The Russian army of the 19th century is the army that conquered all of Europe, defeated Napoleon. Army, the first to stand guard Holy Union and the European world order. army, in most unfavorable conditions opposed the strongest European armies in the Crimean War - and defeated, but not broken by them. An army that begins to rapidly catch up with other armies in Europe in order to once again become a worthy army of one of the largest European powers.
The Russian army of the described period is an army that has entered a period of major reforms, but is still in their very initial stage.
The military reforms of the reign of Alexander II are associated primarily with the name of D.A. Milyutin, who assumed the post of Minister of War in 1861 and remained in it for the rest of the reign of Alexander II. The main goal of these reforms was to unify the structure of the army, solve problems with its staffing, which were identified during the Crimean War, and increase the overall combat capability of the state.

One of these changes was the introduction of a system of military districts. The state was divided into military districts. In the hands of the chief of the district was concentrated the command of the troops, the management of local military institutions, the supervision of the preservation of calm and order, and military administration in general. The first military districts were Warsaw, Vilensky and Kyiv, created in 1862 - exactly a year before the events of interest to us.

The following transformations affected the structure of the army. In 1856, the entire infantry received a uniform organization. All regiments were transferred to the 3-battalion structure. Since the gradual transition of the army to rifled weapons was carried out in parallel, the 5th rifle companies were formed in all regiments.
From 1858 to 1861, changes were made in the organization of troops only in the cavalry and artillery, and the composition of the active infantry and engineering troops remained almost unchanged.

In 1862, the active troops had the following organization:
1st Army from I, II, III Army Corps
Caucasian army
IV, V, VI Army Corps
Separate corps: Guards Infantry, Guards Cavalry, Grenadier, Orenburg and Siberian.

Guards corps comprised all guards units. The grenadier and army corps consisted of 3 infantry and 1 cavalry divisions with attached artillery.

Army recruitment

The rank and file of the army was replenished on the basis of recruitment. The term of active service was 15 years from 1856, and 12 years from 1859. Recruits were gathered from the entire taxable population (peasants and philistines).

In addition to recruits, volunteers entered the army - volunteers from classes not obligated to military service. However, their number was small (about 5%). There was also the practice of surrendering to soldiers as a measure of criminal punishment, but, naturally, the share of such in the total number of soldiers was negligible.

There were three ways to replenish the army with non-commissioned officers: 1) the production of those who voluntarily entered the service; 2) production from the rank and file, received by recruitment; 3) production of cantonists (children lower ranks subject to mandatory military service; The institute of cantonists was abolished in 1856). For the production of non-commissioned officers in the infantry, no special knowledge and skills were required - only compulsory service for 3 years was required.

All troops were replenished with officers from three sources: 1) the graduation of students from military educational institutions; 2) the production of lower ranks who entered the service voluntarily; 3) the production of those who entered the service by recruitment.
In the military educational establishments accepted mainly the children of the nobility and the military. The best pupils upon graduation were enrolled in guards infantry warrant officers or lieutenants in the army, those who completed the course with less success - lieutenants or warrant officers in the army. The annual output of higher educational institutions was extremely small (in 1861 - 667 people), because the main source of replenishment of the army with officers was the production of persons who entered the volunteers.

Volunteers were promoted to officers upon reaching seniority in the lower ranks of a certain period (depending on class and education).
The production of officers by recruits gave an insignificant percentage of officers - because of the too long period of compulsory service (10 years in the guard and 12 years in the army) and because of the illiteracy of a significant number of lower ranks. Most of those who served by recruitment, suitable for the term of service, did not pass the exam for the officer rank, but continued to serve as non-commissioned officers.

Tactics and weapons

The company in combat terms was divided into 2 platoons, and the platoon - into 2 half-platoons. The main combat formations of the company and battalion were the deployed three-rank formation, columns, squares and loose formation.

The deployed formation was used primarily for firing in volleys. The columns were used when moving across the terrain, maneuvering and attacking. Kare served to protect against cavalry attacks. The loose formation was used exclusively for shooting and consisted of skirmishers, who were usually sent ahead of the battle formations in order to disrupt the enemy ranks with fire.
At the turn of the first and second halves of the 19th century, infantry training was little focused on the actual battle - attention was paid almost only to parade formations, march along the parade ground, etc. The Crimean War forced to learn bitter lessons from this - in the preparation of a soldier they began to pay more attention directly conducting the battle, in the first place - shooting. Although this practice was enshrined in the statutes after Polish uprising, "on the ground" it was widely distributed.

The main weapon of the soldier was a gun. The Russian army met the Crimean War with a smooth-bore capsule 7-ln. guns with a combat range of 300 steps - a completely outdated weapon for those times. As a result of the war, an understanding of the need for a hasty transition to rifled weapons came. As a result, in 1856, a capsule 6-ln. a rifle with the so-called Mignet expansion bullet (an oblong bullet had a recess in the bottom part, where a conical cup was inserted; when fired, the cup entered the recess and expanded the walls of the bullet, due to which the latter entered the rifling). The firing range of such a gun was already 1200 steps.

Rearmament to rifled weapons went enough rapidly, however, it was fully completed only by 1865.

The melee weapons of the infantry consisted of a bayonet and a cleaver or saber; the latter were most often in service with non-commissioned officers and the best soldiers companies. The officers were armed with sabers.

The east burns with a new dawn
Already on the plain, over the hills
Cannons roar. Smoke crimson
Circles rises to heaven.
A. S. Pushkin, "Poltava"

It is often believed that discoveries are the result of sudden insights that occasionally visit lonely and unrecognized geniuses. But this is how only general concepts are born that are unsuitable for practical implementation. That is why geniuses sometimes remain unrecognized for many centuries, until someone brings their fantasies to life. Real, important, revolutionary inventions are born long and hard, but they keep up right on time. That was the story of the flintlock gun with a bayonet.

LOOKING FOR A GUN

In the second half of the 17th century, the basis European armies was infantry, armed with lightweight muskets, suitable for use without props, and three-meter "Swedish" peaks. The cavalry, which was no longer threatened by the slow but impenetrable "hedgehogs" of battles, felt more confident and experienced a new flowering. Common in the Middle Ages, but later forgotten, attack in close formation, gallop, bladed weapons and hooves came back into fashion. But the cavalry could no longer regain its dominant position in battle: the cavalry was no longer worth ten footmen, as it once was. Musketeer had real chances shoot the horse. Pikemen, although "shortened", also gave their lives dearly.

But the treasury, on the contrary, was much cheaper than cuirassiers. Now it was the infantry that was to become the main striking force. But art offensive battle it didn't take long for her. Musketeers had to keep a respectful distance from the enemy, in close combat they were too vulnerable. And it was not even that the dagger was a rather weak argument in hand-to-hand combat. The gunslinger couldn't use it at all, while simultaneously holding a huge gun, a smoldering fuse, and a wooden ramrod. Pikemen without fire support were also worth little.

Time required the creation of a fundamentally new weapon - a single and universal one. Combining the properties of a musket and pikes.

THE BIRTH OF A LEGEND

The flintlock allowed each soldier to engage in both skirmish and close combat. It arose as a result of the combination of several inventions, each of which had difficult story. Borrowed from a matchlock musket, a barrel was added with a flintlock and a paper cartridge, which increased the rate of fire, a reliable steel ramrod, and a bayonet. By the end of the 17th century, each of these elements had already existed for at least a century and a half. But for a very long time they could not find each other.

The flintlock was invented in the Middle East almost simultaneously with the advent of the wheel lock in Europe. In 1500, at least, it was already being used in Turkey. Four years later, Arabic flint became famous in Spain. Tracking the further spread of this technology across Europe is helped by a long series of the highest prohibitions on its use.

The last time the flintlock was banned - under fear death penalty! - King Louis XIV of France in 1645. But this did not mean at all that anyone who was found to have it was immediately dragged to the executioner. It was not forbidden to produce, store, carry and even use weapons with a flintlock. With him it was impossible only to catch the eye of the captain during the regimental review. A soldier with a "bully" musket was not considered equipped. At a time when a warrior received funds from the treasury, but acquired equipment on his own, this was equated with desertion.

Why did the rulers not like the convenient and inexpensive (compared to the wheeled) castle so much? In fact, the claims were weighty. The Turkish lock, extremely simple to manufacture and not prone to breakage, was at the same time extremely unreliable in operation. One misfire accounted for 3-5 shots. In practice, this meant that the regiment's salvo would be 25% "thinner" than in the case of using matchlock muskets.

The problem of reliability was partly solved with the advent of the German or "battery" flintlock in the thirties of the 17th century. A much more massive and complex European version was cut off only once for 7-15 shots.

But the German castle was not without flaws. It consisted of many parts, each of which could fail. Even if a screw was lost during cleaning, a new one could not be made in a field forge. In addition, the flintlock needed a new type of ammunition: properly hewn pieces of stone. The flint withstood only two or three dozen shots, but it was not easy to get a new one. As long as flintlock guns remained rare, the marketers did not supply consumables for them.

The transition to weapons with a flintlock became possible only after the appearance of regular armies receiving weapons from government warehouses. Now, if the gun failed, the soldier was punished and ... immediately gave him a new one. After all, an unarmed shooter is of no use. The issue with the production of flints was also easily resolved.

At the same time, an iron ramrod was also introduced, which conveniently retracted into the stock of a gun. The thick wooden ramrods adopted earlier were constantly breaking, and it was inconvenient to wear them, although they were cheap and did not spoil the barrel. But since the Musketeers stopped spending their own money to buy weapons, these advantages have lost their meaning.

Economic considerations also contributed to the adoption of the paper muzzle cartridge known since 1530. The essence of the invention was that instead of a wooden charge, the amount of gunpowder necessary for a shot was poured into a paper tube - a “sleeve”. A bullet was also stuck in it. The use of cartridge cases made it possible to abandon the horn with seed gunpowder and a pair of wads. Now the shooter just took the cartridge out of the bag, bit it, poured some gunpowder onto the shelf, the rest into the barrel, and then hammered the bullet along with the cartridge case with a ramrod. The convenience of such a charging technique was not in doubt. But in the era of mercenary armies, musketeers, with no less valor than the onslaught of enemy cavalry, repelled the attempts of the command to force them, in addition to gunpowder and lead, to buy paper, which was expensive at that time.

The bayonet completed the transformation. Musketeers have long found that they need a more powerful weapon than a sword. Attempts to attach the point to the support ceased, since the support itself was no longer used. It seemed logical to equip the musket itself with a blade. Already in the 16th century, bayonets appeared - knives inserted into the barrel. But they kept breaking or falling out. AT mid-seventeenth century, the Dutch invented the screw-in mount. But even he did not satisfy the military, because when the muzzle heated by firing cooled, the thread jammed tightly. Only a bayonet welded on the outside of the barrel could receive distribution.

Field artillery

From the moment the culverins were replaced by rapid-fire short cannons in the 17th century until the advent of rifled guns at the end of the 19th century firepower artillery remained unchanged. And the development of this type of troops was forcedly limited to a gradual increase in maneuverability. Instead of hired horses and oxen, strong, fast and not afraid of artillery horses were increasingly used. First of all - at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries - field artillery was completely transferred to "state" traction in Russia. Mainly because Russian peasant horses were smaller and weaker than their Western counterparts and could not pull cannons. But by the middle of the century, other sovereigns followed the example of Peter. field guns different countries differed in design, but not in characteristics. They almost always weighed about one and a half tons and were 122 millimeters (12 pounds) in caliber. The gun made one shot per minute and "reached" 400 meters with buckshot and twice as far as ricochets. The core could fly two or three kilometers, but at a long distance it no longer bounced off the ground and did not pose a danger.

FROM FUSEIA TO SEMILINEAR GUN

In the 80s of the XVII century, the "weapon of the future" took on a finished form. The designers had to great job: after all, the musket itself weighed more than six kilograms, but now a heavy German lock, a one and a half meter steel ramrod and a half meter bayonet were added to it, weighing another two kilograms in total. Only at the cost of the most severe economy (even sights were sacrificed) was it possible to keep the total weight of the gun within 5.7 kilograms.

It was not so easy to decide on the choice of caliber. Also in early XVII centuries, "double" 20-23 mm muskets began to be replaced by much more convenient 16-18 mm. But the creators of the fusee still settled on an impressive caliber of 20.3-21.6 mm.

Oddly enough, the length of the barrel played a decisive role in this. He was now at the same time the “shaft” for the bayonet: the ability to strike a little earlier seemed like a great advantage. At that time, they could not mass-produce barrels with a caliber-to-length ratio of more than 1:70.

Of course, the 142-centimeter barreled fusil appears to be a huge gun. But in order to fully appreciate its dimensions, some Additional Information. For example, the fact that even in 1836 (and this is already the 19th century), only one in a hundred of those called to French army recruits was above 172 centimeters. The average growth of recruits was only 158 centimeters. However, the French were then considered a short nation. The Russians and the British were somewhat higher.

The caliber of the fusee was not only great "from birth", but also gradually increased over time. Indeed, after every twenty shots, the gun had to be cleaned with brick powder, otherwise soot (a mixture of lead, soot and scale) clogged the barrel to such an extent that the bullet no longer entered it. And since the barrel was rubbed faster near the treasury and the muzzle than in the middle, the gun was periodically sent to the workshop and reamed.

Bullets fired from the fusee inflicted terrible wounds, but rarely hit the target. Moreover, the result practically did not depend on the efforts of the shooter - the legendary accuracy of Hawkeye (as, indeed, of his predecessor Robin Hood) is a myth. Even in the ideal case, the scattering of bullets fired from the smooth barrels of that era was very large. The best sporting shotgun with a barrel length of 120 calibers provided a sure shot at a growth target from 60 meters. Military 70-caliber - from 35 meters. Short and light hunting or cavalry rifle - only from 20 meters. That is, a bad shooter, of course, could miss from such a distance. But from a greater distance, even a sniper hit the enemy only by accident.

Alas, only new guns, loaded with great accuracy, had such a fight. The barrel of the old fusee, which has seen and experienced a lot, as a rule, was bent more than once during bayonet strikes. And a bullet dented with a ramrod and covered with paper could be considered “round” only very conditionally. To the above, it is worth adding a crushing return.

Despite the convenience of the new lock and the use of a paper cartridge, the rate of fire also remained very low: it took from one to one and a half minutes to load, the weapon was monstrously long, and the bayonet made it difficult to work with a ramrod.

Only in the middle of the 18th century, King Frederick II of Prussia decided that the advantages in bayonet combat could be partly sacrificed in favor of increasing the rate of fire. So there was a new seven-line (17.8 mm) gun with a barrel shortened to 60 calibers.

The effectiveness of shots at the horse was somewhat reduced, but now the infantry could already fire one and a half volleys per minute. Through the systematic, inveterate and intensified flogging of the musketeers, the Prussians even managed to increase the rate of fire to four volleys. But ... the experience was considered unsuccessful. That is, the musketeers, of course, were flogged further, but to make more volleys per minute of infantry until mid-nineteenth have not been taught for centuries. All the same, the bullets flew away in an incomprehensible direction, and frequent fire had no other consequences, except for smoke and ammunition consumption. Only point-blank shots and bayonet strikes gave a real effect.

Nevertheless, by the end of the century, the convenience and practicality of a shortened shotgun were recognized throughout Europe, and the seven-line caliber became standard.

True standardization, however, has yet to be discussed. A feature of the armament of the armies of the XVIII century (as well as many previous centuries) was the lack of uniformity. For each type of infantry - musketeers, rangers, grenadiers - and for each type of cavalry, it was developed and approved on the highest level special gun model. But it was also supplied only guards regiments. Most of the soldiers carried weapons of the most diverse, and often mysterious origin. After all, the bulk of it was made up of trophies taken during countless wars, the results of alterations and upgrades, as well as relics of bygone eras. For example, fuzei made under Peter I continued to be used until Patriotic War 1812. And after it, the situation only got worse: having collected the most impossible weapons rubbish from all over Europe, the French brought it to Russia and left it near Moscow.

The trophies captured in 1812-1815 did not lend themselves to any classification. But even before that, in the Russian army, guns were divided by caliber (from 13 to 22 millimeters), and each caliber was divided into types: infantry (the longest), chasseurs (shorter), dragoons (even shorter), cuirassiers and hussars (with the shortest barrel ). In total, there were 85 "combinations". Some standardization existed only within the regiments. Each of them received guns - albeit fired at the very different time in different countries, but with barrels of approximately the same caliber and length.

Naturally, this rule was not observed in practice. Part handed over faulty guns to warehouses, and in return received not those that were needed, but those that were available. In addition, even among the guns of "equal proportions" came across both new and old ones with repeatedly reamed and thinned barrels. The ballistics of each of them was individual. As a result, the accuracy of volley fire did not stand up to criticism. Soldiers who got the ancient 22-mm squeaks were regularly injured by the heroic recoil. The same shooters who were given 13-millimeter guns (probably once taken from the Janissaries or Polish partisans) began to chatter their teeth when they met with enemy cavalry.

Siege artillery

Fight against enemy fortifications in the XVII- XIX centuries was assigned to guns with a four-meter barrel with a caliber of 152 millimeters (24 pounds). Deviations from this standard were rare and generally not viable. A cannon heavier than five tons would be very difficult to transport by horse traction. Numerous teams did not solve the problem of gun mobility. " Achilles heel» Artillery of the 18th century had narrow wooden wheels - the cannons got stuck in a rut. And if the soldiers, weighing four centners, used to carry the regimental 6-pounder on their hands through the ditch and throw it into the breach of the wall, then in order to pass the siege parks, it was often necessary to strengthen bridges and roads. The energy of the core dropped rapidly with distance. Therefore fire siege gun led from a distance of only 150-300 meters. It was not so easy for sappers to build a reliable shelter from wooden log cabins stuffed with earth at such a distance from enemy walls.

Horse artillery

If in the 16th century a battery in battle could not change position at all, then in the 18th century a cannon was already rushing over level ground so famously that the gunners could not keep up with it on foot. They tried to find a way out in the equipment of the carriage, the front end and the charging box with several seats. This is how the "driving artillery" appeared. But this method of transportation turned out to be very uncomfortable and dangerous: when the horses switched to a trot, the wagons without springs literally shook the soul out of the passengers. People often fell from them and died under the wheels of guns. Much better results were achieved by seating gunners on horses. Suddenly appearing where the guns, it seemed, could not keep up in principle, horse artillery, created on the initiative of Peter the Great during Northern war, gave the Swedes many unpleasant surprises. During the 18th century, other European countries followed the example of Russia.

A unique feature of the Russian artillery of the 18th-19th centuries is the mixed composition of artillery batteries, each of which included an equal number of cannons and howitzers - "unicorns". With the same weight as a conventional gun, the short "unicorn" had a caliber of 152 mm and hit three times the area with buckshot. But the cores fired from it flew twice as slowly and practically did not give ricochets. Over a long distance, the fire was carried out only by explosive shells.

In practice, this meant that Russian artillery had an advantage in close combat, but was inferior to the enemy in a long-range firefight - the ricochets were far more dangerous than bombs. The cast-iron spheres stuffed with black powder exploded weakly, yielding few lethal fragments. If they exploded at all.

On the other hand, the result of firing cannonballs was highly dependent on the characteristics of the soil and terrain. The shells got stuck in the sand, flew over ravines, bounced off hillocks and redoubts. Grenades, of course, also often sank in swamps and broke on stones, but still they acted more correctly on rough terrain.

ARMY TACTICS OF THE 18TH CENTURY

With the advent of the fusee, the peaks became superfluous. Now the infantry could drive off the cavalry with shots and attack with bayonets at the ready. However, strategists still did not fully trust the new weapon. Pike regiments were abolished by 1721 (later in Russia), but lances were also in service in musketeer regiments, as were muskets in pikemen. Systematically, these weapons continued to be used until the middle of the century, and sporadically (in the event of a shortage of guns) even at the beginning of the 19th century.

The techniques of bayonet fighting were not immediately mastered. AT early XVIII centuries, musketeers continued to wear daggers or cleavers and even tried to use them in battle. According to the Swedish charter, during the attack, the first row of fighters was supposed to hold the fusee in the left hand and the sword in the right. Physically, this was impossible, but the army traditionally does not attach importance to such trifles.

Nevertheless, the bayoneted gun gradually established itself as a universal infantry weapon. Uniformity made it possible to simplify the organization of regiments. In fact, they again turned into battalions of 900 people with two or four light guns. Larger units - brigades, divisions, corps - already included several branches of the military and consisted of infantry regiments, cavalry squadrons and field artillery batteries.

The regiments were divided into musketeers, grenadiers and chasseurs. Theoretically, the types of infantry differed in tactics of use: grenadiers in close columns went for a breakthrough, shooting only at point-blank range, musketeers, lined up in a square, met the cavalry with fire, and rangers acted in chains on difficult terrain. Practically all the infantry had the same training and fought as circumstances required. The difference (except for the uniform) was only that the rangers' guns were shortened and adapted for more frequent firing.

The cavalry was also divided into three types, but there the difference was real. The cuirassiers, who were the color and pride of the cavalry, on huge "knight's" horses attacked the infantry in the forehead. Fast hussars carried out coverage and pursuit. The dragoons occupied an intermediate position. Relatively long guns and "universal" boots allowed them to operate in on foot, although dismounting was practiced very rarely.

The most important of all that the 18th century brought to military affairs was the appearance of regular armies. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and the kings seriously improved their financial affairs. Now they had the opportunity to constantly maintain a large army. It made sense to hire for a short time only already trained soldiers. Now governments needed only recruits who could be armed and trained. It was unprofitable to release experienced warriors. Military service, regardless of whether they entered it voluntarily or fell as a result of mobilization, became extremely long: from 16 to 25 years.

XVIII century - the era of bright uniforms. The armies multiplied, the battle formations stretched out, and now it was difficult for the commander to see the banners even through a telescope: only by the shade of the camisoles he could distinguish his troops from strangers.

This is the time of clouds of powder smoke floating over the battlefield, the time of drums and whistling cannonballs. The Middle Ages are over.

Third paragraph. In him we are talking about the reforms of the Russian army in the 19th century. The abstract is easy to issue as a report, essay, test or creative work. The uniqueness of the text is 80%. You can purchase the entire essay for 150 rubles. on the site Author 24 . Paragraphs 4 – 5 and Conclusion will be posted separately.

At the beginning of the 19th century serious military reforms were carried out in Russia. This was due to the process of disintegration of feudalism and the transition to new capitalist relations. The noble elite of the country actively opposed changes in the army and navy, so radical reforms in the military sphere were pushed back in time until the second half of the 19th century.

Alexander I, having ascended the throne in 1801, proclaimed a course towards reforming all aspects of life, the state, including in the military field. In 1802, the central military administration was reorganized. Instead of the Military and Admiralty Boards, the Military and Naval Ministries are being created. Reforms were carried out in the organization of troops.

In the infantry and cavalry, a division became a permanent military formation, consisting of 2-3 brigades of two regimental strength and an artillery brigade. Divisions were reduced to corps - higher connections both in infantry and cavalry. The corps had, as a rule, two divisions and two artillery brigades. Corps united in the army.

So, at the beginning of 1812, the troops were brought together in 8 infantry, 4 cavalry corps and two Cossack detachments and were distributed between the 1st and 2nd Western, 3rd Reserve and Danube armies. The number of jaeger regiments capable of fighting in loose formation has increased.

The Russian army of 1809 received a more advanced 7-line flintlock gun, which made it possible to introduce aimed shooting training for troops. With the participation of General P. I. Bagration and the Minister of War. MB Barclay de Tolly developed and introduced new statutes and instructions. The system of officer training received some improvement, and the network of military educational institutions was expanded.

These changes had a positive impact on the Russian army, which during the Patriotic War of 1812 under the command of M.I. Kutuzova defeated Napoleon's army, the strongest in the world at that time.

Defeat in Crimean War 1853 - 1856 forced the country's leadership to undertake more radical changes in the system of the armed forces. In 1861 General D. A. Milyutin (1816-1912) was appointed to the post of Minister of War - a supporter of reforms in the army, who, with the modest economic opportunities of the state, managed to raise the power of the Russian army. In 1862, he presented to the tsar a draft military reform, which approved it. Russia entered a period of military reforms that continued until 1874.

The purpose of these reforms was to create a mass army, to eliminate the military backwardness of Russia, revealed in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Main reform measures:

replacement of recruitment kits with all-class military service. According to the adopted Charter on military service (1874), all men who had reached the age of 20 were involved in the service. The term of active service in the ground forces was determined at 6 years and then 9 years in the reserve, in the navy - 7 years and 3 years in the reserve.

The charter exempted ministers from military service religious cult, teachers, doctors, peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, the Far North and Far East, Caucasus. They were exempted from being drafted into the army due to marital status (the only son, if he was the breadwinner of the family).

In the country as a whole, the number of those annually drafted into the army did not exceed 30% of those of military age. People who had an education received benefits: for those who graduated from higher educational institutions, the term of active service was reduced to six months, for those who graduated from gymnasiums - up to one and a half years.

The transition to universal military service allowed the state to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and significantly increase the contingent of the military-trained reserve. Its number by the end of the century was about 3 million people.

Military Education Reform

The reform of military education, training and retraining of officer cadres has been carried out. In the 60s of the 19th century. reforms of military educational institutions were carried out. Their goal was to train a cadre of officers devoted to the Fatherland, well educated and trained in military affairs.

Two new academies were opened; Military-legal and Naval. At the end of the century, there were six military academies in Russia ( General Staff, Medical-surgical, Artillery, Engineering, Legal and Marine). But the number of listeners in them was small. For example, in the Artillery Academy the number of students did not exceed 60 people.

The secondary military school was seriously reformed. Instead of cadet corps, military gymnasiums were created, which provided a general secondary education and prepared young men for entering military schools, and pro-gymnasiums with a four-year training period to prepare for entering cadet schools.

In the early 60s, military and cadet schools were created. In military schools, the training period was three years; young men who graduated from military gymnasiums were admitted there. In military schools, the internal routine was based on the implementation of the strictest military discipline.

Junker schools trained officers from persons who did not have a general secondary education, as well as from the lower ranks of the army, who came from noble and chief officer families. the quality of military knowledge given to the junkers was lower than in military schools.

For the training of technical specialists, weapons, technical, pyrotechnic, topographic, medical assistant and other schools were created. In order to improve military knowledge and retrain officers, one-year schools were established.

Results of the reform:

• As a result of the reform of the military school, the training of command and engineering personnel has noticeably improved, and their number has increased. By the end of the 19th century an average of 2,000 officers were produced per year, which made it possible to provide up to 80% of vacancies in the army and navy.
• In 1882 the military gymnasiums were liquidated. At the same time, the government restored the cadet corps as closed noble educational institutions.
• As a result of the reform of the military school, the training of command and engineering personnel has significantly improved, and their number has increased.

By the end of the 19th century trained annually: in cadet corps about 12 thousand people, - in military schools 5.5 thousand people, - in the cadets 2.8 thousand people, - in the academies 850 people.

Deep reforms were made in the field of military command and organization of troops. central administration still carried out by the War Department, which consisted of:

• 1) the Military Council;
• 2) Offices;
• 3) the General Staff;
• 4) Main departments.

The powers of the ministry increased: now the entire army was under its control, including the guards and the army in the field.

A military district system was created

The country was divided into 15 military districts headed by commanders who were subordinate to the emperor. Control over the commanders of the districts was carried out by the Ministry of War. The supreme command over all the armed forces was exercised by the emperor, his closest assistant was the minister of war.

Rearmament of the army

An important component of military reforms is the rearmament of the army and navy. The Russian infantry began to receive rifled small arms - the Berdan system rifle, and then the Mosin three-line rifle (1891).

Berdanka is a single-shot rifle of 4.2 line caliber (10.67 mm) chambered for a metal cartridge. Charged from the treasury. Developed by Russian engineers sent to the USA by Colonel A.P. Gorlov and captain K.I. Guiius with the assistance of American Colonel X. Berdan. Berdan rifles No. 1 (1868), No. 2 (1870) were adopted for service. There were 3 types No. 2 - infantry, dragoon and Cossack rifles.

Mosin Sergey Ivanovich (1849-1902) - Russian designer of small arms, major general since 1900. In 1890 he created a "three-line" rifle - a caliber of 7.62 mm, a five-shot magazine. The rifle was modernized in 1910, 1930 and 1933. Its combat rate of fire is 10-12 rounds per minute, the aiming range is up to 2 thousand meters, the weight with a bayonet is 4.5 kg, without a bayonet - 4 kg.

Artillery units received steel rifled guns. In the second half of the 19th century sailing fleet gave way to the steam armored fleet. By the end of the century, Russia ranked third in Europe in terms of the number of warships: Great Britain had 355 ships, France - 204, Russia - 107.

The reformers tried to improve the financial situation of the officers, to increase the prestige of military service. In 1859, higher salaries for officers were established. In 1886, salaries for line officers were increased by 10-40%. As a result, the annual salary was: 10,950 rubles for corps commanders, 5,256 rubles for division chiefs, 3,711 rubles for regiment commanders, 1,380 rubles for battalion commanders, and 1,032 rubles for company commanders. However, the salary of Russian officers in comparison with the salary of French or German officers was low, sometimes inferior to two or even three times.

Military reforms in the second half of the 19th century. were progressive. Combat capability Russian army and the fleet rose, which showed Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878

Until the end of the 17th century, the archery army performed the protective function of the state. They lived on the lands given out by the king and were ready to attack the enemy at the first call. First regular army appeared only at the first Russian emperor, Peter the First.

The history of the creation of the Russian army takes from the village of Preobrazhenskoye, to which they exiled young Peter, together with his mother Natalya Naryshkina. There he gathered his army from the children of the boyars, his peers. Based on this amusing army Peter's regiments Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky were created.

They showed themselves brilliantly, arriving to protect Peter in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. The second time they proved themselves at the battle of Narva, where they were the only ones who fought to the death. As a result of this battle, the Life Guards were created, which became the basis of the army of the Russian Empire.

Start of conscription in the Russian army

During the northern war, in 1705, Peter issued a decree on the introduction of a recruiting set of soldiers in the Russian army. From that moment, the training of the lower ranks began. Service in tsarist army was difficult and many people wonder how many years they served in the tsarist army?

In those days, the country was constantly at war, for this reason they were drafted into the army for life.

There was no choice for the nobles, they had to serve everything, though in the officer rank, except for the guards regiments. The peasants had to choose whom they would send to serve. Most often, this choice was determined by lot.

The nobles lived in the regimental barracks and received the usual soldier's rations. In the early years of the creation of the state army, the escapes of recruits were frequent, therefore, for reliability, they were shackled with shackles. Later, recruits began to be marked with a tattoo in the form of a cross on the palm. But for good service, Peter generously rewarded his soldiers. A number of bonuses were introduced for participation in significant battles.

Changing the term of military service

Under Peter the Great, they carefully monitored so that they did not use family ties, the title was assigned only due to personal merit. Soldiers called up from ordinary peasants had the opportunity to receive a noble rank for serving the Fatherland and pass it on by inheritance.

After the change of Peter's reign, the nobles gradually began to receive the possibility of exemption from military service. At first, one family member had such a right to manage the estate, later the service life was reduced to 25 years.

Under Catherine II, the nobles did not have the opportunity to serve at all. But the bulk of the nobles continued to serve, as it was a good source of income, and not all had estates. In those days, it was possible to pay off the service by paying for an expensive recruiting ticket.

Retirement for retired soldiers

AT tsarist times in Russia, soldiers who had already served and were of advanced age were treated with reverence. Under Peter the Great, almshouses were created at the monasteries, where they took care of the injured soldiers.

Under Catherine II, the state took over such care. All soldiers received a pension, and if a soldier had an injury, pensions were assigned regardless of how long he had served. When they were transferred to the reserve, they were entitled to a considerable payment, on which they could build an estate, as well as a small monetary allowance in the form of a pension.

Due to the fact that the term of service in the army was reduced, there were many retired officers who were still able to serve. Under Paul, such soldiers were collected in separate companies. These companies served in the protection of prisons, city outposts and other significant objects, they were sent to train young replenishment. After the service, retired soldiers and officers were exempted from paying taxes and had the right to do what they liked.

Private life of soldiers

Soldiers were not forbidden to marry. In addition, the girl, being a serf, became free after marrying a soldier. To accompany her husband, through certain time, wives were allowed to settle next to the regiment. Soldiers' children were under the control of the military department almost from birth. Upon reaching a certain age, they were required to study. Regimental schools were created for their education. Through training, they had the opportunity to obtain an officer's rank.

In matters of housing for soldiers, everything was more complicated. The first time they stopped at local residents, but later began to build soldiers' settlements for the soldiers. Each settlement had a church, a hospital and a bathhouse. Barracks began to line up only towards the end of the 18th century.

Organization of the draft principle in the army

In the 19th century, there was a significant revolution in matters of military service. During this century, the service life was reduced to 10 years. Emperor Alexander II held military reform, as a result of which there was a change of recruitment service to a general conscription. The reform affected not only conscription, but also the system of military administration and the system of military educational institutions.

In addition, the development military industry and rearmament of the army. The whole country was divided into military districts. Was created central headquarters for command and control of the ground forces. The entire male population, aged 21 and over, served in the military.

But too many people were subject to conscription, so not everyone was sent to the service, but only those fit for military service and who would draw lots. Everyone was divided into two groups:

• The first to be drawn by lot were sent to the location of the active army.
• The second to the militia, from which they could be called in case of mobilization.

The call was held once a year in the autumn after the harvest.

Army of the early 20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century, the service life was 3 years for infantry and artillery. Served in the Navy for 5 years. After serving in the army, a semi-literate peasant could get decent knowledge and advance in life, and the term of service was not as long as, for example, in the time of Peter the Great. But while doing military service in imperial army the ordinary soldier had some limitations. He had no right to marry and engage in trading activities. For the duration of the service, the soldier was exempted from paying debts. If he was in debt, you had to wait until he retired from the army.

Under Nicholas II, the army still formed the backbone of the state. It was completed according to the principle of conscription, adopted even under Alexander the Second. As long as they were proud of the officer's uniform and kept the memory of the conquests that the Russian army made, it was invincible. But at the beginning of the 20th century, an unhappy time began for the Russian army.

The war of 1904-1905 was a significant blow. As a result of World War I, the Russian empire. Active mobilization took place throughout the country. The soldiers, as one, went to the front to repulse the enemy. Only the leaders of the Bolsheviks did not support the outbreak of war. The leader of the proletariat, Vladimir Lenin, condemned the actions of the authorities. A few years later, this war was used to change power. The tsarist system was replaced by a revolutionary system, which finally changed the composition of the army and its principles.
Everyone tried to destroy the memory of the Russian army possible ways. The red army denigrated the image royal officers, but faced with a real threat, the army of the Red Army during the battles of World War II showed the best features of the old Russian army. The exploits of the great commanders were not forgotten, the Russian army spirit, which was the basis of all victories, was remembered.

Camp of Catherine's soldiers. Illustration by Alexandre Benois for the publication "Pictures on Russian History". 1912 Wikimedia Commons

18th century recruit long road he ended up in his regiment, which became a home for young soldiers - after all, service in the 18th century was lifelong. Only from 1793 was her term limited to 25 years. The recruit took an oath that forever separated him from his former life; received from the treasury a hat, a caftan, a cloak-epancha, a camisole with trousers, a tie, boots, shoes, stockings, undershirts and trousers.

The "Instruction of the colonel's cavalry regiment" of 1766 prescribed to teach the privates "to clean and screw up trousers, gloves, a sling and a harness, tie a hat, put a casket on it and put on boots, put spurs on them, plant a scythe, put on a uniform, and then stand in the required a soldier's figure, to walk simply and to march ... and when he gets used to everything, begin to teach rifle techniques, horse and foot exercise. It took a lot of time to teach the peasant's son to behave valiantly, "so that the peasant's vile habit, evasion, antics, scratching when talking were completely exterminated from him." The soldiers had to shave, but they were allowed to grow mustaches; hair was worn long, to the shoulders, and on ceremonial days they were powdered with flour. In the 1930s, soldiers were ordered to wear curls and braids.

It took a lot of time, "so that the peasant's vile habit, evasion, antics, scratching during conversation were completely exterminated from him"

Coming to a company or squadron, yesterday's communal peasants were included in their usual form of organization - a soldier's artel ("so that there were at least eight people in porridge"). In the absence of a developed supply system (and the shops and shops that are familiar to us), Russian soldiers have adapted to provide themselves with everything they need. Old-timers taught newcomers, experienced and skillful ones bought additional provisions with artel money, repaired ammunition themselves and sewed uniforms and shirts from state-owned cloth and linen, and those who were smart at the billet were hired to earn money. Money from salaries, earnings and awards was deducted to the artel cash desk, at the head of which the soldiers elected a sedate and authoritative "expenditor", or company headman.

This arrangement of military life made the Russian army of the 18th century socially and nationally homogeneous. The feeling of connection in battle provided mutual assistance, supported the morale of the soldier. From the very first days, the recruit was told that now “he is no longer a peasant, but a soldier, who in his name and rank is superior to all his previous ranks, differs from them indisputably in honor and glory,” since he, “not sparing his life, provides of his fellow citizens, defends the fatherland ... and thus deserves the gratitude and mercy of the Sovereign, the gratitude of fellow countrymen and the prayers of spiritual ranks. Recruits were told the history of their regiment, mentioning the battles where this regiment participated, and the names of heroes and generals. In the army, yesterday's "mean peasant" ceased to be a serf, if he had been before. A peasant boy became a "state servant" and in the era of constant wars he could rise to the rank of non-commissioned officer and even - if he was lucky - to the chief officer. The "Table of Ranks" of Peter I opened the way to obtaining a noble rank - in this way, about a quarter of the infantry officers of the Peter's army "came out to the people". For exemplary service, an increase in salary, awarding a medal, promotion to corporal, sergeant was provided. "Faithful and true servants of the fatherland" were transferred from the army to the guards, received medals for battles; for distinction in the service, the soldiers were awarded "a ruble" with a glass of wine.

Seen on hikes distant lands the servant forever broke with former life. The regiments, which consisted of former serfs, did not hesitate to suppress popular unrest, and in the 18th and 19th centuries the soldier did not feel like a peasant. And in everyday practice, the soldier got used to living at the expense of the townsfolk. Throughout the 18th century, the Russian army did not have barracks. In peacetime, it was lodged in the homes of rural and urban residents, who were supposed to provide military premises, beds and firewood. Release from this duty was a rare privilege.

In everyday practice, the soldier got used to living at the expense of the townsfolk.

Fusiliers of infantry regiments 1700-1720 From the book "Historical description of clothing and weapons Russian troops", 1842

AT short days rest from battles and campaigns, the soldiers walked with might and main. In 1708, during the difficult Northern War, the brave dragoons “became quarters in the towns. Wine and beer were collected before the convoy. And a certain rank of the gentry drank unbearably. They reproached those viciously, and also beat them with the sovereign's name. But fornication still appeared. Imali in the corners of the dragoons of the shvadrony gentry. There were those young children and there is no passage from these whores to girls and women "gentry"- noblemen (gentry) who served in the dragoon squadron ("shkvadron"). These young nobles did not give the women a pass.. Our colonel and worthy cavalier Mikhail Faddeyich Chulishov ordered to frighten all those who are impudent and beat them with batogs.<…>And those dragoons and granodirs, who were from the battles of small battles, they rested and drank koumiss with Kalmyks and Tatars, flavored with vodka, and then fought with fists with the neighboring regiment. De we, reproached, fought and lost our bellies, and de you hovil and sveev Svei- Swedes. were afraid. And in the distant shvadron they staggered and barked obscenely, and the colonels did not know what to do. By the sovereign's command, the most malicious were sent and broadcast and fought in batogs on the goats in front of all the front. And two of ours from the shkvadron also got the dragoon Akinfiy Krask and Ivan Sofiykin. They were hung around the neck. And Krask’s tongue fell out from the strangulation, it even reached the middle of his chest, and many were amazed at this and went to look. "Official notes (diary) of Simeon Kurosh, captain of the dragoon shvadron, Roslavsky.".

And in peacetime, the stay of the troops in any place was perceived by the townsfolk as a real disaster. “He fornicates with his wife, dishonors his daughter… eats his chickens, his cattle, robs him of his money and beats him incessantly.<…>Every month, before leaving the quarters, the peasants must be gathered, questioned about their claims, and their subscriptions taken away.<…>If the peasants are dissatisfied, they are given wine to drink, they get drunk, and they sign. If, in spite of all this, they refuse to sign, then they are threatened, and they end up keeping silent and signing, ”general Langeron described the behavior of soldiers at the checkpoint in Catherine’s time.

The soldier fornicates with his wife, dishonors his daughter, eats his chickens, his cattle, takes his money and beats him incessantly.

The officers had the opportunity for more refined leisure - especially abroad. “... All other officers of our regiment, not only young, but also elderly, were engaged in completely different matters and concerns. All of them, almost in general, their zealous desire to be in Koenigsberg stemmed from a completely different source than mine. They heard enough that Koenigsberg is a city that is full of everything that the passions of the young and in luxury and debauchery can satisfy and satiate their lives, namely: that there was a great many taverns and billiards and other places of entertainment; that you can get anything in it, and even more so, that the female sex in it is too prone to lust and that there is a great many young women in it, practicing dishonest needlework and selling their honor and chastity for money.
<…>Before two weeks had even passed, when, to my great surprise, I heard that there was not a single tavern left in the city, not a single wine cellar, not a single billiards and not a single obscene house, which would be unknown to our gentlemen officers, but that not only all of them are on their register, but quite a lot of them have already made close acquaintances, partly with their mistresses, partly with other residents of the area, and some have already taken them to themselves and for their maintenance, and all in general have already drowned in all the luxuries and debauchery ”, - Andrey Bolotov, the former lieutenant of the Arkhangelsk city infantry regiment, recalled about his stay in Koenigsberg conquered by Russian troops in 1758.

If in relation to the peasants "impudence" was allowed, then in the "front" discipline was demanded from the soldiers. The soldiers' poems of that era truthfully describe the daily drill:

You go to the guard - so grief,
And you will come home - and twice,
In the guard we are tormented,
And how you change - learning! ..
Suspenders are on guard,
Wait for stretch marks for training.
Stand up straight and stretch
Don't chase the pokes
Slaps and kicks
Take it like pancakes.

Violators under the "Military Article" were expected to be punished, which depended on the degree of misconduct and were determined by a military court. For "magic" was supposed to be burned, for the desecration of icons - cutting off the head. The most common punishment in the army was "chasing gauntlets", when the intruder was led with his hands tied to a gun between two ranks of soldiers who struck him on the back with thick rods. The one who committed the offense for the first time was taken through the entire regiment 6 times, the one who committed the offense again - 12 times. Strictly asked for the poor maintenance of weapons, for deliberate damage to it or for "leaving a gun in the field"; sellers and buyers were punished for selling or losing their uniforms. For repeating this offense three times, the guilty person was sentenced to death. Theft, drunkenness and fighting were common crimes for the servicemen. The punishment followed for "inattention in the ranks", for "being late in the ranks." A latecomer for the first time "will be taken for guard or for two hours, three fuzes Fusee- smoothbore flintlock gun. on the shoulder". A latecomer for the second time was supposed to be arrested for two days or "six muskets per shoulder." Those who were late for the third time were punished with gauntlets. For talking in the ranks was supposed to be "deprivation of salary." For negligent guard duty in peacetime, a “serious punishment” awaited the soldier, and in wartime, the death penalty.

For "sorcery" was supposed to be burned, for the desecration of icons - cutting off the head

Especially severely punished for the escape. Back in 1705, a decree was issued, according to which, of the three fugitives caught, one was executed by lot, and the other two were exiled to eternal hard labor. The execution took place in the regiment from which the soldier fled. The flight from the army assumed a wide scope, and the government had to issue special treatment to deserters with a promise of forgiveness who voluntarily returned to duty. In the 1730s, the situation of the soldiers worsened, which led to an increase in the number of fugitives, especially among recruits. The penalties were also increased. The fugitives were expected either by execution or hard labor. One of the decrees of the Senate of 1730 reads: “Which recruits learn to run abroad and will be caught, then from the first breeders, for fear of others, they will be executed by death, hanged; but for the rest, who are not breeders themselves, to inflict political death and exile them to Siberia for government work.

The usual joy in soldier's life was to receive a salary. It was different and depended on the type of troops. The soldiers of the internal garrisons were paid the least - their salary in the 60s years XVIII century was 7 rubles. 63 kop. in year; and cavalrymen received the most - 21 rubles. 88 kop. If we take into account that, for example, a horse cost 12 rubles, then this was not so little, but the soldiers did not see this money. Something went for debts or into the hands of resourceful marketers, something - to the artel cash desk. It also happened that the colonel appropriated these soldiers' pennies, forcing the rest of the officers of the regiment to steal, since they all had to sign expenditure items.

The rest of the salary the soldier squandered in a tavern, where sometimes, in dashing courage, he could “scold everyone obscenely and call himself a king” or argue: with whom exactly did Empress Anna Ioannovna “live prodigally” - with Duke Biron or with General Minich? Drinking buddies, as expected, immediately denounced, and the talker had to justify himself with the “immeasurable drunkenness” usual in such cases. AT best case the case ended with "chasing gauntlets" in his native regiment, at worst - with a whip and exile to distant garrisons.

The soldier could argue with whom exactly did Empress Anna Ioannovna "live in prodigality" - with Duke Biron or with General Minich?

Bored in the garrison service, the young soldier Semyon Efremov once shared with a colleague: “Pray to God that the Turk rises, then we would get out of here.” He escaped punishment only by explaining his desire to start the war by the fact that "while young, he can serve." The old servicemen, who had already smelled gunpowder, were thinking not only about exploits - among the “material evidence” in the affairs of the Secret Chancellery, conspiracies seized from them were preserved: “Strengthen, Lord, in the army and in battle and in every place from the Tatars and from the faithful and unfaithful tongues and from all kinds of military weapons ... but make me, your servant Mikhail, like a lion with strength. Others, like ordinary Semyon Popov, were driven by longing and drill to terrible blasphemy: the soldier wrote with his own blood a “letter of apostasy”, in which he “summoned the devil to himself and demanded riches from him ... so that through that riches he could leave military service.”

And yet the war gave a chance to the lucky. Suvorov, who knew perfectly well the psychology of a soldier, in his instruction “The Science of Victory” mentioned not only speed, onslaught and bayonet attack, but also “holy booty” - and told how in Ishmael, taken by a brutal assault under his command, soldiers “divided gold and silver in handfuls ". True, not everyone was so lucky. To the rest, “who remained alive — that honor and glory!” - promised the same "Science to win."

However, the army suffered the biggest losses not from the enemy, but from diseases and the lack of doctors and medicines. “Walking around the camp at sunset, I saw some regimental soldiers digging holes for their dead brethren, others already burying, and still others completely buried. In the army, quite a few suffer from diarrhea and putrid fevers; when officers also move into the realm of the dead, for whom, during their illness, they are certainly better looked after, and doctors use their own medicines for money, then how can soldiers not die, left in illness to their fate and for which medicines are either dissatisfied, or absolutely not available in other shelves. Diseases are born from the fact that the army stands in a square, a quadrangle, that defecating feces, although the wind blows a little, spreads a very bad smell through the air, that Liman water, being used raw, is very unhealthy, and vinegar is not divided among the soldiers, which the shores are visible everywhere dead bodies, drowned in the estuary in the three battles that were on it ”- this is how army official Roman Tsebrikov described the siege of the Turkish fortress Ochakov in 1788.

For the majority, the usual soldier's fate fell out: endless marches across the steppe or mountains in the heat or through mud, bivouacs and spending the night under open sky, long evenings at "winter-apartments" in peasant huts.