Name: Beginnings of Chemistry - Modern course for applicants to universities - Volume 1. 2002.
The book is an attempt at a modern, comprehensive and systematic presentation of the fundamentals of chemistry, which must be known in the first place for applicants to universities. Its content is based on a thorough analysis of programs entrance exams in chemistry of most universities (chemical, medical, biological, etc.), as well as specific examination tasks.
FOREWORD
Part I. THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry
§ 1.1. Natural Sciences. scientific method knowledge
§ 1.2. subject of chemistry
§ 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules
§ 1.4. Law of conservation of mass and energy
§ 1.5. Periodic Law. Discovery history
§ 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry
§ 1.7. Gas laws
§ 1.8. Problems with solutions
§ 1.9. Tasks for independent decision
Chapter 2 The structure of the atom and the periodic law
§ 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom
§ 2.2. quantum numbers electrons
§ 2.3. Electronic configurations atoms
§ 2.4. The nucleus of the atom and radioactive transformations
§ 2.5. Periodic Law
§ 2.6. Problems with solutions
§ 2.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 3 chemical bond
§ 3.1. Education complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond
§ 3.2. covalent bond
§ 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds
§ 3.4. Spatial structure molecules
§ 3.5. Ionic bond
§ 3.6. metal connection
§ 3.7. Intermolecular interactions
§ 3.8. Problems with solutions
§ 3.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 4 States of matter
§ 4.1. Characteristic properties gases, liquids and solids
§ 4.2. Phase diagrams of substances
§ 4.3. gases
§ 4.4. Liquids
§ 4.5. Crystalline substances
§ 4.6. Various forms the existence of substances
§ 4.7. liquid crystals
§ 4.8. Problems with solutions
§ 4.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 5 Physical and chemical patterns of flow chemical reactions
§ 5.1. Energy chemical transformations
§ 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis
§ 5.3. reversible and irreversible reactions. State of chemical equilibrium
§ 5.4. The importance of knowledge about the patterns of chemical reactions for the management of chemical technological processes in production
§ 5.5. Problems with solutions
§ 5.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 6 Physico-chemical theory of solutions of electrolytes and non-electrolytes
§ 6.1. The mechanism of formation of solutions and their classification
§ 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as physical and chemical process
§ 6.3. Solubility dependence various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure
§ 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration (composition) of solutions
§ 6.5. Electrolytes and electrolytic dissociation
§ 6.6. Ionic equations reactions
§ 6.7. Salt hydrolysis
§ 6.8. Colloidal solutions
§ 6.9. Problems with solutions
§ 6.10. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 7 Classifications of chemical reactions
§ 7.1. General Consideration
§ 7.2. Classification by number and composition starting materials and reaction products
§ 7.3. Classification of reactions according to aggregate states
§ 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of particles carried
§ 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions
§ 7.6. Problems with solutions
§ 7.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 8 Theory of redox processes
§ 8.1. Redox reactions
§ 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents
§ 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions
§ 8.4. Quantitative characteristics OVR
§ 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes
§ 8.6. Problems with solutions
§ 8.7. Tasks for independent solution
Part II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chapter 9 organic compounds
§ 9.1. Classification and nomenclature of simple and complex substances
§ 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides
§ 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides
§ 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides)
§ 9.5. acids
§ 9.6. salt
§ 9.7. Problems with solutions
§ 9.8. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 10 Hydrogen is unique chemical element
§ 10.1. General Consideration
§ 10.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen
§ 10.3. Hydrogen production and its application
§ 10.4. Water and hydrogen peroxide
§ 10.5. Problems with solutions
§ 10.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 11 Subgroup of halogens
§ 11.1. General Consideration
§ 11.2. Chemical properties of halogens
§ 11.3. Obtaining halogens
§ 11.4. Halogen compounds
§ 11.5. The use of halogens and their compounds
§ 11.6. Problems with solutions
§ 11.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 12 Elements of the oxygen subgroup
§ 12.1. General Consideration
§ 12.2. Chemical properties of oxygen
§ 12.3. Chemical properties of sulfur
§ 12.4. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides
§ 12.5. Sulfur oxide (IV). Sulfuric acid. thiosulfate
§ 12.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid
§ 12.7. Problems with solutions
§ 12.8. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 13 Subgroup of nitrogen in phosphorus
§ 13.1. general characteristics
§ 13.2. Chemical properties simple substances
§ 13.3. Hydrogen compounds nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides
§ 13.4. Oxygen compounds nitrogen and phosphorus
§ 13.5. Meeting tasks
§ 13.6. Tasks for independent solution.
Law of conservation of mass and energy.
After proving the existence of atoms and molecules, major discovery atomic-molecular theory became the law of conservation of mass. It was formulated in the form philosophical concept by the great Russian scientist Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) in 1748 and confirmed experimentally by himself in 1756 and independently of him French chemist A.-L. Lavoisier in 1789
The mass of all substances entering into a chemical reaction is equal to the mass of all products of the reaction.
Experiments on the combustion of substances, which were carried out before Lomonosov, suggested that the mass of substances in the process of the reaction is not preserved. When heated in air, mercury turned into red scale, the mass of which was more mass metal. The mass of ash formed during the combustion of wood, on the contrary, is always less mass original substance.
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7th ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2002. Volume 1 - 384 pages; Volume 2 - 384s.
The book is an attempt at a modern, comprehensive and systematic presentation of the fundamentals of chemistry, which must be known in the first place for applicants to universities. Its content is based on a thorough analysis of the programs of entrance examinations in chemistry of most universities (chemistry, medicine, biology, etc.), as well as specific examination tasks.
The manual is intended for schoolchildren, applicants and teachers. The guide lays out the basics modern chemistry that every graduate needs to understand high school and it is absolutely necessary to know for everyone who sees himself as a student - a chemist, physician or biologist of the XXI century. The new edition reflects recent achievements chemistry and new tasks of entrance examinations are given.
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VOLUME 1.
FOREWORD
Part I. THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry
§ 1.1. Natural Sciences. Scientific method of knowledge
§ 1.2. subject of chemistry
§ 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules
§ 1.4. Law of conservation of mass and energy
§ 1.5. Periodic law. Discovery history
§ 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry
§ 1.7. Gas laws
§ 1.8. Problems with solutions
§ 1.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 2
§ 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom
§ 2.2. Quantum numbers of electrons
§ 2.3. Electronic configurations of atoms
§ 2.4. The nucleus of the atom and radioactive transformations
§ 2.5. Periodic Law
§ 2.6. Problems with solutions
§ 2.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 3
§ 3.1. Formation of complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond
§ 3.2. covalent bond
§ 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds
§ 3.4. Spatial structure of molecules
§ 3.5. Ionic bond
§ 3.6. metal connection
§ 3.7. Intermolecular interactions
§ 3.8. Problems with solutions
§ 3.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 4
§ 4.1. Characteristic properties of gases, liquids and solids
§ 4.2. Phase diagrams of substances
§ 4.3. gases
§ 4.4. Liquids
§ 4.5. Crystalline substances
§ 4.6. Various forms of existence of substances
§ 4.7. liquid crystals
§ 4.8. Problems with solutions
§ 4.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 5
§ 5.1. Energy of chemical transformations
§ 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis
§ 5.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions. State of chemical equilibrium
§ 5.4. The importance of knowledge about the patterns of chemical reactions for the management of chemical and technological processes in production
§ 5.5. Problems with solutions
§ 5.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 6
§ 6.1. The mechanism of formation of solutions and their classification
§ 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as a physical and chemical process
§ 6.3. The dependence of the solubility of various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure
§ 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration (composition) of solutions
§ 6.5. Electrolytes and electrolytic dissociation
§ 6.6. Ionic reaction equations
§ 6.7. Salt hydrolysis
§ 6.8. Colloidal solutions
§ 6.9. Problems with solutions
§ 6.10. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 7. Classifications of chemical reactions
§ 7.1. General Consideration
§ 7.2. Classification according to the number and composition of starting substances and reaction products
§ 7.3. Classification of reactions according to aggregate states
§ 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of particles carried
§ 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions
§ 7.6. Problems with solutions
§ 7.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 8
§ 8.1. Redox reactions
§ 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents
§ 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions
§ 8.4. Quantitative characteristics of OVR
§ 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes
§ 8.6. Problems with solutions
§ 8.7. Tasks for independent solution
Part II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chapter 9
§ 9.1. Classification and nomenclature of simple and complex substances
§ 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides
§ 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides
§ 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides)
§ 9.5. acids
§ 9.6. salt
§ 9.7. Problems with solutions
§ 9.8. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 10
§ 10.1. General Consideration
§ 10.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen
§ 10.3. Hydrogen production and its application
§ 10.4. Water and hydrogen peroxide
§ 10.5. Problems with solutions
§ 10.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 11
§ 11.1. General Consideration
§ 11.2. Chemical properties of halogens
§ 11.3. Obtaining halogens
§ 11.4. Halogen compounds
§ 11.5. The use of halogens and their compounds
§ 11.6. Problems with solutions
§ 11.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 12
§ 12.1. General Consideration
§ 12.2. Chemical properties of oxygen
§ 12.3. Chemical properties of sulfur
§ 12.4. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides
§ 12.5. Sulfur oxide (IV). Sulfuric acid. thiosulfate
§ 12.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid
§ 12.7. Problems with solutions
§ 12.8. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 13
§ 13.1. general characteristics
§ 13.2. Chemical properties of simple substances
§ 13.3. Hydrogen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides
§ 13.4. Oxygen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus
§ 13.5. Meeting tasks
§ 13.6. Tasks for independent solution
VOLUME 2.
Chapter 14
§ 14.1. General Consideration
§ 14.2. Chemical properties of carbon and silicon
§ 14.3. Oxygen compounds of carbon and silicon
§ 14.4. Carbides and silicides
§ 14.5. Some remarks about the germanium subgroup
§ 14.6. Problems with solutions
§ 14.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 15
§ 15.1. General Consideration
§ 15.2. Chemical properties of metals
§ 15.3. s-metal compounds
§ 15.4 Problems with solutions
§ 15.5 Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 16 Main subgroup SH group
§ 16.1. General Consideration
§ 16.2. Physical and Chemical properties aluminum and boron
§ 16.3. Production and use of boron and aluminum
§ 16.4. Boron and aluminum compounds and their properties
§ 16.5. Problems with solutions
§ 16.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 17 transition metals
§ 17.1. general characteristics
§ 17.2. Chromium and its compounds
§ 17.3. Manganese and its compounds
§ 17.4. Iron and its compounds
§ 17.5. Copper and its compounds
§ 17.6. Zinc and its compounds
§ 17.7. Silver and its compounds
§ 17.8. Problems with solutions
§ 17.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 18
§ 18.1. general characteristics
§ 18.2. Chemical compounds noble gases
§ 18.3. Application of noble gases
§ 18.4. Problems with solutions
§ 18.5. Tasks for independent solution
Part III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chapter 19
§ 19.1. Thing organic chemistry. Theory of structure
§ 19.2. Classification of organic compounds
§ 19.3. Nomenclature of organic compounds
§ 19.4. Isomerism of organic compounds
§ 19.5. Mutual influence of atoms in a molecule and reactivity organic compounds
§ 19.6. general characteristics organic reactions
§ 19.7. Industrial production of organic compounds
§ 19.8. Problems with solutions
§ 19.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 20 Limit hydrocarbons
§ 20.1. Alkanes
§ 20.2. Cycloalkanes
§ 20.3. Problems with solutions
§ 20.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 21 double bond
§ 21.1. Alkenes
§ 21.2. Alkadienes (diene hydrocarbons)
§ 21.3. Problems with solutions
§ 21.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 22
§ 22.1. General Consideration
§ 22.2. Obtaining alkynes
§ 22.3. Chemical properties of alkynes
§ 22.4. Problems with solutions
§ 22.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 23 aromatic hydrocarbons(arenas)
§ 23.1. General Consideration
§ 23.2. Preparation and chemical properties of arenes
§ 23.3. Orientation (replacement) rules in benzene ring
§ 23.4. Problems with solutions
§ 23.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 24
§ 24.1. Monohydric alcohols
§ 24.2. Polyhydric alcohols
§ 24.3. Phenols
§ 24.4. Problems with solutions
§ 24.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 25 Carbonyl compounds
§ 25.1. general characteristics
§ 25.2. Preparation and chemical properties
§ 25.3. Problems with solutions
§ 25.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 26 carboxylic acids
§ 26.1. General Consideration
§ 26.2. Preparation and chemical properties of carboxylic acids
§ 26.3. Individual representatives carboxylic acids
§ 26.4. Problems with solutions
§ 26.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 27 Esters. Fats. Detergents
§ 27.1. Esters
§ 27.2. Fats and oils
§ 27.3. Soaps and detergents
§.27.4. Problems with solutions
§ 27.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 28
§ 28.1. Monosaccharides
§ 28.2. disaccharides
§ 28.3. Polysaccharides
§ 28.4. Problems with solutions
§.28.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 29
§ 29.1. Limit aliphatic amines
§ 29.2. Aniline - the simplest aromatic amine
§ 29.3. Problems with solutions
§ 29.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 30
§ 30.1. Amino acids
§ 30.2. Peptides
§ 30.3. Squirrels
§ 30.4. Problems with solutions
§ 30.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 31
§ 31.1. Six-membered heterocycles
§ 31.2. Compounds with a five-membered cycle
§ 31.3. Structure nucleic acids
§ 31.4. Biological role nucleic acids
§ 31.5. Problems with solutions
§ 31.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 32
§ 32.1. General characteristics of polymers
§ 32.2. plastics
§ 32.3. fibers
§ 32.4. Rubbers
§ 32.5. Problems with solutions
§ 32.6. Tasks for independent solution
ANSWERS TO TASKS
SUBJECT INDEX
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In a textbook written by professors of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov and First Moscow State Medical University named after I. M. Sechenov, the foundations of modern chemistry are outlined in the volume of the school curriculum of an advanced level. The most important theoretical concepts of chemistry, the principles of classification of substances and reactions, the chemical properties of classes of organic and inorganic substances. Solutions are provided at the end of each chapter. typical tasks and various tasks for independent solution are proposed (the answers to them are at the end of the book). The tutorial will useful to schoolchildren graduation classes to prepare not only for the final and entrance exams, but also for the Olympiads different levels- from school to international.
For schoolchildren enrolled in the basic and advanced programs, students of non-chemical universities, teachers and teachers of chemistry.
| 3 | ||
| Part I. Theoretical chemistry | 5 | |
| Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry | 7 | |
| § 1.1. Natural Sciences. Scientific method of knowledge | 7 | |
| § 1.2. subject of chemistry | 8 | |
| § 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules | 11 | |
| § 1.4. Law of conservation of mass and energy | 16 | |
| § 1.5. Periodic law. Discovery history | 18 | |
| § 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry | 23 | |
| § 1.7. Gas laws | 28 | |
| Problems with solutions | 30 | |
| Problems for independent solution | 34 | |
| Chapter 2 | 38 | |
| § 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom | 38 | |
| § 2.2. Quantum numbers of electrons | 42 | |
| § 2.3. Electronic configurations of atoms | 45 | |
| § 2.4. atomic nucleus. Radioactivity | 51 | |
| § 2.5. Periodic Law | 60 | |
| Problems with solutions | 65 | |
| 66 | ||
| Chapter 3 | 69 | |
| § 3.1. Formation of complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond | 69 | |
| § 3.2. covalent bond | 72 | |
| § 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds | 77 | |
| § 3.4. Spatial structure of molecules | 80 | |
| § 3.5. Ionic bond | 86 | |
| § 3.6. metal connection | 90 | |
| § 3.7. Intermolecular interactions. hydrogen bond | 90 | |
| Problems with solutions | 94 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 97 | |
| Chapter 4 Aggregate states substances | 99 | |
| § 4.1. Properties of gases, liquids and solids | 99 | |
| § 4.2. Phase diagrams | 102 | |
| § 4.3. gases | 103 | |
| § 4.4. Liquids | 106 | |
| § 4.5. Crystalline substances | 108 | |
| § 4.6. Various forms of existence of substances | 114 | |
| § 4.7. 5Flip Crystals | 115 | |
| § 4.8. Plasma - the fourth aggregate state of matter | 116 | |
| Problems with solutions | 117 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 121 | |
| Chapter 5 | 126 | |
| § 5.1. Energy of chemical reactions | 126 | |
| § 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis | 131 | |
| § 5.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions. Chemical equilibrium | 138 | |
| § 5.4. Application of the laws of the course of chemical reactions in the management of chemical technological processes in production |
141 | |
| Problems with solutions | 144 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 148 | |
| Chapter 6. Physical and chemical theory of electrolyte solutions. Solutions of non-electrolytes | 152 | |
| § 6.1. How do substances dissolve in various solvents? Classification of solutions | 152 | |
| § 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as a physical and chemical process | 154 | |
| § 6.3. The dependence of the solubility of various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure | 157 | |
| § 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration of solutions | 163 | |
| § 6.5. electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation | 165 | |
| § 6.6. Ionic reaction equations | 173 | |
| § 6.7. Salt hydrolysis | 179 | |
| § 6.8. Colloidal solutions | 180 | |
| Problems with solutions | 183 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 187 | |
| Chapter 7. Classification of chemical reactions | 197 | |
| § 7.1. General information | 197 | |
| § 7.2. Classification according to the number of reactants and reaction products and their composition | 199 | |
| § 7.3. Classification of reactions according to the state of aggregation of a substance | 203 | |
| § 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of particles carried | 204 | |
| § 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions | 205 | |
| Problems with solutions | 205 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 206 | |
| Chapter 8 | 208 | |
| § 8.1. General concepts | 208 | |
| § 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents | 210 | |
| § 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions | 213 | |
| § 8.4. Quantitative characteristics of OVR | 220 | |
| § 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes | 227 | |
| Problems with solutions | 229 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 236 | |
| Part II. Inorganic chemistry | 245 | |
| Chapter 9. Classes inorganic compounds | 247 | |
| § 9.1. Classification and nomenclature. Simple and complex substances | 247 | |
| § 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides | 249 | |
| § 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides | 250 | |
| § 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides) | 253 | |
| § 9.5. acids | 255 | |
| § 9.6. salt | 262 | |
| Problems with solutions | 264 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 266 | |
| Chapter 10 | 268 | |
| § 10.1. general characteristics | 268 | |
| § 10.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen | 271 | |
| § 10.3. Production of hydrogen and its application | 273 | |
| § 10.4. Water and hydrogen peroxide | 275 | |
| Problems with solutions | 278 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 279 | |
| Chapter 11 | 280 | |
| § 11.1. general characteristics | 280 | |
| § 11.2. Chemical properties of halogens | 284 | |
| § 11.3. Obtaining halogens | 287 | |
| § 11.4. Halogen compounds | 289 | |
| § 11.5. The use of halogens and their compounds | 293 | |
| Problems with solutions | 294 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 299 | |
| Chapter 12 | 302 | |
| § 12.1. general characteristics | 302 | |
| § 12.2. Chemical properties of oxygen | 303 | |
| § 12.3. Chemical properties of sulfur | 305 | |
| § 12.4. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides | 306 | |
| § 12.5. Sulfur(IV) oxide. Sulfuric acid. thiosulfate | 309 | |
| § 12.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid | 310 | |
| Problems with solutions | 313 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 316 | |
| Chapter 13 | 321 | |
| § 13.1. general characteristics | 321 | |
| § 13.2. Chemical properties of simple substances | 323 | |
| § 13.3. Hydrogen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides | 325 | |
| § 13.4. Oxygen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus | 327 | |
| Problems with solutions | 333 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 338 | |
| Chapter 14 | 335 | |
| § 14.1. general characteristics | 345 | |
| § 14.2. Chemical properties of carbon and silicon | 347 | |
| § 14.3. Oxygen compounds of carbon and silicon | 348 | |
| § 14.4. Carbides and silicides | 355 | |
| § 14.5. Some remarks about the germanium subgroup | 357 | |
| Problems with solutions | 357 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 360 | |
| Chapter 15 | 364 | |
| § 15.1. general characteristics | 364 | |
| § 15.2. Chemical properties of metals | 366 | |
| § 15.3. s-metal compounds | 368 | |
| Problems with solutions | 370 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 373 | |
| Chapter 16 | 377 | |
| § 16.1. general characteristics | 377 | |
| § 16.2. Physical and chemical properties of aluminum and boron | 378 | |
| § 16.3. Production and use of boron and aluminum | 380 | |
| § 16.4. Boron and aluminum compounds and their properties | 384 | |
| Problems with solutions | 385 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 387 | |
| Chapter 17 | 390 | |
| § 17.1. general characteristics | 390 | |
| § 17.2. Chromium and its compounds | 393 | |
| § 17.3. Manganese and its compounds | 395 | |
| § 17.4. Iron and its compounds | 395 | |
| § 17.5. Copper and its compounds | 397 | |
| § 17.6. Zinc and its compounds | 398 | |
| § 17.7. Silver and its compounds | 399 | |
| Problems with solutions | 399 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 404 | |
| Chapter 18 | 412 | |
| § 18.1. general characteristics | 412 | |
| § 18.2. Chemical compounds of noble gases | 414 | |
| § 18.3. Application of noble gases | 417 | |
| Problems with solutions | 417 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 418 | |
| Part III. Organic chemistry | 419 | |
| Chapter 19 | 421 | |
| § 19.1. The subject of organic chemistry. Theory of the structure of organic compounds | 421 | |
| § 19.2. Classification of organic compounds | 423 | |
| § 19.3. Nomenclature of organic compounds | 426 | |
| § 19.4. Isomerism of organic compounds | 430 | |
| § 19.5. Mutual influence of atoms in a molecule and reactivity of organic compounds | 432 | |
| § 19.6. General characteristics of organic reactions | 434 | |
| § 19.7. Production of organic compounds in industry | 437 | |
| Problems with solutions | 444 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 447 | |
| Chapter 20 | 452 | |
| § 20.1. Alkany | 452 | |
| § 20.2. Cycloalkanes | 458 | |
| Problems with solutions | 464 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 465 | |
| Chapter 21 | 470 | |
| § 21.1. Alkenes | 470 | |
| § 21.2. Alkadienes (diene hydrocarbons) | 475 | |
| Problems with solutions | 478 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 481 | |
| Chapter 22 | 487 | |
| § 22.1. general characteristics | 487 | |
| § 22.2. Obtaining alkynes | 488 | |
| § 22.3. Chemical properties of alkynes | 489 | |
| Problems with solutions | 492 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 494 | |
| Chapter 23 | 499 | |
| § 23.1. general characteristics | 499 | |
| § 23.2. Preparation and chemical properties of arenes | 502 | |
| § 23.3. Orientation (substitution) rules in the benzene ring | 506 | |
| Problems with solutions | 509 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 513 | |
| Chapter 24 | 518 | |
| § 24.1. Monohydric alcohols | 518 | |
| § 24.2. Polyhydric alcohols | 522 | |
| § 24.3. Phenols | 523 | |
| Problems with solutions | 527 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 530 | |
| Chapter 25 | 538 | |
| § 25.1. general characteristics | 538 | |
| § 25.2. Preparation and chemical properties | 540 | |
| Problems with solutions | 543 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 546 | |
| Chapter 26 | 550 | |
| § 26.1. general characteristics | 550 | |
| § 26.2. Preparation and chemical properties of carboxylic acids | 554 | |
| § 26.3. Some representatives of carboxylic acids | 561 | |
| Problems with solutions | 563 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 567 | |
| Chapter 27 Fats. Detergents | 574 | |
| § 27.1. Esters | 574 | |
| § 27.2. Fats and oils | 577 | |
| § 27.3. Soaps and detergents | 579 | |
| Problems with solutions | 581 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 585 | |
| Chapter 28 | 590 | |
| § 28.1. Monosaccharides | 590 | |
| § 28.2. disaccharides | 594 | |
| § 28.3. Polysaccharides | 596 | |
| Problems with solutions | 598 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 600 | |
| Chapter 29 | 603 | |
| § 29.1. Limit aliphatic amines | 603 | |
| § 29.2. Aniline - the simplest aromatic amine | 606 | |
| Problems with solutions | 609 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 614 | |
| Chapter 30 | 616 | |
| § 30.1. Amino acids | 616 | |
| § 30.2. Peptides | 620 | |
| § 30.3. Squirrels | 622 | |
| Problems with solutions | 627 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 629 | |
| Chapter 31 | 633 | |
| § 31.1. Six-membered heterocycles | 633 | |
| § 31.2. Compounds with a five-membered cycle | 636 | |
| § 31.3. The structure of nucleic acids | 639 | |
| § 31.4. The biological role of nucleic acids | 646 | |
| Problems with solutions | 648 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 651 | |
| Chapter 32 macromolecular compounds(polymers) | 653 | |
| § 32.1. General characteristics of polymers | 653 | |
| § 32.2. plastics | 655 | |
| § 32.3. fibers | 658 | |
| § 32.4. Rubbers | 659 | |
| Problems with solutions | 661 | |
| Tasks for independent solution | 662 | |
| Answers to tasks | 663 | |
| Subject index | 683 |
To our parents
we dedicate this book
Foreword
Before you is a new, revised and supplemented edition. The book "Principles of Chemistry" was conceived as a manual on chemistry for university students and medical schools, but over the 15 years of its existence it has outgrown this framework and has really become an in-depth guide for everyone who loves chemistry. This book is used as a complete chemistry textbook in educational institutions different levels, as well as in preparation for the Olympiads and for extra classes in chemistry.
It's so popular tutorial must not only high level theoretical material and successful selection of tasks. The authors put all their love for chemistry into the book, which was reflected primarily in the style of presentation, as well as in the simple and friendly approaches proposed in solving problems and selecting interesting tasks for an independent solution.
We have tried to emphasize everywhere two very important ideas with which future chemists should be imbued: 1) there are no unshakable truths in science; 2) “absolutely everything” (!) is possible in chemistry, even what previously seemed impossible (or even absurd). For illustration rapid development chemical ideas, we have written several not quite ordinary for school literature sections such as Liquid Crystals and Noble Gases.
The course of chemistry is presented here in the traditional sequence. The first chapter introduces the basic concepts and laws of chemistry, which are discussed in historical aspect. Subsequent chapters 2-8 are devoted to theoretical chemistry (mostly physical chemistry). Chapters 9-18, which introduce inorganic chemistry, cover all groups in the Periodic Table of the Elements. The last chapters 19-32 are devoted to organic chemistry.
Each chapter ends with two problem sections. In the first of them, detailed solutions of typical problems are given, in which general tricks and approaches (there are more than 180 such solved problems). In the second section - tasks of different levels of complexity (from simple theoretical questions to complex multi-stage calculation tasks) for independent work. These tasks have been used earlier in entrance exams and in Olympiads. Please note that the solution of any problem requires not only a solid assimilation of the theory, but also the creative application of the acquired knowledge.
The book has been around for a long time own life, therefore, when preparing the next edition, we did not subject it to a radical revision, but limited ourselves to correcting inaccuracies, adjusting the style, and adding new material (Chapter 5), reflecting the latest achievements in chemistry.
Over the years, the authors have discussed various sections of the book together so often that each of us is responsible for all the material (we decided not to indicate specific areas of responsibility, information on this can be found in previous editions). Here we consider it our duty to emphasize that many of our colleagues, employees of Moscow University and the First Moscow Medical University named after I.M. Sechenov, helped us in the work on the book. Therefore, before you is the result of the joint work of the teams of these two universities.
We hope that the new edition will continue to arouse the keen interest of readers.
We wish you an interesting and useful reading!
December 2015
N. E. Kuzmenko
V. V. Eremin
V. A. Popkov
7th ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2002. Volume 1 - 384 pages; Volume 2 - 384s.
The book is an attempt at a modern, comprehensive and systematic presentation of the fundamentals of chemistry, which must be known in the first place for applicants to universities. Its content is based on a thorough analysis of the programs of entrance examinations in chemistry of most universities (chemistry, medicine, biology, etc.), as well as specific examination tasks.
The manual is intended for schoolchildren, applicants and teachers. The manual outlines the basics of modern chemistry, which should be understood by every high school graduate and absolutely necessary to know for anyone who sees himself as a student - a chemist, physician or biologist of the 21st century. The new edition reflects the latest achievements in chemistry and presents new tasks for entrance examinations.
Volume 1
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VOLUME 1.
FOREWORD
Part I. THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry
§ 1.1. Natural Sciences. Scientific method of knowledge
§ 1.2. subject of chemistry
§ 1.3. Atomic-molecular theory. Proof of the existence of atoms and molecules
§ 1.4. Law of conservation of mass and energy
§ 1.5. Periodic law. Discovery history
§ 1.6. Basic concepts of chemistry
§ 1.7. Gas laws
§ 1.8. Problems with solutions
§ 1.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 2
§ 2.1. Models of the structure of the atom
§ 2.2. Quantum numbers of electrons
§ 2.3. Electronic configurations of atoms
§ 2.4. The nucleus of the atom and radioactive transformations
§ 2.5. Periodic Law
§ 2.6. Problems with solutions
§ 2.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 3
§ 3.1. Formation of complex particles. The nature of the chemical bond
§ 3.2. covalent bond
§ 3.3. Valency of elements in covalent compounds
§ 3.4. Spatial structure of molecules
§ 3.5. Ionic bond
§ 3.6. metal connection
§ 3.7. Intermolecular interactions
§ 3.8. Problems with solutions
§ 3.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 4
§ 4.1. Characteristic properties of gases, liquids and solids
§ 4.2. Phase diagrams of substances
§ 4.3. gases
§ 4.4. Liquids
§ 4.5. Crystalline substances
§ 4.6. Various forms of existence of substances
§ 4.7. liquid crystals
§ 4.8. Problems with solutions
§ 4.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 5
§ 5.1. Energy of chemical transformations
§ 5.2. Chemical kinetics and catalysis
§ 5.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions. State of chemical equilibrium
§ 5.4. The importance of knowledge about the patterns of chemical reactions for the management of chemical and technological processes in production
§ 5.5. Problems with solutions
§ 5.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 6
§ 6.1. The mechanism of formation of solutions and their classification
§ 6.2. Ideal and real solutions. Dissolution as a physical and chemical process
§ 6.3. The dependence of the solubility of various substances on the nature of the solvent, temperature and pressure
§ 6.4. Methods for expressing the concentration (composition) of solutions
§ 6.5. Electrolytes and electrolytic dissociation
§ 6.6. Ionic reaction equations
§ 6.7. Salt hydrolysis
§ 6.8. Colloidal solutions
§ 6.9. Problems with solutions
§ 6.10. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 7. Classifications of chemical reactions
§ 7.1. General Consideration
§ 7.2. Classification according to the number and composition of starting substances and reaction products
§ 7.3. Classification of reactions according to aggregate states
§ 7.4. Classification of reactions according to the type of particles carried
§ 7.5. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions
§ 7.6. Problems with solutions
§ 7.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 8
§ 8.1. Redox reactions
§ 8.2. Reducing agents and oxidizing agents
§ 8.3. Drawing up equations of redox reactions
§ 8.4. Quantitative characteristics of OVR
§ 8.5. Electrolysis of solutions and melts of electrolytes
§ 8.6. Problems with solutions
§ 8.7. Tasks for independent solution
Part II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chapter 9
§ 9.1. Classification and nomenclature of simple and complex substances
§ 9.2. Classification and nomenclature of oxides
§ 9.3. Preparation and properties of salt-forming oxides
§ 9.4. Bases (metal hydroxides)
§ 9.5. acids
§ 9.6. salt
§ 9.7. Problems with solutions
§ 9.8. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 10
§ 10.1. General Consideration
§ 10.2. Chemical properties of hydrogen
§ 10.3. Hydrogen production and its application
§ 10.4. Water and hydrogen peroxide
§ 10.5. Problems with solutions
§ 10.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 11
§ 11.1. General Consideration
§ 11.2. Chemical properties of halogens
§ 11.3. Obtaining halogens
§ 11.4. Halogen compounds
§ 11.5. The use of halogens and their compounds
§ 11.6. Problems with solutions
§ 11.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 12
§ 12.1. General Consideration
§ 12.2. Chemical properties of oxygen
§ 12.3. Chemical properties of sulfur
§ 12.4. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides and polysulfides
§ 12.5. Sulfur oxide (IV). Sulfuric acid. thiosulfate
§ 12.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid
§ 12.7. Problems with solutions
§ 12.8. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 13
§ 13.1. general characteristics
§ 13.2. Chemical properties of simple substances
§ 13.3. Hydrogen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus halides
§ 13.4. Oxygen compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus
§ 13.5. Meeting tasks
§ 13.6. Tasks for independent solution
VOLUME 2.
Chapter 14
§ 14.1. General Consideration
§ 14.2. Chemical properties of carbon and silicon
§ 14.3. Oxygen compounds of carbon and silicon
§ 14.4. Carbides and silicides
§ 14.5. Some remarks about the germanium subgroup
§ 14.6. Problems with solutions
§ 14.7. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 15
§ 15.1. General Consideration
§ 15.2. Chemical properties of metals
§ 15.3. s-metal compounds
§ 15.4 Problems with solutions
§ 15.5 Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 16
§ 16.1. General Consideration
§ 16.2. Physical and chemical properties of aluminum and boron
§ 16.3. Production and use of boron and aluminum
§ 16.4. Boron and aluminum compounds and their properties
§ 16.5. Problems with solutions
§ 16.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 17
§ 17.1. general characteristics
§ 17.2. Chromium and its compounds
§ 17.3. Manganese and its compounds
§ 17.4. Iron and its compounds
§ 17.5. Copper and its compounds
§ 17.6. Zinc and its compounds
§ 17.7. Silver and its compounds
§ 17.8. Problems with solutions
§ 17.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 18
§ 18.1. general characteristics
§ 18.2. Chemical compounds of noble gases
§ 18.3. Application of noble gases
§ 18.4. Problems with solutions
§ 18.5. Tasks for independent solution
Part III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Chapter 19
§ 19.1. The subject of organic chemistry. Theory of structure
§ 19.2. Classification of organic compounds
§ 19.3. Nomenclature of organic compounds
§ 19.4. Isomerism of organic compounds
§ 19.5. Mutual influence of atoms in a molecule and reactivity of organic compounds
§ 19.6. General characteristics of organic reactions
§ 19.7. Industrial production of organic compounds
§ 19.8. Problems with solutions
§ 19.9. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 20
§ 20.1. Alkanes
§ 20.2. Cycloalkanes
§ 20.3. Problems with solutions
§ 20.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 21
§ 21.1. Alkenes
§ 21.2. Alkadienes (diene hydrocarbons)
§ 21.3. Problems with solutions
§ 21.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 22
§ 22.1. General Consideration
§ 22.2. Obtaining alkynes
§ 22.3. Chemical properties of alkynes
§ 22.4. Problems with solutions
§ 22.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 23
§ 23.1. General Consideration
§ 23.2. Preparation and chemical properties of arenes
§ 23.3. Orientation (substitution) rules in the benzene ring
§ 23.4. Problems with solutions
§ 23.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 24
§ 24.1. Monohydric alcohols
§ 24.2. Polyhydric alcohols
§ 24.3. Phenols
§ 24.4. Problems with solutions
§ 24.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 25
§ 25.1. general characteristics
§ 25.2. Preparation and chemical properties
§ 25.3. Problems with solutions
§ 25.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 26
§ 26.1. General Consideration
§ 26.2. Preparation and chemical properties of carboxylic acids
§ 26.3. Individual representatives of carboxylic acids
§ 26.4. Problems with solutions
§ 26.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 27 Fats. Detergents
§ 27.1. Esters
§ 27.2. Fats and oils
§ 27.3. Soaps and detergents
§.27.4. Problems with solutions
§ 27.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 28
§ 28.1. Monosaccharides
§ 28.2. disaccharides
§ 28.3. Polysaccharides
§ 28.4. Problems with solutions
§.28.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 29
§ 29.1. Limit aliphatic amines
§ 29.2. Aniline - the simplest aromatic amine
§ 29.3. Problems with solutions
§ 29.4. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 30
§ 30.1. Amino acids
§ 30.2. Peptides
§ 30.3. Squirrels
§ 30.4. Problems with solutions
§ 30.5. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 31
§ 31.1. Six-membered heterocycles
§ 31.2. Compounds with a five-membered cycle
§ 31.3. The structure of nucleic acids
§ 31.4. The biological role of nucleic acids
§ 31.5. Problems with solutions
§ 31.6. Tasks for independent solution
Chapter 32
§ 32.1. General characteristics of polymers
§ 32.2. plastics
§ 32.3. fibers
§ 32.4. Rubbers
§ 32.5. Problems with solutions
§ 32.6. Tasks for independent solution
ANSWERS TO TASKS
SUBJECT INDEX
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Chemistry. For high school students and college students. Kuzmenko N.E., Eremin V.V., Popkov V.A.
M.: 2008 - 480s. M.: 1995 - 527s.
AT this manual provides theoretical material on all sections of the course of chemistry. It contains about 1500 exam problems, questions and exercises with detailed decisions and answers. The range of complexity of tasks is quite wide - from the simplest to the most complex. The book is intended for high school students, applicants and teachers of chemistry.
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Table of contents
Preface 3
Chapter I. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY
§ 1. The subject of chemistry. Key Concepts and laws of chemistry 5
§ 2. The structure of the atom. Electronic configurations of atoms. Atomic nucleus. Periodic law and periodic system elements D.I. Mendeleeva 16
§ 3. Structure of molecules. Chemical bond. Valency of elements 35
§ 4. Aggregate states of matter. 57
§ 5. Patterns of the flow of chemical reactions (heat effect of reactions, reaction rate, chemical equilibrium) 68
§ 6. Solutions. electrolytic dissociation. Salt hydrolysis 87
§ 7. Classification of chemical reactions. Redox processes. Electrolysis 109
Chapter II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
§ 8. Nomenclature, classification of inorganic substances. Properties and methods of obtaining 135
§ 9. Hydrogen. Halogens and their compounds 147
§ 10. Oxygen subgroup 159
§ 11. Nitrogen subgroup 171
§ 12. Carbon subgroup 186
§ 13. Properties of ^-elements (alkaline and alkaline earth metals) and their compounds 196
§ 14. Aluminum - typical p-metal 205
§ 15. Major transition metals (rf-elements) and their compounds 210
§ 16. Tasks for repetition by inorganic chemistry 227
Chapter III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
§ 17. Basic concepts and patterns in organic chemistry. Subject of organic chemistry 230
§ 18. Limit (saturated) hydrocarbons 246
§ 19. Alkenes. Diene hydrocarbons 256
§ 20. Alkynes 269
§ 21. Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes) 278
§ 22. Alcohols and phenols 292
§ 23. Carbonyl compounds - aldehydes and ketones 308
§ 24. Carboxylic acids. Complex ethers. Fats 317
§ 25. Carbohydrates (sugar) 337
§ 26. Amines. Amino acids. Proteins 350
§ 27. Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds 367
§ 28. Tasks for repetition in organic chemistry 380
Chapter IV. BASIC TECHNIQUES FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS
§ 29. Introduction 385
§ 30 Definition molecular formula substances 386
§ 31. Determination of the composition and separation of mixtures 393
§ 32. Tasks for gas laws 402
§ 33. Ways of expressing the concentration of solutions 407
§ 34. Ionic reactions in solutions 408
§ 35. Tasks for redox reactions 416
§ 36. Miscellaneous tasks(isomerism, guessing games, chains, theoretical chemistry) 422
University Chemistry Program 437
Answers 444
Recommended Reading 459
Index 462
This book is a universal guide, which combines theoretical material and examination tasks in chemistry.
The need to create such a manual is due to the fact that in the leading universities of Russia (Moscow State University, St. Petersburg University, Kazan University, Novosibirsk University, Krasnoyarsk University, Rostov University, Russian Chemical-Technological University. DI. Mendeleev, Moscow medical Academy them. THEM. Sechenov, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia) the system of written entrance examinations in chemistry has become widespread. The first years of exams showed that the majority of applicants do not know how to solve problems effectively. Therefore, we came to the conclusion that good allowance in chemistry should, in addition to theoretical sections, contain a large set of problems and describe the main methods for solving them.
The past years have shown the correctness of this conclusion. This book has gone through several editions. It contains about 1500 tasks, questions and exercises in all sections of the program of entrance examinations in chemistry. Absolutely all tasks are exams. The manual summarizes many years of experience in written exams in chemistry at the Moscow state university, Moscow Medical Academy, Kazan medical institute and a number of other universities. In this sense, it can be considered as a reference book containing the main types of tasks for written exam. A student who has solved at least half of the tasks from this book on his own will not have any problems at the exam in chemistry at any university in Russia.
Our book differs from others in that all tasks in it are divided into three levels - very easy, medium and very difficult, so it is intended for a wide range of students - from schoolchildren who begin to study chemistry to medalists. Some very challenging tasks can be used in undergraduate courses of universities.
Theoretical material in the book is built in accordance with exemplary program in chemistry for university applicants, which is given at the end of the manual. Since the manual is focused mainly on practical training, the theory is presented sufficiently
briefly. The theoretical material was mainly written by prof. NOT. Kuzmenko (§ 1-15, 17-23); § 26, 27 wrote prof. 13.13. Eremin, § 24 and 25 - prof. V.A. Popkov, selected tasks and distributed them by levels V.A. Popkov and V.V. Eremin, solutions of problems (Chapter IV) were made by V.V. Eremin and N.E. Kuzmenko. The vast majority of tasks in the book belong to the authors.
This edition is supplemented with problems from real exam tickets at Moscow State University and MMA over the past few years. In addition, some theoretical sections have been revised and corrected.
