the time as Metternich, Napoleon III and Gorchakov.

The political portrait of Bismarck includes indefatigable energy and iron will (that is why he was called the “Iron Chancellor”), inflexibility in solving the tasks he faced, the ability to realistically assess the situation and, finally, personal honesty, which favorably distinguished him from many other figures of that time.

Possessing a sense of reality, Bismarck was well aware of the objective tasks that were put forward by the course itself. historical development. The reunification of Germany was becoming inevitable. But who will lead this process: cowardly liberals or supporters of Prussian hegemony? The years spent in the Frankfurt Bundestag made Bismarck a staunch opponent of "parliamentary chatter". He begins to develop diplomatic maneuvers to isolate opponents and secure a Prussian path to German unity.

In correspondence with colleagues, Bismarck emphasizes that the German princes and other monarchs respect, above all, strength. “Germany,” he wrote, “does not look at the liberalism of Prussia, but at her power. The great questions of the time are not decided by speeches and parliamentary resolutions - that was the mistake of 1848-1849. - but with iron and blood. He got down to business, accurately calculating the alignment of forces on international arena. Bismarck demonstrated the strength of the Prussian army by striking at little Denmark and managing to involve Austria in this action, sharing the spoils of war with her. The latter included the territories of Schleswig and Holstein. During a series of diplomatic negotiations in St. Petersburg, London, Paris and Gastein, it became clear that the "policy of real values" pursued by Bismarck, gave its first fruits and received recognition.

Bismarck always knew what he wanted and knew how to mobilize every opportunity to break a competitor. A distinctive feature of German diplomacy was its offensive nature. Pressure and blow served Bismarck as a means not only to defeat the enemy, but also to get friends for himself. And in order to ensure the loyalty of an ally, the Prussian chancellor sometimes held a stone in his bosom against him.

Bismarck professionally removed from his path Austria, which claimed leadership in Germany. It is known that during Crimean War Vienna took an anti-Russian position. Therefore, Bismarck, who had become close to St. Petersburg on the basis of the Alvensleben convention, was well aware that Russian diplomacy would not object if the Prussians knocked down the arrogance of the Viennese strategists. Bismarck achieved the neutrality of France, mired in the Mexican adventure, by promising Napoleon III Luxembourg as compensation. Napoleon made it clear that Luxembourg is good, but Luxembourg and Belgium are even better. Bismarck - did not refuse, but invited the French to put the project on paper, and then hid this valuable french document to your safe.

It should be noted that Bismarck, having defeated Austria in a short military campaign, did not allow the Prussian troops to enter Vienna, did not humiliate the Austrians, which helped him to make them even his allies in the future. For several years he was preparing a war against France, which did not want to allow the reunification of Germany and a sharp increase in the role of Prussia in Europe. The task of his diplomacy was to provoke a French attack on Prussia, to isolate Paris internationally, and to present Berlin as a fighter for the honor and dignity of all Germans.

The role of the Ems dispatch is well known, where it was about the conversation between the king of Prussia and the French ambassador. Bismarck shortened and edited it so that after the publication of this document in the newspaper, it was France that declared war on Prussia. He did not forget about the French document in his safe regarding the claims of Napoleon III to Belgium. The document was published in the London newspaper The Times and contributed to the exposure of France's aggressive plans.

The defeat of France by Prussia created an entirely new situation in European politics. One of the main members of the former Crimean anti-Russian coalition - France - is out of order. The Paris Treaty of 1856, which forbade Russia to maintain its navy on the Black Sea, staggered. Chancellor Gorchakov correctly understood Bismarck's service and sent a circular to the European powers about Russia's rejection of the humiliating articles of the Paris Treaty.

The reunited Germany has become a strong power, called upon to play important role in the international arena. The Peace of Frankfurt of May 10, 1871 became the basis of the foreign policy of Bismarck's Germany. The chancellor tried to perpetuate this peace and the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. Naturally, he was afraid of French revanchism, and the desire of France to attract Austria and Russia to its side.

With his mind and political intuition, Bismarck early realized the importance of Russia in European affairs. He was well aware that Prussia could hardly lead the unification of Germany unless he obtained a favorable attitude from the great eastern neighbor. Bismarck repeatedly urged his comrades-in-arms to build relations with Russia on the basis of mutual consideration of interests and in no case allow things to come to a military clash with her, especially warning against fighting on two fronts. He believed that an armed conflict with Russia would be a great disaster for Germany, because the Russian people could not be defeated.

Arguing with supporters of the struggle against Russia, Bismarck wrote in 1888: “This could be argued if such a war could lead to the fact that Russia would be defeated. But similar result even after the most brilliant victories lies beyond all probability. Even the most favorable outcome of the war will never lead to the disintegration of the main force of Russia, which is based on millions of Russians themselves. These latter, even if they are dissected by international treatises, will also quickly reunite with each other, like particles of a cut piece of mercury. This is the indestructible state of the Russian nation, strong in its climate, its spaces and its limited needs.”

Bismarck understood the role and significance of Russia, learned a lot from Gorchakov, but was always guided only by cold calculation and the real state of affairs. “Until then,” he pointed out, “until we have laid a more solid foundation for our relations with Austria, until such time as the understanding takes root in England that she can find her only and reliable ally on the continent in Germany, our good relations with Russia are of the greatest value to us.”

At a certain stage, Bismarck actively relied on the "alliance of the three emperors" (Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary), trying to ensure with its help the international position German Reich after the Peace of Frankfurt. He sought to use not only his political rapprochement with both empires, but also the contradictions between them. To no lesser extent, he tried to use in the interests of Germany the rivalry between Russia and England, which had already unfolded in Central Asia and in the Middle East.

Bismarck made great efforts to prevent an alliance between France and Russia, fearing the possibility of a German war on two fronts. Finally, having secured himself in the East, Bismarck, prompted by the increased interests of the expansion of German capital, embarked on the path of a policy of colonial acquisitions, where complications awaited him with other colonial powers.

The German Foreign Ministry was created by Bismarck immediately after the unification of the country. Bismarck himself became its head, who was both the imperial chancellor and the prime minister of Prussia. It was called in German “Amt“ (department), which meant its subordination directly to the imperial chancellor.

Initially, this department was relatively small in terms of the number of staff and inherited the structural and organizational features of the Prussian institution. It consisted of two departments: one was political, dealing with all diplomatic affairs, and the other - on consular and foreign trade issues. Later, the central department (personnel and finance), the legal department, the department of colonial affairs, and the department of press and information were formed. big and constant attention devoted to the training of translators and lawyers.

It should be emphasized that the diplomatic service was then the privilege of people from noble families. Ambassadors, envoys and advisers were representatives of noble aristocratic families. By the way, today this tradition is partially preserved. So, in a number of countries, for example, in Russia, representatives of the nobility are appointed ambassadors to this day.

In the first years of its existence, the German Empire had only 4 embassies abroad - in the capitals of the most important powers (in St. Petersburg, London, Vienna and Paris). Ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary were at the head of the embassies. Later embassies were established in Madrid, Washington, Tokyo and Rome. In other countries, there were diplomatic missions headed by envoys. The network of the German consular service abroad was very significant. It consisted of general consulates and consulates, which simultaneously performed individual diplomatic functions.

Analyzing the activities of the diplomatic service of the German Reich created by Bismarck, it seems important to pay attention to the tasks that the chancellor set for senior officials of the central office, as well as embassies and missions abroad. Always in the forefront were the tasks associated with a thorough analysis international environment, studying trends in ruling circles this or that country and the conclusions - what all this means for the German Empire.

Reading Bismarck's reports to the emperor, his directives and letters to ambassadors, one cannot but be amazed at how comprehensively, with arguments "for" and "against", they analyze the problems of world politics. And in all this one can see a complex and well-thought-out concept of the planned actions. Bismarck did not tolerate adventurous actions and, when planning the next diplomatic action, he always tried to play it safe.

Bismarck seriously prepared for conversations with foreign statesmen, knew how to make an appropriate impression on his interlocutor, put specific goals. So, visiting London, Bismarck, in a conversation with Disraeli, revealed, in his characteristic manner, his political plans for the coming years. It was about the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia. Disraeli, accustomed to dealing with vague and cautious language in diplomacy, was deeply impressed by Bismarck's unexpected statement. He appreciated this new diplomatic style of Bismarck and later said to one of his friends: "Beware of him, he says what he thinks!"

Bismarck paid great attention to the negotiation process in general and multilateral diplomacy in particular. The development of directives and the concept of negotiations, attempts to predict a possible result can be traced on the example of the Berlin Congress of 1878.

Bismarck liked to maneuver, to create intricate situations. But as a realpolitik diplomat, he never entertained the illusion that Austria would emerge victorious in a duel with Russia. But he feared that if Russia prevailed over Austria, Germany - to a certain extent - would fall into dependent position from its eastern neighbour. Therefore, he did not want to allow the defeat of Austria-Hungary. In it, he saw a counterbalance to Russia. At the same time, he did not give up the idea of using another counterbalance - England.

In maneuvering between all these conflicting interests of the major European powers, but always taking into account their own political interests, and was the role of Bismarck - an "honest broker" at the Berlin Congress. He did not want to allow Russia, having won a brilliant victory over Turkey in the Balkan campaign, to receive too large benefits that could upset the fragile European balance of power.

Bismarck believed that a serious diplomatic service should skillfully rely on the press, influence it in the direction necessary for state interests. Bismarck himself in his youth, hiding behind a pseudonym, was engaged in journalistic activities and in his feuilletons castigated frivolity and empty words. Later, already being a minister and chancellor, he managed to put a significant part of the press into his service. In diplomacy he was never a journalist, but in journalism he was always a politician and a diplomat. With the help of the press, Bismarck's diplomatic service warned or exposed, riveted attention or, conversely, distracted it. There were cases when the most responsible articles for newspapers were written under his dictation.

Although Bismarck did not like discussions and disputes, he was aware that in the interests of the state, in order to achieve the goals set, all the main departments of Germany must act together. At that time it was far from easy to achieve this, because the generals and financiers were not inclined to listen to the diplomats, they cared little about coordination. Bismarck persistently tried to lead a line on the interaction and coordination of the tasks of the diplomatic service with the actions of the military and financial departments. In the Chancellor's memoirs Thoughts and Memoirs, one can find confirmation of this. In particular, this is evidenced by conversations and an exchange of letters with War Minister von Roon.

From the diplomats of the German Reich, Bismarck, not forgetting the impressions of his own service abroad, demanded, first of all, the ability to defend the interests of the state, to delve deeply into the essence of foreign policy problems, to understand the priorities of politics, not to slip on the surface. “... Our diplomatic reports, especially those addressed to the king, were written in French. True, this was not always observed, but officially remained in force until my appointment as minister. Among our older envoys, I have known a few who, without understanding politics, have reached the highest positions solely because they were fluent in French; and they reported in their reports only what they could fluently state in this language. Back in 1862, I myself had to write my official reports from St. Petersburg in French.”

The last five years of his service as Imperial Chancellor were the period of greatest diplomatic activity for Bismarck. He began to take more into account the economic claims of the intensified German industrialists and agrarians, which, in particular, had a noticeable effect on the German customs policy. When Bismarck tried to put pressure on Russia, refusing to grant her loans, there was a natural rapprochement between St. Petersburg and the French bankers - this frightened the chancellor.

When the British Secretary of State for India, Lord Randolph Churchill, tried to lure Bismarck onto the path of a clear anti-Russian policy with the help of various promises, he immediately saw this as a trap and wrote to the German ambassador in London, Hatzfeld: “We would be ready to help England willingly in all matters. But we cannot sacrifice our good relations with Russia for this. Our borders in the East are too long for us to put ourselves in such a dangerous position that, in the event of war with France, we will have to throw half of our army to the defense of the eastern border.

Bismarck did not want Germany to get into a position where she would have to "pull chestnuts out of the fire" in the interests of England, since he did not much trust "Foggy Albion", but he did not mind at all that others would do this in the interests of Berlin.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the period of German unification was marked by exceptionally rapid growth of the entire economy of the country. German capitalism, in comparison with England and France, just at that time sharply took the lead. The technical and organizational advantages of industry were combined here with the presence of a perfect military machine. The old chancellor knew how to govern Germany. Well, what if a new navigator appears on the captain's bridge? All this objectively led to a new aggravation of contradictions in the international arena.

In conclusion, it must be emphasized that whenever the ruling elites of Germany ignored the will of the founder of the unified German state, Otto von Bismarck, and became involved in military conflicts with Russia, Germany suffered a military and political collapse (World Wars I and II). At present, against the backdrop of the conflict in Ukraine and Syria, we are forced to state that Germany again allows itself to be used as an instrument of pressure on Russia - which could turn into a disaster both for Germany itself and for the whole of Europe. In contrast to the current trends, it is necessary to purposefully develop Russian-German cultural, scientific and economic cooperation. An equal and mutually beneficial partnership between Russia and Germany is a guarantee of peace, stability and power for the entire Eurasian continent.

"Iron Chancellor"

Otto Bismarck went down in history as the first Chancellor of the German Empire. Under his leadership, the unification of Germany was carried out by means of a "revolution from above". He managed to turn the country into a powerful industrial power.

In the second half of the nineteenth century, for numerous German states the question of the need for unification arose. Instead of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, which collapsed in 1806, the German Confederation arose in 1815, which included 39 independent states. Austria played a leading role in it. However, this did not suit Prussia. An increasingly escalating conflict arose between Vienna and Berlin.

In 1862, Bismarck (Otto von Bismarck) becomes Prime Minister of Prussia. It is through wars that Bismarck hopes to determine the fate of Germany. The rivalry between Austria and Prussia resulted in open war in 1866. The Prussian army quickly defeated the Austrian. The German Confederation is declared dissolved. Instead, in 1867, at the initiative of Bismarck, a new association was created - the North German Confederation, which, in addition to Prussia, includes small states Northern Germany. This union became the basis for the creation of an empire led by Prussia.

Unification of legislation

However, initially the power of the new emperor - Wilhelm I - was still very weak. Proclaimed on January 18, 1871, the German Empire is a federation of 25 states. Otto Bismarck receives the highest public office the imperial chancellor, and in accordance with the constitution of 1871 almost unlimited power. He pursues a very pragmatic policy, the main objective which is the consolidation of a loose empire. New laws appear one after another.

These laws are aimed at unifying legislation and creating a single economic and monetary space. In the early years, Bismarck had to reckon with the liberals who made up the parliamentary majority. But the desire to ensure Prussia's dominant position in the empire, to strengthen the traditional hierarchy and its own power caused constant friction in relations between the chancellor and parliament.

In 1872-1875, at the initiative of Bismarck, laws were passed against the Catholic Church depriving the clergy of the right to supervise schools, prohibiting the Jesuit order in Germany, making civil marriage mandatory, and repealing articles of the constitution that provided for the autonomy of the church. These measures, dictated by purely political considerations of the struggle against the clerical opposition, seriously limited the rights of the Catholic clergy.

"Socialist Law"

Bismarck fights against the Social Democracy even more resolutely. He considers this movement "socially dangerous, hostile to the state." In 1878, he passes through the Reichstag the "Law on Socialists": the Social Democrats are forbidden to assemble and distribute their literature, their leaders are persecuted.

The "Iron Chancellor" is also trying to win over the sympathies of the working class to its side. In 1881-1889 Bismarck held " social laws"about the insurance of workers in case of illness or injury, about old-age and disability pensions. This was a unique example in the history of Europe at that time. However, in parallel, Bismarck continues to apply repressive measures to participants in the labor movement, which ultimately reduces the results of his policy to no.

Germany takes the lead

The formation of one's own national state was met with enthusiasm in all sections of the population. The general enthusiasm also has a beneficial effect on the economy, which does not lack cash. Moreover, having lost the war of 1870-1871, France pledged to pay an indemnity to the German Empire. New factories spring up everywhere. Germany is rapidly transforming from an agricultural country into an industrial one.

The chancellor exercises skillful foreign policy. With the help of a complex system of alliances that ensured the isolation of France, the rapprochement of Germany with Austria-Hungary and the maintenance of good relations with Russia, Bismarck managed to keep the peace in Europe. The German Empire became one of the leaders in international politics.

Career decline

After the death of Wilhelm I on March 9, 1888, turbulent times set in for the empire. His son Frederick inherits the throne, however, he dies three months later. The next monarch - Wilhelm II, having a low opinion of Bismarck, quickly comes into conflict with him.

By this time, the system itself, formed by the chancellor, began to fail. A rapprochement between Russia and France was planned. colonial expansion Germany, begun in the 80s, aggravated Anglo-German relations. Bismarck's failure in domestic politics was the failure of his plan to turn the "exceptional law" against the socialists into a permanent one. In 1890, Bismarck was dismissed and spent the last 8 years of his life at his Friedrichsruhe estate.

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck is the most important German statesman and politician 19th century. His service had an important impact on the course European history. He is considered the founder of the German Empire. For almost three decades he shaped Germany: from 1862 to 1873 as Prime Minister of Prussia, and from 1871 to 1890 as the first Chancellor of Germany.

Bismarck family

Otto was born on April 1, 1815 at the Schönhausen estate, on the outskirts of Brandenburg, north of Magdeburg, which was in the Prussian province of Saxony. His family, starting from the 14th century, belonged to the nobility, and many ancestors held high government posts in the kingdom of Prussia. Otto always remembered his father with love, considering him a modest person. In his youth, Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand served in the army and was demobilized with the rank of captain of the cavalry (captain). His mother Louise Wilhelmina von Bismarck, née Mencken, belonged to the middle class, was under strong influence her father, was quite rational and had a strong character. Louise focused on raising her sons, but Bismarck, in his memoirs of childhood, did not describe the special tenderness that traditionally comes from mothers.

The marriage produced six children, three of his siblings died in childhood. They lived a relatively long life: an older brother, born in 1810, Otto himself, who was born fourth, and a sister born in 1827. A year after the birth, the family moved to the Prussian province of Pomerania, the town of Konarzewo, where the first years of the childhood of the future chancellor passed. Beloved sister Malvina and brother Bernard were born here. Otto's father inherited the Pomeranian possessions from his cousin in 1816 and moved to Konarzhevo. At that time, the manor was a modest building with a brick foundation and wooden walls. Information about the house has been preserved thanks to the drawings of the elder brother, from which one can clearly see a simple two-story building with two short one-story wings on either side of the main entrance.

Childhood and youth

At the age of 7, Otto was sent to an elite private boarding school in , then he continued his education at the Graue Kloster gymnasium. At the age of seventeen, on May 10, 1832, he entered Faculty of Law University of Göttingen where he spent a little over a year. He took the lead in public life students. From November 1833 he continued his studies at the University of Berlin. Education allowed him to engage in diplomacy, but at first he devoted several months purely administrative work, after which he was transferred to the judicial field in the Court of Appeal. The young man did not work long in the public service, since it seemed unthinkable and routine for him to observe strict discipline. He worked in 1836 as a government clerk in Aachen, and in next year in Potsdam. This is followed by a year of service as a volunteer in the guard rifle battalion Greifswald. In 1839, together with his brother, he took over the management of the family estates in Pomerania after the death of his mother.

He returned to Konarzevo at the age of 24. In 1846, he first leased the estate, and then sold the property inherited from his father to his nephew Philip in 1868. The property remained with the von Bismarck family until 1945. Last owners were brothers Klaus and Philipp, sons of Gottfried von Bismarck.

In 1844, after his sister's marriage, he went to live with his father in Schönhausen. As a passionate hunter and duelist, he gains a reputation as a "savage".

Carier start

After the death of his father, Otto and his brother take Active participation in the life of the region. In 1846, he began working in an office in charge of the work of the dikes, which served as protection against flooding of the regions located on the Elbe. During these years he traveled extensively in England, France and Switzerland. The views inherited from his mother, his own broad outlook and a critical attitude towards everything, disposed him to free views with an extreme right bias. He quite original and actively defended the rights of the king and the Christian monarchy in the fight against liberalism. After the start of the revolution, Otto offered to bring peasants from Schönhausen to Berlin to protect the king from the revolutionary movement. He did not take part in the meetings, but was actively involved in the formation of the union conservative party and was one of the founders of the Kreuz-Zeitung, which has since become the newspaper of the monarchist party in Prussia. In the parliament elected at the beginning of 1849, he became one of the sharpest speakers from among the representatives of the young nobility. He figured prominently in discussions about the new Prussian constitution, always defending the power of the king. His speeches were distinguished by a unique manner of debating, combined with originality. Otto understood that the party disputes were only power struggles between revolutionary forces and that no compromise was possible between these principles. A clear position on the foreign policy of the Prussian government was also known, in which he actively opposed plans to create an alliance that forced them to obey a single parliament. In 1850, he held a seat in the Erfurt parliament, where he vehemently opposed the constitution created by the parliament, foreseeing that such a policy of the government would lead to a struggle against Austria, in which Prussia would be the loser. This position of Bismarck prompted the king in 1851 to appoint him first as the chief Prussian representative, and then as a minister in the Bundestag in Frankfurt am Main. This was a rather bold appointment, since Bismarck had no experience in diplomatic work.

Here he is trying to achieve equal rights for Prussia with Austria, lobbying for the recognition of the Bundestag and is a supporter of small German associations, without Austrian participation. During the eight years he spent in Frankfurt, he became an excellent understanding of politics, thanks to which he became an indispensable diplomat. However, the period he spent in Frankfurt was associated with important changes in political views. In June 1863, Bismarck published regulations governing freedom of the press and the crown prince publicly repudiated his father's ministerial policies.

Bismarck in the Russian Empire

During the Crimean War, he advocated an alliance with Russia. Bismarck was appointed Prussian ambassador to St. Petersburg, where he stayed from 1859 to 1862. Here he studied the experience Russian diplomacy. By his own admission, the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry, Gorchakov, is a great connoisseur of the art of diplomacy. During his time in Russia, Bismarck not only learned the language, but also developed a relationship with Alexander II and with the Empress Dowager, a Prussian princess.

During the first two years he had little influence on the Prussian government: the liberal ministers did not trust his opinion, and the regent was mortified by Bismarck's willingness to form an alliance with the Italians. The rift between King Wilhelm and the Liberal Party opened the way for Otto to power. Albrecht von Roon, who was appointed Minister of War in 1861, was an old friend of his, and thanks to him Bismarck was able to follow the state of affairs in Berlin. When a crisis arose in 1862 due to the refusal of parliament to vote on the allocation of funds necessary for the reorganization of the army, he was called to Berlin. The king still could not make up his mind to increase the role of Bismarck, but he clearly understood that Otto was the only person who had the courage and ability to fight against parliament.

After the death of Friedrich Wilhelm IV, his place on the throne was taken by regent Wilhelm I Friedrich Ludwig. When Bismarck left his post in the Russian Empire in 1862, the tsar offered him a position in the Russian service, but Bismarck refused.

In June 1862 he was appointed ambassador to Paris under Napoleon III. He studies in detail the school of French Bonapartism. In September, the king, on the advice of Roon, summoned Bismarck to Berlin and appointed him prime minister and foreign minister.

new field

Bismarck's main duty as minister was to support the king in the reorganization of the army. The dissatisfaction caused by his appointment was serious. His reputation as a peremptory ultra-conservative, reinforced by his first speech about the belief that the German question could not be settled only by speeches and parliamentary decisions, but only by blood and iron, increased the fears of the opposition. There can be no doubt about his determination to bring to an end the long struggle for the supremacy of the House of Hohenzollern Elector dynasty over the Habsburgs. However, two unforeseen events completely changed the situation in Europe and forced the confrontation to be postponed for three years. The first was an outbreak of rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, heir to the old Prussian traditions, mindful of the contribution of the Poles to the greatness of Prussia, offered his help to the tsar. In this way he put himself in opposition to Western Europe. As a political dividend, there was the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia. Even more serious were the difficulties that arose in Denmark. Bismarck was again forced to confront national sentiment.

German unification

Through the efforts of Bismarck's political will, the North German Confederation was founded by 1867.

The North German Confederation included:

Kingdom of Prussia,
Kingdom of Saxony,
Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,
Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg,
Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen,
Duchy of Brunswick,
Duchy of Anhalt,
Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
Principality of Reiss-Greutz,
Principality of Reiss-Gera,
Principality of Lippe,
Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe,
Principality of Waldeck,
Cities: , and .

Bismarck founded the union, introduced the direct suffrage of the Reichstag and the exclusive responsibility of the federal chancellor. He himself assumed the office of chancellor on July 14, 1867. As chancellor, he controlled the foreign policy of the country and was responsible for all the internal politics of the empire, and his influence was traced in every state department.

Fighting the Roman Catholic Church

After the unification of the country, the government faced the question of the unification of faith more than ever. The core of the country, being purely Protestant, faced religious opposition from adherents of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1873, Bismarck was not only heavily criticized, but also wounded by an aggressive believer. This was not the first attempt. In 1866, shortly before the start of the war, he was attacked by Cohen, a native of Württemberg, who thus wanted to save Germany from fratricidal war.

The Catholic Center Party unites, attracting the nobility. However, the Chancellor signs the May Laws, taking advantage of the numerical superiority of the national Liberal Party. Another fanatic, apprentice Franz Kuhlmann, on July 13, 1874, makes another attack on the authorities. Long and hard work affects the health of a politician. Bismarck resigned several times. After his retirement, he lived in Friedrichsruh.

Chancellor's personal life

In 1844, in Konarzewo, Otto met the Prussian noblewoman Joanna von Puttkamer. On July 28, 1847, their wedding took place in a parish church near Reinfeld. Undemanding and deeply religious, Joanna was a loyal companion who provided significant support throughout her husband's career. In spite of heavy loss first lover and intrigue with the wife of the Russian ambassador Orlova, his marriage turned out to be happy. The couple had three children: Mary in 1848, Herbert in 1849 and William in 1852.

200 years ago, on April 1, 1815, the first chancellor of the German Empire, Otto von Bismarck, was born. This German statesman entered as the creator of the German Empire, the "Iron Chancellor" and the actual head of foreign policy of one of the greatest European powers. Bismarck's policy made Germany the leading military and economic power in Western Europe.

Youth

Otto von Bismarck (Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen) was born on April 1, 1815 at Schönhausen Castle in the province of Brandenburg. Bismarck was the fourth child and second son of a retired captain of a small estate nobleman (they were called junkers in Prussia) Ferdinand von Bismarck and his wife Wilhelmina, nee Mencken. The Bismarck family belonged to the ancient nobility, descended from the conquering knights of the Slavic lands on Labe-Elbe. The Bismarcks traced their lineage all the way back to the reign of Charlemagne. Schönhausen Manor has been in the hands of the Bismarck family since 1562. True, the Bismarck family could not boast great wealth and did not belong to the largest landowners. Bismarcks have long served the rulers of Brandenburg in peace and military fields.

Bismarck inherited toughness, determination and willpower from his father. The Bismarck family was one of the three most self-confident Brandenburg families (Schulenburgs, Alvenslebens and Bismarcks), Friedrich Wilhelm I called them “bad, recalcitrant people” in his “Political Testament”. The mother was from a family of civil servants and belonged to the middle class. During this period, Germany was in the process of merging the old aristocracy and the new middle class. From Wilhelmina Bismarck received the liveliness of the mind of an educated bourgeois, a subtle and sensitive soul. This made Otto von Bismarck a very extraordinary person.

Otto von Bismarck spent his childhood in family estate Kniphof near Naugard, in Pomerania. Therefore, Bismarck loved nature and retained a sense of connection with it all his life. Received education in private school Plaman, the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium and the Zum Grauen Kloster Gymnasium in Berlin. last school Bismarck graduated at age 17 in 1832, passing his Abitur. During this period, Otto was most interested in history. In addition, he was fond of reading foreign literature, studied well French.

Otto then entered the University of Göttingen, where he studied law. Study then attracted Otto little. He was a strong and energetic man, and gained fame as a reveler and a fighter. Otto participated in duels, in various tricks, visited pubs, dragged women and played cards for money. In 1833 Otto moved to the New Capital University in Berlin. During this period, Bismarck was mainly interested, in addition to "tricks", in international politics, and the area of \u200b\u200bits of his interests went beyond the borders of Prussia and the German Confederation, within which the thinking of the vast majority of young nobles and students of that time was limited. At the same time, Bismarck had a high conceit, he saw himself as a great man. In 1834, he wrote to a friend: “I will become either the greatest villain, or the greatest transformer Prussia".

However good ability allowed Bismarck to successfully complete his studies. Before exams, he attended tutors. In 1835 he received a diploma and began working at the Berlin Municipal Court. In 1837-1838. served as an official in Aachen and Potsdam. However, being an official quickly bored him. Bismarck decided to leave public service, which went against the will of the parents, and was the result of the desire for complete independence. Bismarck was generally distinguished by a craving for full will. The career of an official did not suit him. Otto said: "My pride requires me to command, and not to fulfill other people's orders."

Bismarck, 1836

Bismarck the landowner

From 1839, Bismarck was engaged in the arrangement of his estate Kniphof. During this period, Bismarck, like his father, decided to "live and die in the countryside". Bismarck studied accounting and agriculture on his own. He proved to be a skillful and practical landowner who knew well how the theory Agriculture as well as practice. The value of the Pomeranian estates increased by more than a third during the nine years that Bismarck ruled them. At the same time, three years fell on the agricultural crisis.

However, Bismarck could not be a simple, albeit intelligent, landowner. There was a strength in him that did not allow him to live in peace in the countryside. He still gambled, sometimes in the evening he lowered everything that he managed to save up for months. painstaking work. Campaigned with bad people, drank, seduced the daughters of the peasants. For violent temper he was nicknamed "mad Bismarck".

At the same time, Bismarck continued to educate himself, read the works of Hegel, Kant, Spinoza, David Friedrich Strauss and Feuerbach, and studied English literature. Byron and Shakespeare fascinated Bismarck more than Goethe. Otto was very interested in English politics. Intellectually, Bismarck was an order of magnitude superior to all the Junker landowners around him. In addition, Bismarck - the landowner participated in local government, was a deputy from the district, deputy landrat and a member of the Landtag of the province of Pomerania. Expanded the horizons of his knowledge through travels to England, France, Italy and Switzerland.

In 1843 Bismarck's life took a decisive turn. Bismarck made acquaintance with the Pomeranian Lutherans and met the bride of his friend Moritz von Blankenburg, Maria von Thadden. The girl was seriously ill and dying. The personality of this girl, her Christian convictions and fortitude during her illness struck Otto to the core. He became a believer. This made him a staunch supporter of the king and Prussia. Serving the king meant serving God for him.

In addition, there was a radical change in his personal life. Bismarck met Johanna von Puttkamer at Maria and asked for her hand in marriage. Marriage to Johanna soon became Bismarck's mainstay in life, until her death in 1894. The wedding took place in 1847. Johanna bore Otto two sons and a daughter: Herbert, Wilhelm and Maria. A selfless wife and caring mother contributed to Bismarck's political career.

Bismarck with his wife

"Mad Deputy"

In the same period, Bismarck enters politics. In 1847 he was appointed representative of the Ostelbe knighthood in the United Landtag. This event was the beginning of Otto's political career. His activities in the inter-regional body of estate representation, which mainly controlled the financing of the construction of the Ostbahn (Berlin-Konigsberg road), mainly consisted of delivering critical speeches directed against the liberals who were trying to form a real parliament. Among the conservatives, Bismarck enjoyed a reputation as an active defender of their interests, who was able, without really delving into substantive argumentation, to arrange a "firework", divert attention from the subject of the dispute and excite the minds.

Opposing the liberals, Otto von Bismarck contributed to the organization of various political movements and newspapers, including the New Prussian Newspaper. Otto became a member of the lower house of the Prussian Parliament in 1849 and of the Erfurt Parliament in 1850. Bismarck was then opposed to the nationalist aspirations of the German bourgeoisie. Otto von Bismarck saw in the revolution only "the greed of the have-nots." His main task Bismarck considered it necessary to point to historical role Prussia and the nobility as the main driving force monarchy, and the protection of the existing socio-political order. The political and social consequences of the 1848 revolution, which engulfed much of Western Europe, had a profound effect on Bismarck and strengthened his monarchist views. In March 1848, Bismarck even planned to make a march on Berlin with his peasants in order to put an end to the revolution. Bismarck occupied the far right positions, being more radical even than the monarch.

During this revolutionary time, Bismarck acted as an ardent defender of the monarchy, Prussia and the Prussian Junkers. In 1850, Bismarck opposed the federation of German states (with Austrian Empire or without it), since he believed that this association would only strengthen the revolutionary forces. After that, King Frederick William IV, on the recommendation of the Adjutant General of the King Leopold von Gerlach (he was the leader of the ultra-right group surrounded by the monarch), appointed Bismarck as Prussian envoy to the German Confederation, in the Bundestag, which met in Frankfurt. At the same time, Bismarck also remained a member of the Prussian Landtag. The Prussian conservative debated the constitution with the liberals so vehemently that he even had a duel with one of their leaders, Georg von Vincke.

Thus, at the age of 36, Bismarck assumed the most important diplomatic post that the Prussian king could offer. After a short stay in Frankfurt, Bismarck realized that the further unification of Austria and Prussia within the framework of the German Confederation was no longer possible. The strategy of the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, trying to turn Prussia into a junior partner of the Habsburg Empire under the " Central Europe”, led by Vienna, failed. The confrontation between Prussia and Austria in Germany during the revolution became clear. At the same time, Bismarck began to come to the conclusion that war with the Austrian Empire was inevitable. Only war can decide the future of Germany.

During Eastern Crisis, even before the start of the Crimean War, Bismarck, in a letter to Prime Minister Manteuffel, expressed concern that the policy of Prussia, which oscillates between England and Russia, if it deviates towards Austria, an ally of England, could lead to war with Russia. “I would be careful,” Otto von Bismarck noted, “in search of protection from the storm, moor our elegant and durable frigate to the old, worm-eaten warship of Austria.” He proposed to use this crisis wisely in the interests of Prussia, and not of England and Austria.

After the end of the Eastern (Crimean) War, Bismarck noted the collapse of the alliance based on the principles of conservatism of the three Eastern powers - Austria, Prussia and Russia. Bismarck saw that the gap between Russia and Austria would last for a long time and that Russia would seek an alliance with France. Prussia, in his opinion, should have avoided possible opposing each friend of alliances, and not allow Austria or England to draw her into an anti-Russian alliance. Bismarck increasingly took an anti-English position, expressing his distrust of the possibility of a productive alliance with England. Otto von Bismarck noted: "The security of England's island location makes it easier for her to abandon her continental ally and allows her to be abandoned to her fate, depending on the interests of British policy." Austria, if it becomes an ally of Prussia, will try to solve its problems at the expense of Berlin. In addition, Germany remained an area of confrontation between Austria and Prussia. As Bismarck wrote: “According to the policy of Vienna, Germany is too small for the two of us ... we both cultivate the same arable land ...”. Bismarck confirmed his earlier conclusion that Prussia would have to fight against Austria.

As Bismarck perfected his knowledge of diplomacy and the arts government controlled, he increasingly moved away from the ultra-conservatives. In 1855 and 1857 Bismarck paid "reconnaissance" visits to the French emperor Napoleon III and came to the conclusion that he was a less significant and dangerous politician than the Prussian conservatives believed. Bismarck broke with Gerlach's entourage. As the future "Iron Chancellor" said: "We must operate with realities, not fiction." Bismarck believed that Prussia needed a temporary alliance with France to neutralize Austria. According to Otto, Napoleon III de facto suppressed the revolution in France and became the legitimate ruler. The threat to other states with the help of the revolution is now "England's favorite pastime."

As a result, Bismarck was accused of betraying the principles of conservatism and Bonapartism. Bismarck answered his enemies that "... my ideal politician is impartiality, independence in decision-making from sympathies or antipathies to foreign states and their rulers." Bismarck saw that the stability in Europe was more threatened by England, with her parliamentarism and democratization, than by Bonapartism in France.

Political "study"

In 1858, the mentally ill brother of King Frederick William IV, Prince Wilhelm, became regent. As a result political course Berlin has changed. The period of reaction was over and Wilhelm proclaimed " new era by defiantly appointing a Liberal government. Bismarck's ability to influence Prussian policy declined sharply. Bismarck was recalled from the Frankfurt post and, as he himself bitterly noted, sent "to the cold on the Neva." Otto von Bismarck became an envoy in St. Petersburg.

Petersburg experience greatly helped Bismarck as the future Chancellor of Germany. Bismarck became close to the Russian Foreign Minister, Prince Gorchakov. Gorchakov would later assist Bismarck in isolating first Austria and then France, making Germany the leading power in Western Europe. In Petersburg, Bismarck will realize that Russia still occupies a key position in Europe, despite the defeat in Eastern war. Bismarck studied the balance of political forces in the environment of the king and in the metropolitan "light", and realized that the position in Europe gives Prussia an excellent chance, which falls very rarely. Prussia could unite Germany, becoming its political and military core.

Bismarck's activities in St. Petersburg were interrupted due to a serious illness. For about a year, Bismarck was treated in Germany. He finally broke with the extreme conservatives. In 1861 and 1862 Bismarck was twice introduced to Wilhelm as a candidate for the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. Bismarck outlined his view on the possibility of unifying "non-Austrian Germany". However, Wilhelm did not dare to appoint Bismarck as a minister, as he made a demonic impression on him. As Bismarck himself wrote: "He found me more fanatical than I really was."

But at the insistence of the Minister of War von Roon, who patronized Bismarck, the king nevertheless decided to send Bismarck "to study" in Paris and London. In 1862, Bismarck was sent as an envoy to Paris, but did not stay there long.

To be continued…

"Iron Chancellor"

In the second half of the nineteenth century, for numerous German states, the question of the need for unification was acute. Instead of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which collapsed in 1806, the German Union arose in 1815, which included 39 independent states. Austria played a leading role in it. However, this did not suit Prussia. An increasingly escalating conflict arose between Vienna and Berlin.

In 1862, Bismarck (Otto von Bismarck) becomes Prime Minister of Prussia. It is through wars that Bismarck hopes to determine the fate of Germany. The rivalry between Austria and Prussia resulted in open war in 1866. The Prussian army quickly defeated the Austrian. The German Confederation is declared dissolved. Instead, in 1867, on the initiative of Bismarck, a new association was created - the North German Confederation, which, in addition to Prussia, includes the small states of Northern Germany. This union became the basis for the creation of an empire led by Prussia.

Unification of legislation

However, initially the power of the new emperor - Wilhelm I - was still very weak. Proclaimed on January 18, 1871, the German Empire is a federation of 25 states. Otto Bismarck receives the highest state post of imperial chancellor, and in accordance with the constitution of 1871, almost unlimited power. He pursues a very pragmatic policy, the main goal of which is to unite the loose empire. New laws appear one after another.

"Socialist Law"

The "Iron Chancellor" is also trying to win over the sympathies of the working class to its side. In 1881-1889, Bismarck passed "social laws" on insurance of workers in case of illness or injury, on old-age and disability pensions. It was a unique example in the history of Europe at that time. However, in parallel, Bismarck continues to apply repressive measures to the participants in the labor movement, which ultimately reduces the results of his policy to nothing.

Germany takes the lead

The formation of one's own national state was met with enthusiasm in all sections of the population. The general enthusiasm also has a beneficial effect on the economy, which is not short of cash. Moreover, having lost the war of 1870-1871, France pledged to pay an indemnity to the German Empire. New factories spring up everywhere. Germany is rapidly transforming from an agricultural country into an industrial one.

The chancellor pursues a skillful foreign policy. With the help of a complex system of alliances that ensured the isolation of France, the rapprochement of Germany with Austria-Hungary and the maintenance of good relations with Russia, Bismarck managed to maintain peace in Europe. The German Empire became one of the leaders in international politics.