Updated: 09-12-2010

Professional interests:

• Issues of improving economic and mathematical terminology,
• general questions of the application of economic and mathematical methods in the national economy,
• macroeconomic issues,
• methods of popularization of economic knowledge.

Publications:
Books:

• Dictionary of Economics and Mathematics / Dictionary of Modern Economic Science. Four editions - 1979, 1987, 1993 (Publishing house "Nauka") and 1996 (Publishing house "ABF"). One edition - translated into Chinese(published by the Academy of Sciences of the People's Republic of China, Beijing);
• Popular economic and mathematical dictionary. Three editions - 1973, 1979 and 1990 (Publishing house "Knowledge"). Also published in translations: in Germany (GDR), Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland (two editions), Cuba;
• Economists and mathematicians round table(compiler). - M.: Economics, 1964;
• Economic experiments in industry. - M.: Economics, 1968;
• Fundamentals of automated control systems (co-authored with E. Yakovenko and N. Makhrov). - M.: Thought, 1973;
• Dual power economy. History Conversations market reforms in Russia. M.-SPb. - Norma, 2000;
• Economic and mathematical dictionary. Dictionary of modern economic science. - M.: Delo, 2003;
• Pass. To the 15th anniversary of market reforms in Russia. - M.-SPb., Norma, 2006.

Brochures:

• Economic and mathematical methods (EMM) - scientific direction formed at the intersection of economics, mathematics and cybernetics. – M.: VDNKh, 1987;
• Notebook of supporters of reforms. Question answer. Issue 1. Economic reform (co-authored with P. Filippov). 1996;
• Notebook of supporters of reforms. Question answer. Issue 3. Taxes and budget (co-authored with P. Filippov). 1997;
• Banks. From the series "Children's Encyclopedia". – M.: AIF, 1998;
• Why did the USSR collapse. - M.: SPS, 1999;
• Mirages of former abundance. – M.: SPS, 1999.

Translations of economic literature from English, German and French. In the 1970s–80s. was a member of the Editorial Board of the Progress Publishing House (from the editorial board of economic literature). Recent posts in this series:

• Fishman D., Pratt S. et al. A guide to business valuation. - M .: Kvinto-consulting, 2001;
• D. Osborne and P. Plastrik. Management without bureaucrats. Five strategies for state renewal. (General edition, introductory article: "Practical Lessons of Economic Liberalism", translation of several chapters). - M .: Progress, 2001;
• A lion. B. Intangible assets: management, measurement, reporting. - M .: Kvinto-consulting, 2003;
• Gregory A. Strategic evaluation of companies. - M .: Kvinto-consulting, 2003;
• Uniform standards of professional practice of assessment. Translation from English. - M .: Association of Russian Masters of Evaluation, 2005;
• Nick Antil, Kenneth Lee. Company valuation by international standards financial activities. – M.: Alpina-businessbooks, 2006.

He is the author of several hundred articles, essays, reviews and correspondence.

Publications on the portal:
Links:
Additional Information:
While working at CEMI of the USSR Academy of Sciences, he participated in the preparation (as a member of the Joint Working Group of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR State Committee for Science and Technology) of the "Comprehensive Program of Scientific and Technical Progress of the USSR and its Social and Economic Consequences", as well as in the development of a number of Laws and other documents on development of the economy of the USSR.

Conducted scientific and literary editing of a number of publications of the CEMI of the USSR Academy of Sciences (including the well-known ten-volume "Issues of optimal planning and management of the socialist economy") and at the present time - of the Institute for the Economy in Transition. In particular, he was the editor of the following publications of the IET:

• Economy in transition. Essays on the economic policy of post-communist Russia 1991-1997 (member of the editorial board). – M.: IET, 1998;
• E. Gaidar. Anomalies of economic growth. - Questions of Economics, No. 12, 1996;
• E. Gaidar. Favorites. Volume 2. 1977;
• Sinelnikov S.G. etc. Problems tax reform in Russia. Analysis of the situation and development prospects. - M.: Eurasia, 1998;
• Problems of tax reform in Russia: theory, experience, reforms, vols. 1 and 2. - M.: 2000;
• L. Mikhailov et al. The 1998 banking crisis in Russia and its consequences. – M.: IET, 2000;
• E. Gaidar. For a long time. Russia in the World: Essays on Economic History. - M.: Delo, 2005;
• E. Gaidar. The death of an empire. Lessons for modern Russia. – M.: ROSSPEN. 2006;
• as well as a number of other publications...

He was the scientific editor of the publication of the Financial Academy: Financial and Credit Encyclopedic Dictionary. M. "Finance and statistics", 2002

For half a century in the field of economic journalism, he has published several hundred articles, essays, reviews and correspondence in newspapers, magazines and other media:

• in the "Literary Gazette" (award for best material years, 1974),
• in "Economic Newspaper"
• in a number of magazines
• in the newspaper "Business World".
• He was awarded the first prize at the All-Russian competition of the Union of Journalists and the Chamber of Commerce of the Russian Federation "Economic revival of Russia" in 1994.
• In the 1980-90s. was a member of the editorial board of the Abstract Journal "Social Sciences in the USSR" (series "Economics").

Lopatnikov L.I.

5th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Delo, 2003. - 520 p. - ISBN 5-7749-0275-7. The dictionary contains not only definitions, but also detailed explanations the main range of terms of modern economic science, including such mathematical sections and aspects of it as economic and mathematical modeling, econometrics, operations research, management, economic informatics, etc. All terms are given in Russian and English.
The dictionary has been translated and published in Germany, Poland, China, Cuba and other countries.
Designed for a wide range economists, employees of economic management bodies, entrepreneurs, as well as students of higher and secondary educational institutions.

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L.I. Lopatnikov ECONOMIC AND MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY Dictionary of modern economic science Edited by G.B. Kleiner, doctor of economic sciences, professor 5th edition, revised and supplemented Academy National economy under the Government of the Russian Federation Moscow Publishing House "DELO" 2003 UDC 330.101(030) BBK 65.01(92) L 77 Lopatnikov Leonid I. Mathecon Dictionary/A Reference of Modern Applied and Mathematical Economics. - 5th edition, expanded and updated / Delo Publ., Moscow, Russia. The Mathecon Dictionary gives a comprehensive coverage of the basic terminology stock of today's science of economics including its inherent mathematized branches and aspects such as economic modeling, econometrics, operations research, management science, economic information, etc. All entries are given both in The Mathecon Dictionary is a valuable reference for a broad circle of users from among economists, managers and businessmen, as well as for students Lopatnikov L. I. L 77 Dictionary of Economics and Mathematics: Dictionary of Modern Economic Science - 5th ed., revised and supplemented - M.: Delo, 2003. - 520 pp. ISBN 5-7749- 0275-7 The dictionary contains not only definitions, but also detailed explanations of the main terminology of modern economic science, including such mathematical sections and aspects as economic and mathematical modeling nie, econometrics. operation research, management, economic informatics, etc. All terms are given in Russian and English. The dictionary has been translated and published in Germany, Poland, China, Cuba and other countries. It is intended for a wide range of economists, employees of economic management bodies, entrepreneurs, and also students of higher and secondary educational institutions. UDC 330.101(030) BBK 65.01(92) Leonid Isidorovich LOPATNIKOV ECONOMIC AND MATHEMATICAL DICTIONARY Dictionary of modern economic science Ch. relacure 10.B. Louiso. Head edited by G.G. Kobyakov. Editor T.V. Mazurkov. Artist N.V. Drunk. Computer preparation of the original layout V.L. Fitinov. Technical editor L.A. Zotov. Proofreaders F.P. Morozov. G. V. Pshtova. I lojiiiiicjHO » print 27.12.2U02. Format 70 xIOO"/ik Offset paper. Typeface Time. Offset printing. Print sheet 41.9. Circulation 5000 copies. Order No. 705X Edition No. 323. Delo Publishing House. 119571. Moscow. Vernadsky Ave., 82 Commercial niiuk".i - mu.i.: 433-2510. 433-2502. Email: [email protected] Internet: http://www.delo.ane.nl FGUIPPP "Yantarny skaz" 236000. Kaliningrad, st. K. Marx, 18 ISBN 5-7749-0275-7 © L.I. Lopatnikov, 2003 © Delo Publishing House, 2003 FROM THE AUTHOR Today, when our country is moving to a modern market economy, it is very important to involve the widest sections of society in the achievements of world and domestic economic science. The dictionary offered to the reader is also called upon to help in this. In contrast to other publications published in Russia economic dictionaries it not only provides a traditional set of macro- and microeconomic terms, but also covers the conceptual apparatus and terminology of economic and mathematical modeling, mathematical economy, econometrics, operations research, decision theory, and similar mathematical aspects of economics. Considering that all terms are given with translation into English, the dictionary, apparently, can also help scientists, students and other persons interested in this subject to read the works of the world's leading economists in the original. It is worth recalling that in the recent past the term "economic and mathematical direction" was a kind of pseudonym scientific school, which united scientists concentrated in the well-known Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, but not only in it. These people wanted to develop modern methods study economics, enrich their research arsenal with the experience and knowledge accumulated by world science1. Of course, at the same time, they themselves made a significant contribution to world science - the authority of the Soviet economic and mathematical direction was very high. However, the pseudonym had a logical justification: it is known that economic and mathematical methods have acquired a dominant place in this research arsenal over the past decades. It is no coincidence that the vast majority of scientists awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics are mathematical economists (the only one Soviet laureate of this award - the late academician Leonid 1 So the author managed to reveal this pseudonym only in the third edition of the "Economics and Mathematics Dictionary", in 1993, when title page subheading: "Dictionary modern economy". And for example, 20 years before that, in 1973, when the first "Popular Economics and Mathematics Dictionary" was published by the Znanie publishing house, terms such as "econometrics", "elasticity of demand", "marginal utility" were included in it (and without the then usual epithets like "notorious", "so-called" or "pseudo-scientific"), despite the general good reception books by readers caused quite a stir in the circles of traditional economists, especially teachers political economy socialism and such a subject as "criticism of bourgeois economic doctrines". 4 Vitalievich Kantorovich); in essence, all economic literature in the West is mathematized; not a single serious economic scientist can simply succeed there if he does not have a thorough mathematical background. Moreover, economic and mathematical methods have won a dominant place in economic practice, business, in decision-making at the level of economic policy of states. They are widely used by large and largest firms, banks, funds, as well as governments. Acquaintance with the basic concepts of economic and mathematical methods, the use of computer technology and informatics in the economy is necessary, in our opinion, by no means only for specialists - cybernetics, mathematicians, mathematician economists, who are, so to speak, "producers of economic and mathematical products." Such an acquaintance becomes professional necessity and for its "consumers", that is, all those who use economic and mathematical models, but do not develop them, who analyze the results of calculations on a computer, but do not program them. And if we briefly define the essence of the book offered to readers, it could be called a special dictionary for non-specialists. This is, as it were, the middle link in the system, which, according to the author's long-standing conviction, every branch of knowledge should have: firstly, a public dictionary for everyone, especially for young people considering their choice future profession(this, by design, was at one time our "Popular Economics and Mathematics Dictionary", which went through three editions); second, general dictionary for non-specialists in this field, but one way or another connected with it in their work, this is the edition offered to the reader; and finally, thirdly, special reference dictionaries as a working tool for specialists. In accordance with the foregoing, this explanatory dictionary of modern economics is designed for practical use in various areas of economic work, and is intended for readers who own elements of higher mathematics and are familiar with the basics of economics, at least within the program of a non-economic university. Unlike many explanatory economic dictionaries published recently, which usually contain only definitions of terms, the dictionary is built as an explanatory one, and in some parts the author expresses personal opinion and tries to convince the reader of it. Therefore, the construction principle dictionary entry is as follows: first, the most accurate possible scientific definition term (although sometimes one has to give up - for the sake of accessibility - excessive mathematical rigor), then - an extremely simple, understandable interpretation of it, moreover, with abundant cross-references to other articles - for possible questions and references. For all definitions, as well as, of course, interpretations, the author is responsible. In those relatively few cases where a particular definition was directly borrowed from reference literature, the source is indicated (for example, TSB - Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd ed.; MES - Mathematical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1988; SES - Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary. 4th ed. M., 1987; FCES - Financial and Credit Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 2002). 5 As regards the terms of mathematics and mathematical statistics, it was necessary to select for explanation only those of them that the reader can meet in the text of the dictionary itself - in this sense, it is as closed as possible. By the way, the "closure principle" is also applied to the selection of general scientific terms, as well as the terms of some other related industries: only those of them are given that help to understand the material of the dictionary itself without resorting to other sources. Considering what is happening in the country economic transformation, the author has tried to radically rework the dictionary over the past years. It can be said that the whole ideology of the book has changed: if in previous years it was aimed at improving - as far as possible - the system of central planning (for which some achievements of Western economic science were also involved), now - at the development of a modern market economy in the country and organic its entry into the global economy. In this regard, a large number of terms that have lost their relevance have been removed from the text (among them, only a few, although outdated, but of historical and cognitive significance, are left, without understanding which it would be impossible to read the works of the classics of the economic and mathematical direction, such as L Kantorovich, V. Nemchinov, V. Novozhilov and others). This work was basically done for the 4th edition, which was published in 1996. And then it was indicated that a completely new book was before the readers. In the 5th edition, relatively small, although somewhat significant, changes and additions were made, continuing the same line. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The idea, structure and content of the dictionary (as well as its popular version) crystallized during my more than twenty years of work at the Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the Academy of Sciences. My sincere gratitude for the advice and consultations to my colleagues at the Institute, first of all, Academician N.P. Fedorenko, as well as S.A. Aivazyan, V.Ya. Altaev, K.A. Bagrinovsky, E.G. Holstein, E.B. Ershov, Academician N.Ya. Petrakov, Yu.V. Ovsienko, A.A. Friedman and many others. Communication with colleagues at the Institute for the Economy in Transition, where I worked in subsequent years, significantly enriched my understanding of the conceptual apparatus and terminology of modern Western economics, which was of particular importance in preparing this edition. Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences S.L. Lopatnikov, and environmental aspects - candidate of geographical sciences D.L. Lopatnikov, in compiling indexes - E.L. Lopatnikov. I am also grateful to the authors of numerous reviews in the press on previous editions of both versions of the book: academicians A.G. Granberg, A.N. Efimov, D.S. Lvov and S.S. Shatalin, economists A.I. Semenov, E.P. Shchukin, G.L. Avrekh, my late friend publicist V.I. Selyunin and others. Many thanks to the former editors A.I. Kanter (Knowledge publishing house) and T.I. Mazurkevich (publishing house "Nauka"), who gave a start in life, respectively, to the popular and scientific versions of the book. Finally, it was impossible not to take advantage of the amendments made in a number of cases by the most attentive readers - translators of foreign publications, primarily K. Schwartz and G. Zelmer (Germany), R. Drong (Poland), R. Stefanova and E. Mutafova (Bulgaria) , M. Soler (Cuba). Unfortunately, however, it was not possible to compare translations into other languages ​​(Chinese, Hungarian) with the original. In conclusion, I would like to express special gratitude to the Deputy Director of CEMI, Doctor of Economics G.B. Kleiner, who not only responded to the release of the 4th edition with a meaningful review in the journal Economics and Mathematical Methods, which made me think about many fundamental questions, but also took the trouble to edit the entire manuscript of the 5th edition, which is now offered to the reader. HOW TO USE THE GLOSSARY Key terms are listed in alphabetical order as they are commonly used, i.e. without distorting and dissonant inversions such as Game theory. The only exceptions are terms containing proper names, for example. Leontief models. This will presumably make it easier to find related articles. At the end of some general articles, under the sign, additional specifying information is placed and, if necessary, private terms that have more special meaning and of interest to the more advanced reader. The sign - in front of some English terms means not an exact, but only an approximate correspondence of Russian and English meanings. The dictionary has a very extensive system of references. All terms that are included in the glossary are typed in italics at the first mention of them in one or another dictionary entry. Also, the names of scientists found in the text of the articles, information about which is given in Priloe / sepia 1, are also typed in italics. Terms that have a non-independent meaning and are explained inside more of the general article are in bold type (eg, interval scale, nominal scale in the item "Scales"). The dictionary contains the following applications: 1. Names and dates. Hundreds of scientists who determined the face of modern domestic and foreign economic science. 2. Name index. 3. Subject index (all terms explained in the dictionary). 4. Mathematical notation. 5. Alphabetical index English terms. 6. Main sources. ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE - a characteristic of an economic object (individual, firm, country), its ability to produce goods (goods or services) with greater efficiency, i.e., spending fewer factors of production per unit of output than others. A.p. allows this economic entity to enter the market of the relevant product or service and to succeed in competition with other market participants. See also Comparative Advantage. ABSTRACT MODEL - see Conceptual model. ABSTRACT SYSTEM - see System analysis. AUTARKIA - a closed economy on a scale individual country(si. Closed model. Closed (closed) system). Complete A. is impossible even for large and resource-rich countries, so the literature usually speaks of "autarkic tendencies" in economic policy. historical experience showed that they cause irreparable damage to the country's economy, throwing it back in the region scientific and technical progress, economic efficiency of social production and the level of well-being of the people. The degree of A. is measured using various coefficients, in particular the ratio of foreign trade turnover to the country's gross domestic product, the share of imports critical resources in their general consumption, etc. See also Protectionism. AUTOCORRELATION - correlation(see Correlation) between values ​​of the same random process X (/) at times /, and /,. The function that characterizes this relationship is called the autocorrelation function. When analyzing time series autocorrelation function characterizes the internal relationship between the time series and the same series, but shifted by a certain period of time (shift). In other words, this is the correlation of the members of the series and the members of the same series moved by L units of time: a positive integer. In some works A. is defined as a correlation dependence between adjacent values ​​of the levels of the time series. The presence of A. complicates the application of a number of classical methods for analyzing time series. In regression models that describe dependencies between random values ​​of interrelated variables, it reduces the efficiency of applying the least squares method. Therefore, special statistical techniques have been developed and applied for its detection (for example, the Darwin-Watsop criterion) and elimination (for example, the transformation of a time series into a series of values ​​of the differences between its neighboring members), as well as for modifying the least squares method itself. AUTOMATIC - see Theory of automata. 8 Automation AUTOMATION - "the use of technical means, economic and mathematical methods and management systems that free a person partially or completely from direct participation in the processes of obtaining, transforming, transferring and using energy, materials or information "1. In the dictionary, we consider this concept only in the last of these aspects: as A. information processes, and management processes for systems for various purposes, primarily economic ones. At enterprises, organizations, in the national economy, work is underway to automate the systems of managerial work, the collection and processing of economic and scientific information, product quality control, document management, personnel training, editorial, publishing and information activities (abstracting, translation), etc. At the same time, appropriate systems are created, which, depending on the degree of A., are divided into automated (in which some functions are performed by man) and automatic (working without human intervention). See Automated clearing house, Automated data processing system (A SOD), Automated control system (ACS), Automated workplace (L RM), Information retrieval system (IPS). AUTOMATED INFORMATION SYSTEM (AIS; - see Automated Data Processing System (A DOD), Information Retrieval System (IPS). AUTOMATED CLEARING HOUSE - an institution designed for the electronic execution of transfers (transfers) Money. A. k.p. exist in many countries. For example, in the USA it operates within the framework of the Federal Reserve System and serves mainly the government's settlements. "SES. S. 16. AUTOMATED DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM (ASOD) - a data processing system based on the use of electronic computers (as opposed to systems where data processing is manual). There are two principles for organizing such processing. In the first case, information is collected and processed specifically for solving each problem, in the second - for solving various tasks along with variable (specific for each task) information, general reference (conditionally constant) data are used. In the latter case, the system is called integrated. Often integrated systems are those in which not only the initial information for different tasks is common, but also the results of solving some problems are used to solve others (see Integrated Data Processing System). ASOD are used in planning and management (automated systems for planning, management), in scientific research(automated systems for collecting and processing experimental data and test automation systems), in librarianship and information services(see Information retrieval systems), in design (computer-aided design and design work systems) and other areas. In statistical publications, a similar term is also used - ASIP (automated information processing systems), which is usually understood as systems that are not necessarily related to the actual management of certain objects (enterprises, organizations, technological processes). AUTOMATED SYSTEM OF SCHEDULING CALCULATIONS (ASPR) - 1. One of the ACS subsystems at any level: enterprises, firms, concerns, etc. It is a complex of mutually linked information and economic-mathematical models and systems of models, which together provide for the preparation of plans and programs development of an economic object. Automated control system 2. The system that operated in the conditions of centralized toning of the economy in the former. USSR. It was intended to compile government plans development of the national economy on the basis of economic and mathematical methods and computers. See also Coordination of planning decisions. AUTOMATED CONTROL SYSTEM (ACS) - a control system that uses modern electronic data processing tools and economic and mathematical methods to solve the main problems of managing production and economic activities. This is a human-machine system: in it, a number of operations and actions will be transferred for execution to machines and other devices (this is especially true for the so-called routine, repetitive, standard operations and calculations), but the main decision always remains with the person. This ACS differs from automatic systems, i.e. such technical devices that operate independently according to the program established for them, without human intervention. ACS are divided primarily into two classes: automated organizational management systems and automated process control systems (the latter are often automatic, the former cannot in principle be). Traditionally, the term ACS was assigned to the first of these classes. The difference between the automated control system and the conventional (non-automated) one, but also using computer control systems, is schematically shown in Fig. A.1, a, b. Arrows indicate information flows. In the first case (a), the computer is used to solve individual control tasks (eg, to perform planned calculations, the results of which are considered by the control body and either accepted or rejected). At the same time, the necessary data is collected specifically for solving each task and entered into a computer, and then destroyed as unnecessary. Computer * - I i p 3BN "5 \u003d 5 G I (w) 1 P a b Fig. A.1. computer system controls: a - non-automated, b - automated; I - control center; II - automated controlled system (production); III - control; a thin arrow - a channel for direct control of a computer by some technological processes (it does not happen in all automated control systems); thin dotted arrow - the channel through which part of the information goes directly to the center, bypassing the computer In the second case (b), a significant part of the information from the control object is collected directly computer center(including communication channels). In this case, there is no need to enter all the data into the computer each time: some of them (prices, standards, etc.) are stored in the computer. From it, the tasks generated come, on the one hand, to the control body, and on the other hand (usually through the control link) to the control object. In turn, the information coming from the control object affects the decisions made, i.e., the cybernetic feedback principle is used here. This is ASU. It is customary to consider each automated control system simultaneously in two aspects: from the point of view of its functions (what and how it does) and from the point of view of its scheme, that is, with the help of what means and methods these functions are implemented. Accordingly, automated control systems are divided into two groups of subsystems - functional and providing. The creation of an automated control system at an existing economic facility (in a firm, at an enterprise, in a bank, etc.) is usually a lengthy process. Individual subsystems of the automated control system are designed and put into operation in successive queues; more and more new tasks are also included in the functions; while the ACS organically "fits" into the control system 10 . Usually, the first stages of automated control systems are limited to solving purely informational problems. In the future, their functions become more complicated, including the use of optimization calculations, elements of optimal control. The degree of participation of automated control systems in control processes can be very different, up to the independent issuance of operational control commands by the computer (based on the data it receives). Since the introduction of automated control systems requires adaptation of documentation for machine processing, unified documentation systems are being created, as well as classifiers of technical and economic information, etc. The economic efficiency of automated control systems is determined primarily by the growth in the efficiency of production itself as a result of better equipment utilization, increased rhythm, reduction of work in progress and other inventories, reducing costs, improving product quality, expanding demand for it. AUTOMATED WORKPLACE (AWS) - a workplace for the personnel of an automated control system or other information processing system (for example, a planner's workstation in an automated control system, an accountant, an economist-analyst), equipped with a personal computer (which is connected to a local computer network and other information networks), as well as special software, designed to solve the tasks of the user of the workstation. AUTOMATIC STABILIZERS - a tool for exercising macroeconomic processes, designed to soften the amplitude of economic cycles automatically, i.e. without the intervention of government, firms and individuals. These are a kind of "filters" included in the feedback chain of the economic system: therefore they are sometimes called built-in stabilizers. They smooth out possible, but difficult to predict, deviations in the course of a controlled process, and as a result such deviations (for example, a "shock" drop in investment demand that can cause a sharp drop in GDP) do not require the government to adopt operational, emergency and sometimes very painful measures for the population. In a market economy, such built-in stabilizers can be, for example, progressive tax scales for wages(preventing excessive income), refinancing rates of the Central Bank, social security systems, etc. A typical example of A.S. - unemployment benefits. A sharp decrease in employment entails, accordingly, a decrease in consumer demand, followed by a decrease in investment and aggregate demand in the economy, and then, as a result of the multiplier effect, leads to an even sharper drop in GDP and household incomes. Unemployment benefits prevent such a sharp decline in consumer demand, and hence production. AUTONOMOUS MODEL - a part of a system of models that can be analyzed independently of other parts. For example, an enterprise model in the system of ACS models for an industry, concern or other association of enterprises. Similar approach applicable wherever individual economic links have independence in their actions. However, the autonomy of partial models is always relative. See also Danzig-Wulff decomposition method, Decomposition methods. AUTONOMOUS INVESTMENTS - in macroeconomic and microeconomic analysis, a part of total investment, which is determined not by intraeconomic factors (such as, for example, the profitability of investments or the need to balance production sectors for proportional and accelerated development), but by factors external to the economic system. Such, for example, in contrast to induced capital investments, are state investments that do not depend on the "inclination to save" and act as a way (instrument) of stabilizing the economic process (that is, fighting crises). How. also include capital costs for the creation and development of fundamentally new areas of equipment and technology, economic efficiency which is either unknown in advance or cannot manifest itself in the considered (planned) period. AUTONOMOUS (non-reification) TECHNICAL PROGRESS - the concept of the theory of production functions. Unlike materialized technical progress, it expresses a trend that depends on the joint action of such growth factors as improving the organization and management of production, the accumulation scientific knowledge, raising the cultural and technical level of the working people. Since A.t.p. does not depend on the accumulation of capital or the expenditure of other resources taken into account in the production function, it is considered as if free. Same: Non-materialized technical progress. AUTOREGRESSION MODEL (sometimes autoregressive) - a statistical description of the relationship between the values ​​of the same indicator at different points in time: Yt = ./0",.r); autoregression - regression of a certain state of a random process to the previous states of this process (see Lag) AUTO-REGULATION - an actor in the economy (both natural and legal), who can make economic decisions, independently draw up economic plans and act according to them, receive instructions for the production or distribution of certain products or services, act as their buyer Other terms reflecting the same concept: economic entity, economic (sometimes - economic) entity, decision maker (DM).In different areas of economics and law, different interpretations of the concept of an economic agent are used.But almost everywhere to economic entities (agents, decision makers), regardless of organizational and legal forms and types of ownership, include an enterprise associations, their associations (unions, associations, concerns, sectoral, intersectoral, regional and other associations), organizations and institutions (including banks and credit institutions), their unions and associations, insurance organizations, commodity and stock exchanges, investment, pension , public and other funds; as well as citizens engaged in independent entrepreneurial activities. AGGLOMERATION EFFECT - economic benefit from the territorial concentration of industries and other economic objects in cities and agglomerations (i.e., relatively close points from each other). For example, the concentration in one area of ​​enterprises using the services of a high-performance foundry reduces the cost of manufacturing cast billets (in this case, the benefit is double: on transportation and on reducing the cost of casting as a result of economies of scale). In such technopolises, the concentration of specialists reaches a kind of critical mass, which leads to an effective and efficient exchange of ideas, inventions and other information and, as a result, to a mass scientific and technical creativity. An example is the agglomeration of Silicon Valley in the USA, which in a short time has become the world's largest center for the development and production of electronic equipment and technology. In A.e. the totality and interaction of external economy factors for various objects included in the agglomeration is manifested. AGGREGATE - in economics means, as a rule, a product of information consolidation. Such general economic indicators as the total social product, final product, national income, are also called aggregates. 12 Aggregate model AGGREGATE MODEL - see Macroeconomic model. AGGREGATE SUPPLY - See Supply and Demand Analysis, Aggregate Supply. AGGREGATE OUTPUT - in the system of national accounts the same as the gross national product. AGGREGATE DEMAND - see Supply and demand analysis, Aggregate demand. AGGREGATE PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE SYSTEM - the principle in which the structure of the system, built as a set of blocks (aggregates), is mobile and is formed in relation to certain specific conditions of its functioning. AGGREGATION - association, consolidation of indicators on any basis. From a mathematical point of view, A. is considered as a transformation of a model into a model with a smaller number of variables and / or restrictions - an aggregated model that gives an approximate (compared to the original) description of the process or object under study. Its essence is in connection homogeneous elements into larger ones. Among the methods of A. are the addition of indicators, the presentation of a group of aggregated indicators through their average, the use of various weighting coefficients (see Weight), points (see Scales), etc. The process, the reverse of A., is called disaggregation, less commonly vanishing, disaggregation. Some theorists also understand the term "aggregation" as a transition from a microeconomic to a macroeconomic view of the studied economic phenomena. In economic and mathematical models, A. is necessary because no model is able to accommodate the entire variety of products, resources, and connections that really exist in the economy. Even large-scale models with tens of thousands of indicators are inevitably the product of aggregation. In the process of control during the transition from the lower stage to highest performance are aggregated, and their number is decreasing. But at the same time, part of the information is lost (when bringing together orders for materials, for example, it is already unknown what brands and sizes each customer needs) and you have to make calculations approximately, based on statistical patterns. Therefore, it is always necessary to compare the benefit of reducing calculations with the damage caused by the loss of part of the information. A. in dynamic models is especially difficult, since the ratio of the elements included in the composition changes with the passage of time. enlarged group(there is a "structural heterogeneity"). The discrepancy between the results of the original problem and the results of the aggregated problem is called error A. Reducing error A. is one of the main criteria used in the theory of optimal aggregation developed by L. Hurwitz, E. Malenvo, W. Fisher and J. Chipman. A. is of great importance in the method of input-output balance (MOE), where it involves the unification of various industries in the industry, products - into generalized products and, thus, the consolidation of indicators of balance calculations. The MOB usually operates with "pure industries", that is, conditional industries, each of which produces and transfers to other industries one aggregated product. Their number in the model is limited by computational capabilities and some mathematical circumstances, however, in principle, the more detailed the IEP, the better it reflects reality, the more accurate calculations by him. A. in the MOB, two types are possible - vertical and horizontal. The first means the combination of products along the technological chain. For example, in accordance with this principle, iron ore, cast iron, steel, rolled products (then the industry gives consumers one product - rolled products), to another - yarn, gray fabric, finished fabric, to the third - cellulose, additivity paper production. At the same time, all indicators (primarily costs) are related to the selected unit of the aggregated product (in these examples, these are tons of finished rolled products, 1 million square meters of finished fabric, tons of paper). It is difficult to choose the right combination: steel can be sold to consumers (for foundries) not in the form of rolled products, but in the form of ingots; pulp can be supplied not only to paper mills, but also to factories artificial fiber, where viscose yarn is made from it, etc. With horizontal A., products that are similar to each other either in terms of economic purpose (various types of grain, fuel) or in terms of technical production conditions are combined into one group. This, however, comes with additional difficulties. It is logical to combine all electricity into one group, but the cost structure for its production at thermal and hydraulic stations is fundamentally different. Any shift in the ratios within such an integrated industry will have a dramatic effect on its indicators required for calculation. The most rational methods of A. branches and products are determined by economic and mathematical calculations. Chains are the main instrument of A. in many economic calculations. ADAPTATION - adaptation of the system to real conditions. Biological systems have this property to a large extent (an example is the adaptability of animals). Distinguish A. passive (reaction of the system to a change in the environment) and active (the impact of the system on the environment). the economy as a whole, as well as individual economic objects(eg, enterprises) are also considered as adaptive, adaptive systems. In the process of transition from a centrally controlled to a market system of economic relations, a special role is played by the adaptation of economic agents to new conditions. Ability to A. - important requirement to the construction of economic and mathematical models and systems of models, especially designed for practical use. See also Responsiveness of the plan. ADAPTIVE STRATEGY (in operations research) is a strategy that is determined in the process of solving a problem based on the accumulation of new information about the possible results of a particular solution. ADAPTIVE CONTROL - such control, when the desired state of the system is determined on the basis of the previous control process (i.e., based on the accumulation of experience). The term "training" is used in the same sense. ADAPTABILITY OF THE PLAN - the ability of the plan to maintain its significance in changing conditions. See also Plan Maneuverability. ADAPTABLE, ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS - systems capable of adaptation. They are divided into self-adjusting and self-organizing systems. In the first case, in accordance with the changes external environment the way the system functions changes (for example, the enterprise expands output following an increase in demand), in the second, the structure of the system changes (for example, a standardization department was created at the plant due to increased requirements for product quality). ADDITIVITY - "a property of quantities, consisting in the fact that the value of the quantity corresponding to the whole object is equal to the sum of the values ​​\u200b\u200bof the quantities corresponding to its parts in any division of the object into parts"2. Accordingly, in cybernetics, the characteristic of a system is additive if it is equal to the sum of the same characteristics for the subsystems and elements that make up the system. In mathematics, a function is called additive if both the domain of definition and the range of this function are vector spaces and , where X is the domain of /. A function is called superadditive or subadditive if instead of zn- 2BSE. T. 1. S. 221. 14 The adequacy of the model as equality here, respectively, are the signs > and<. Таким образом, аддитивная функция одновременно является и супераддитивной, и субаддитивной. АДЕКВАТНОСТЬ МОДЕЛИ - соответствие модели моделируемому объекту или процессу. Адекватность - в какой-то мере условное понятие, так как полного соответствия модели реальному объекту быть не может, иначе это была бы не модель, а сам объект. При моделировании имеется в виду адекватность не вообще, а по тем свойствам модели, которые для исследования считаются существенными. Трудность измерения экономических величии осложняет проблему адекватности экономических моделей. См. также Верификация модели, Ва- лидация модели. АКСЕЛЕРАТОР - в наиболее общем смысле (термин экономической кибернетики): такое звено системы управ- ления ("дифференцирующее звено"), в котором выходная величина у пропорциональна скорости изменения входной величины.V, т. е. у = к (dxldt). Соответственно в теории экономического роста это показатель, характеризующий связь между приростом национального дохода (или конечной продукции) и объемом капиталовложений и отражающий т. н. эффект нарастания развития (акселерации). Наконец, еще более узкой является трактовка этого понятия в работах представителей не- окейнсианства - как показателя, отражающего лишь одну сторону указанной связи: влияние ожидаемого или потребного роста национального дохода (объема продукции, пли спроса на эту продукцию) на размер "индуцируемых" им капиталовложений. Именно последняя трактовка наиболее распространена в западной экономической литературе. Смысл "эффекта нарастания развития" состоит в том, что чем большая доля национального дохода выделяется на капиталовложения, тем быстрее растет сам национальный доход, тем большую долю его можно выделить на новые капиталовложения и т. д. Коэффициент к получается делением суммы капиталовложений К в данном году на прирост национального дохода (конечной продукции) N в предшествующем году. Иначе говоря, это сумма капиталовложений, связанных с приростом единицы дохода: ДАТ где величина к называется мощностью А. (или фактором А.). Такое соотношение объясняется тем, что всегда стоимость средств производства существенно превышает стоимость производимой ими в течение года продукции. Следовательно, если известен абсолютный объем капиталовложений данного года, то с помощью А. можно определить примерную величину прироста национального дохода (или конечной продукции) в будущем году: к И наоборот, если задаются целью получить определенный прирост национального дохода (или конечной продукции), то, зная величину А., определяют необходимый объем капиталовложений (т. е. прироста фондов) включая затраты па восстановление выбывающих фондов и автономные капиталовложения (слагаемое/?): К = kN + Ъ. Напр., если мы хотим, чтобы выпуск продукции в будущем году вырос на 20 млн руб., то при коэффициенте акселерации 3 придется затратить 60 млн руб. капиталовложений, а при коэффициенте 4- 80 млн руб. (в этом смысле А. иногда отождествляют с коэффициентом приростной фондоемкости). Это будут, однако, не все потребные капиталовложения, а лишь "индуцированные" (без слагаемого Ь). Вместе с мультипликатором А. дает в руки исследователя важные инструменты для построения динамической модели экономики (в частности, взаимодействие между акселератором и мультипликатором заложено в основу известной модели Харрода-Домара). Активны Применительно к отдельной фирме эконометрика трактует коэффициент акселерации к как оптимальный показатель капиталоемкости изменений масштабов хозяйственной деятельности (например, расширения производства некоторой продукции). Он может быть как постоянным, так и переменным - когда при росте производства меняется и уровень его экономической эффективности ("эффект масштаба", эффект изменения технологии производства). Среди видов А. различают: А. простой (crude accelerator) - описанная выше модель, учитывающая лишь взаимосвязи роста результатов (дохода или продукции) с необходимыми для него или вызванными им капиталовложениями, но без учета дополнительных обстоятельств (напр., возможностей роста производства без капиталовложений, если имеются недогруженные мощности). А. гибкий (flexible accelerator) - усложнение предыдущей модели, учитывающее указанные выше возможные обстоятельства, колебания уровня производства и др. А. с запаздыванием (lagged accelerator) учитывает запаздывание фактической скорости роста инвестиций по отношению к росту результатов производства (дохода), который вызывает ("индуцирует") их. АКСЕЛЕРАЦИОНИСТСКАЯ МОДЕЛЬ ИНФЛЯЦИИ - модель взаимодействия безработицы, уровня инфляции и реального национального продукта, в которой рассматривается не только изменение уровня цен, но и скорость этого изменения. Делается предположение, что если государство пытается поддерживать безработицу ниже ее "естественного уровня", то это приводит к ускорению инфляции (см. Естественная норма безработицы). АКСИОМЫ ВЫЯВЛЕННОГО ПРЕДПОЧТЕНИЯ - исходные положения анализа потребительского спроса, определяющие возможность выносить заключения о предпочтениях потребителя, когда известен сделанный им потребительский выбор. Сформулированы П. Самуэльсоном и поэтому называются также аксиомами Самуэльсона. Общий смысл аксиом состоит в следующем: считается, что набор благ q() при векторе цен р0 и при общем расходе на приобретение этих благ^, "выявлен- но" предпочитается другому набору max. Here j> is a vector of variables that cannot be controlled, but affect u; f is a function that specifies the relationship between all the indicated quantities. ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR SOLVING MODELS - unlike simulation (numerical) methods, they consist in sequential mathematical transformations of the original model, leading to a given result (for example, to a formula expressing the dependence of the extremum of a function on its arguments). Only at the last stage, when such a formula is available, do they substitute the numbers and get a solution. ANALYTICAL MODELS OF DEMAND AND CONSUMPTION - economic and mathematical models that are built in the form of equations that characterize the dependence of the consumption of goods (i.e. goods and services) on certain factors: if from one - we have a single-factor model, if from several - multifactorial. They are used in the practice of planning and forecasting demand and consumption along with constructive and structural (balance) models. Among the factors influencing the demand and consumption of goods, the following are distinguished: the level of family income, the structure of families, the level of prices and their change, etc. Based on budget and trade statistics, regularities are established that connect these factors with the consumption of certain goods, and appropriate formulas are selected . For example, multivariate linear and non-linear regression models are common (see Regression Analysis). ANALOGUE - a similar subject, system (see Analogy). The model can be viewed as A. the system being modeled. Approximation of production- ANALOGY - a logical conclusion, as a result of which knowledge about the features of one object arises on the basis of its known similarity with other objects (see Similarity). This property allows, after studying one subject (for example, a model), to draw a conclusion, although not final, not conclusive in the full sense of the word, about another subject (system). In this case, three types of A. are used: A. of properties, A. of relations, and A. of isomorphism (between objects of an identical structure, in a certain sense, combining the two previous types of A.). The principle of A. underlies economic and mathematical modeling and the experimental approach to the study of the economy (as, of course, any modeling and experiment). ANALOGUE MODEL - one of the three initial types of models: a model whose properties are determined by laws similar to the laws of the system under study. Page Portrait model, iconic model. See also Modeling. ANTAGONISTIC GAMES - games with opposite interests of the parties (as opposed to games with non-opposing interests). These include, in particular, the game of two persons with zero sum, i.e., in which the gain of one player is the loss of the other (for an example, see the article "Game"). ANTI-GRADIENT - a vector opposite to the gradient of the function and, therefore, directed in the direction of its fastest decrease. See gradient methods. APPROXIMATION - "the replacement of some mathematical objects by others, in one sense or another close to the original ones"5 (in particular, an approximate expression of a complex function with the help of simpler ones). For example, for a piecewise linear algorithm, a continuous differentiable function can be replaced by a function consisting of several linear segments (see Piecewise linear function). 5BSE. T. 2. P. 134. 23 A. of the original function, a simpler function often greatly simplifies the solution of the optimization problem. In A., the structure and parameters of the system under consideration are specified; in economics, its goal is often to enlarge the characteristics of the modeled economic objects. APPROXIMATION OF PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGICAL CAPABILITIES - representation of the set of possible production options in the form of a set of a simpler configuration (in particular, of a smaller dimension). It acts as a mathematical technique for reducing the dimension of complex optimal planning problems. The need to reduce the dimension of economic and mathematical problems exists, for example, in planning the development of large economic associations - financial and industrial groups, concerns, industry associations. The essence of the method is as follows. The number of theoretically possible options for the development of any economic object is very large (an oil refinery project can be designed for 1 million tons, or 1.2 million, or 1.3 million tons, a draft plan for the development of the industry can provide for an increase in production by 3, 4 , 5, 6%, etc.). Therefore, for each project, only a few capacity options are selected (and related cost indicators, investment volumes, etc.). Accordingly, the range of products can also be "compressed" by representing it by one or more types of "representatives" selected in one way or another (see Aggregation), and then the description of the production capabilities of the industry (group of firms) is approximately approximated using a single linear constraint. Such aggregation of information makes it possible to formulate a planning problem of acceptable dimension and makes it possible to calculate a draft plan that is optimal from the point of view of one or another chosen criterion. 24 APRIOR INFORMATION - preliminary data, researcher's ideas used in the formation of an economic and mathematical model. Their source can be, firstly, theoretical considerations (for example, the idea of ​​a negative dependence of demand on the price of a product in the demand function), and secondly, previous statistical studies in which some elements have already been estimated, including the parameters of the future model ( for example, in the demand function, an a priori estimate of the income elasticity of demand for this model can be used). In modern conditions, when huge amounts of information are accumulated, its analysis, classification and preliminary processing become one of the decisive conditions for the successful construction and application of economic and mathematical models. ARBITRATION SCHEME [arbitration scheme] - in the theory of cooperative games, a system for resolving disputes between participants in a dispute, that is, justifying the choice of a decision point within the negotiation set. FUNCTION ARGUMENT - the same as an independent variable-variable, on the values ​​of which the values ​​of the function depend. (See also Model Variable, Exogenous Quantities.) ARCHIVE - in automated control systems, a set of arrays or files that provide storage and constant availability of all information necessary for the normal functioning of the system. Includes databases organized by task or otherwise, work programs, as well as catalogs and descriptions of the composition and organization of information stored in A., means of protecting the integrity and secrecy of information, and other components. ASYMMETRIC INFORMATION - in market conditions, information about the object of market exchange, which the participants in this exchange have to an unequal degree. For example, the seller of a product may be better informed about its true qualities, a priori information, than potential buyers. In recent years, market research with A.i. has acquired a significant scope, since it allows a better understanding of the operation of various kinds of market mechanisms (for example, auctions). For their fundamental contribution to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information, American economists J. Mirlis and W. Vikkri were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1996. ASYMPTOT - a straight line, which tends (never reaching it) having an infinite branch of a curve of a certain function, when its argument approaches a certain given value, increases or decreases indefinitely. Eg. , in the function:;/ = c + + 1/x, the value of y approaches with increasing. V is arbitrarily close to the value of c ("asymptotically tends to it"). ASYMPTOTICALLY STABLE SYSTEM - see Stability of systems w. ASSORTMENT SET - a set of heterogeneous goods (in a particular case - goods), considered in economic and mathematical models as a whole (the terms "set", "commect" are also used). The concept of A.n. used in the analysis of production, in the analysis of demand and consumption. For example, when determining the optimal plan for an enterprise, it is important that the entire range of its products, and not individual types, meet the needs (directive task, market demand, etc.). There is a class of linear programming problems in which the optimality criterion is the maximum number of assortment sets produced, including different types of products in the proportion specified by the plan ("assortment problems"). On fig. to Art. "Indifference curves" shows the relationship between the set xx, yy sets x2, >>,; as well as x, >>, etc. Mathematically, A.n. is described by a vector, the components of which are the number of goods of each type ("vector of goods"): .G = (*, X2, ..., X:, ..., x), Database 25 ; .v - the amount of the good of the y "th kind (/" \u003d 1, 2, If we assume that all goods have the property of arbitrary divisibility, then any non-negative amount of each of them can be purchased. All possible sets of goods together form a vector space of goods (commodity space): C- (x = (x, x2, ..., x) 7=1,2,...,/;). x. > 0, The space C is a non-negative orthant of the Euclidean space, a closed and convex set ASSORTMENT PLAN - an acceptable plan for which the requirement of completeness is met, i.e. the relations between types of products correspond to the given ones.ATOMISTIC ECONOMY - an economy in which a large number of independent (but small) firms operate, i.e. none of them in separately is not capable of influencing prices that develop as a result of competition in this market. Such a market is considered perfect. The concept of A.e. is used in theoretical studies of a market economy, but there are also historical examples when such an economy (and, accordingly, Consequently, "atomistic competition") existed in reality. For example, the United States at the beginning of the 19th century. had more or less A.e., until large-scale production began, large firms and concerns began to form. AUDIT - checking the financial activities of the company by an independent auditor (auditor). It can be carried out at the initiative of the company (self-control) and "by law", that is, by external control services by decision of the authorities. AUCTION - sale at public auction, in which the right to purchase the goods or property being sold goes to the economic entity that offered the highest price. The main types of auctions: simple, or English, when rates are publicly announced and no one agrees to pay more than the last announced price; Dutch, where a high price is first set and it decreases until a buyer is found; auction of the second price - closed (bids are submitted in writing), where the highest bidder pays no more than his last competitor; and, finally, the same closed, but where the winner who offered the highest price pays this price. Auctions sell either single items or batches or lots. WALRAS AUCTOR - the main element of the Walrasian model of the process of "groping" prices: some abstract subject whose role is to "announce" a set of offered prices and provide market agents with the opportunity to reach the equilibrium level of these prices in the process of free bargaining. See Walrasian system equations, Equilibrium DATABASE - a set of data stored in the computer memory related to a certain volume or range of activities, specially organized, updated and logically interconnected.They represent a kind of information model of an object (for example, a controlled object in ACS). A DB hosted and running on one computer is called a local DB, and on several interconnected computers it is called a distributed DB. linear dependence of vectors). th space vectors turn out to be linear combinations of the basis vectors. If all basis vectors are mutually orthogonal, and the length of each of them is equal to one, then the basis is called orthonormal. A unit basis vector is called an ort (denoted e., where / "is the coordinate number). Each space vector can be represented as a linear combination of basis vectors: a \u003d La.e.. The expansion coefficients i. uniquely determine the vector a. Therefore, they often say , that / dimensional vector is an ordered collection of n numbers (a. ). (See Vector.) The dimension of a vector space is equal to the number of vectors that make up its basis. BASIC SOLUTION (reference plan) - a linear programming term, one of the feasible solutions located at the vertices of the domain of feasible solutions, or (if the level line is parallel to one of the segments of the domain boundary) B.r. - this entire segment (see Fig. L.2 to the article "Linear programming"). It is a solution to a system of linear constraints that cannot be represented as a linear combination of any other solutions. When solving a linear programming problem, you can do the following: find any of these "vertex" solutions - not necessarily optimal - and take it as the starting point for calculations. Such a decision will be basic. If it turns out to be optimal, the calculation is over, if not, they sequentially check whether the neighboring vertex points will not be optimal: the one in which the plan is more efficient is taken again as the starting point; and so, sequentially checking similar vertices for optimality, they come to the desired optimum. On this principle, the so-called. simplex method for solving problems of linear programming, as well as a number of other methods, united under the general name "methods of successive improvement of the feasible solution (SSM)": the inverse matrix method, or the modified simplex method, the method of potentials for the transport problem, etc. They differ from each other computational features of the transition from one basic solution to another, improved one. BASIC POINT - one hundredth of a percent, the smallest unit used to measure changes in the yield of bonds, bills and other securities (usually government). For example, if the market rate of return on a bond fell from 8.05% to 7.85%, then the decrease was 20 bp. The use of such a fractional share is due to the fact that government securities are usually sold in large lots (eg, one million pieces). At the same time, a change even by one B.p. means a significant increase or decrease in the estimated values. BASE YEAR, BASIC PERIOD - in forecasting, accounting and other economic calculations, the year (period) to which, for comparability, the calculated indicators of subsequent years (periods, calculation steps), called current years, are given. If the economic indicators of a given year are taken as the comparison base, then there are three main ways to compare the indicators of the compared year (current indicators) with them: 1. The comparison base is taken as a unit. Then the relative values ​​that bring the indicator of the compared year to the year are called coefficients or multiplicity indicators and are expressed as an integer or fractional number. 2. The comparison base is taken as 100. Then the relative values ​​that bring the indicators of the compared year to the year are expressed as percentages or fractions of a percent. 3. The base of comparison is taken as 1000. Then the relative values ​​that bring the indicators of the compared year to the year are expressed in ppm (a unit 10 times less than a percentage). See also Discounting. BAYES (LAPLACE) balance model 27 CRITERION - in decision theory, a decision-making criterion in the absence of any information about the relative probabilities of "nature" strategies. (See Indefinite Problems.) According to B.(L.)k. it is proposed to give equal probabilities to all the strategies under consideration, and then accept the one for which the expected payoff will be the largest. It has the disadvantage that the range of evaluated alternatives in the same task can be different and, accordingly, the relative probability of each of them can also be different. BAYESIAN APPROACH The same Bayesian approach is a direction in the science of management, based on the principle of maximum use of available a priori information, its continuous revision and reassessment, taking into account the obtained sample data about the phenomenon or process under study. Such a revision is interpreted as learning, and the management process itself in B.p. understood as a process of learning (adaptation). Named after Bayes' theorem (from probability theory), which plays a central role in this concept. It says: the conditional probability of the event A, if it is known that the event B has already occurred (denoted by P (A | B)), is equal to the conditional probability B, if it is known that the event /* has occurred, multiplied by the ratio of the unconditional probabilities A and B: . P(B \ A) - P (A) P (A \ B) = " --. 1 P (B) This theorem is considered as a logical basis for revising judgments depending on the events that actually occur, i.e. experience and, consequently, constant adjustment of management strategies.The Bayesian approach is used in solving problems of distribution of capital investments, inventory management, organization of selective quality control, etc. BALANCE is a general concept that reflects the method of studying certain economic phenomena by comparing or contrasting indicators that characterize different aspects of these phenomena.B. most often appears in the form of equality. For example, the accounting balance sheet of a firm or other institution includes, on the one hand, assets (funds held), on the other hand, liabilities (the amount of liabilities), as well as the net worth (total assets minus liabilities) at a certain point in time . The state budget is built in the form of B. cash income and expenditure of the state. Material B. (see Ecological and economic models), B. of labor, etc. are also used. BALANCE MODEL - 1. A system of equations (balance ratios, balance equations) that satisfy the requirement of matching two elements: the availability of a resource and its use (for example, the production of each product and the need for it, the labor force and the number of jobs, the effective demand of the population and offering goods and services). Correspondence here is understood either as equality, or less rigidly - as the sufficiency of resources to cover the need (and, consequently, the presence of some reserve). See Balance method. 2. When describing the economic system as a whole - a system of equations, each of which expresses the requirement for a balance between the amount of production produced by individual economic objects and the total need for this product. Consequently, in this case, the system under consideration consists of economic objects, each of which produces a certain product, partially consumed by other objects of the system, partially withdrawn from its boundaries as its final product. The most important types of balance models: 1) private material, labor, financial balances for the national economy and individual industries; 2) inter-industry 28 business plans of the country as a whole and regions, and at the level of enterprises - matrix mid-sections of business plans. Basic information for B.m. is contained in the matrix of coefficients of resource costs for specific areas of use (for example, in the technological matrix of the IRB). BALANCE METHOD - the use of balance sheets for mutual comparison of resources (material, labor, financial) and their needs. Long time B.m. was the main method of maintaining the overall planning proportions in Soviet national economic planning. It consists in building systems of material and cost balances at various levels: national economic, intersectoral, interregional, as well as fuel, energy and other balances used in the modern post-socialist economy when planning production and distributing the most important national economic resources. SCORES - see. Scales. BANKS - monetary institutions that regulate the payment turnover in cash and non-cash forms. A bank "... means a credit institution that has the right to raise funds from individuals and legal entities, place them on its own behalf and at its own expense on terms of repayment, payment, urgency, and carry out settlement operations on behalf of clients"6. The bank is considered as a trading company (trading in money), a credit institution, an exchange agent, an organization intended for making cash settlements and payments. But with all the variety of functions performed by banks, it is still necessary to single out their main purpose: to serve as financial intermediaries, accumulating temporarily free funds of the population and firms (as "ultimate creditors") and transferring them to higher loans to borrowers, semi-6 FCES. P. 64. The balance method is one of the most promising, thus, the possibility of implementing their commercial and investment projects. In other words, they turn dormant accumulations into functioning capital. Banking is the basis of the credit and banking system, which is built differently in different countries. In most of them, it is headed by a central issuing bank responsible for regulating the circulation of money in the country, maintaining the stability of the national currency both in the domestic market and in relation to other currencies. These goals are achieved with the help of three main instruments of monetary policy - the discount rate, the norms of required reserves (see Reserve requirements), open market operations. The lower level of the credit and banking system is made up of commercial banks and various kinds of specialized credit and financial institutions. B. are objects of modeling for a number of macroeconomic models, although in general in science there is a strict division of economic phenomena into the "real" and "financial" sectors of the economy (this is called the classical dichotomy). In banking itself, economic and mathematical methods (in particular, econometric models) are used in such areas as forecasting the volume of active operations, deposits, account balances, the amount of bank interest, and the volume of money supply. In investment activity, when it comes to the rational distribution of capital investments, B. use models of intersectoral balance, linear programming. DATA BANK - a set of long-term storage arrays of information in an automated data processing system (A DPS) with appropriate software. According to other interpretations - a universal or specialized database that performs various queries. Barrier function "BAROMETERS" (economic) - mathematical and statistical tools (calculation methods) designed to predict changes in the economic situation by analyzing some interrelated indicators. For example, at the beginning of the 20th century in the United States, scientists at the Harvard School of Economists found that, following an increase or decrease in the value of shares, the commodity price index usually increased or decreased. Without a deep analysis of the reasons for such relationships, the most "sensitive" indicators and groups of indicators were selected. They were taken as "B." However, "B." failed to predict the onset of the global economic crisis of the 1920s, and interest in them disappeared. Meanwhile "B." significantly enriched the methods of statistical processing of economic data, in particular the theory of lags (delays). BARTER is a way of trading goods and services in the form of a direct exchange of these goods and services without the use of money (exchange in kind). Accordingly, a barter economy is an economy where there is no single generally accepted medium of exchange (money) and goods are exchanged directly for each other; barter transaction - a barter transaction with the transfer of ownership of the goods without payment in cash. B. was widely used in the conditions of the scarce economy of the USSR in the 1980s, supplementing the inefficient material and technical ties established from the center. Therefore, the widespread use of banking in Russia during the period of market reforms should not be regarded as merely a product of the reforms themselves (as some critics of these reforms argue). However, at a certain stage (the second half of the 1990s), elements of the barter economy acquired a dangerous development. Comprehensive statistics are not kept in this area, but selective studies and expert assessments show that a significant part of Russian industry (in some industries, even up to 70-80%) used non-monetary forms of payment, the main of which is B. For many enterprises, business reached 29 the fact that the monetary component in the proceeds turned out to be even less than the payroll fund (with all the ensuing social consequences - delays in paying wages, etc.). This was facilitated by the reduction in the working capital of enterprises (see working capital, working capital) due to the inflationary depreciation of these funds and (in certain periods) as a result of the relatively tough stabilization policy of the government; the desire of enterprises to avoid / / scarlet "(under B. the economic activity of enterprises takes place with minimal amounts of money in current accounts, which makes it difficult to levy taxes and arrears). B.'s wide distribution in the country entails a variety of negative consequences, primarily depriving the flail of its regulatory function. Barter schemes are completely independent of the price situation that is developing on the market. The chain of goods participating in the B. can be anything: as a rule, it does not reflect the ratio of supply and demand, but some desired proportions established by agreement between the seller and the buyer, each of whom seeks to obtain the required number of units of goods in exchange for his own. For the existence of such a peculiar economy, market instruments - banks and other credit institutions - are not needed. In foreign trade turnover, barter is a non-currency, but evaluated and balanced exchange of various goods between countries, formalized by a single agreement (contract). BARRIER FUNCTION - an auxiliary function used in solving some problems of mathematical programming. In maximization problems tends to minus infinity (-o°) when approaching the boundary of the range of acceptable values ​​from the inside. When passing from the maximization problem to the minimization problem, the sign of B.f. changes to the opposite. See also Penalty functions. 30 UNEMPLOYMENT - incomplete involvement of labor resources (economically active population) in the economic process. According to the internationally recognized definition, an unemployed person is one who does not have a job, is looking for a job and is ready to start working at any moment. Official Russian statistics consider as unemployed only those who are officially registered with the labor exchange (according to some experts, this is about half of the truly unemployed). B.'s level is closely connected with inflation. In a planned economy where prices and wages are controlled, it is possible to guarantee a job for everyone without exposing the economy to the danger of high inflation (although this advantage comes at the cost of a significantly lower efficiency of the economic system and a correspondingly lower standard of living of the population). The situation is different in a market economy. There B. (for all its undesirability) should still be sufficient to prevent the country from falling into accelerated inflation. The dependence of the inflation rate on the level of employment for a market economy is expressed by the so-called. Phillips curve: it shows that inflation is inevitable if the employment rate is above a certain point. (See the Phillips Curve for more details.) Non-accelerating inflation (inflation-neutral) level of B. NVIYB is a certain intermediate level of B. at which inflation remains unchanged. Of course, in the future, with changes in social institutions, it can be reduced, but still, in any state of a society with a market economy, there is always a certain critical level of B., below which inflation begins to grow indefinitely (due to the unwinding of the "wage-price" spiral) . INDIFFERENCE - a state in which one alternative (good, decision, project, etc.) is not preferred to another (corresponding to another good, decision, project), but the last Unemployment is not preferred to the first. In other words, if alternatives l- and v are characterized by equal utility, then there is a relation B between them. See also Indifference Curves, Level Line. PRODUCTION BREAK-EVEN - a situation where the sales volume (the product of the product price by the number of products sold) provides full coverage of the fixed and variable costs of the enterprise per product. See break-even chart. UNCONDITIONAL OPTIMIZATION - see Optimal or optimization problem. UNCONDITIONAL MINIMUM, MAXIMUM OF THE FUNCTION - the minimum (maximum) of the function, not due to the restrictions of the problem. Wed Conditional minimum, conditional maximum. BAYESIAN (BAYESIAN) APPROACH - see Bayesian approach. BELLMAN'S OPTIMALITY PRINCIPLE - the most important position of dynamic programming, which states: optimal behavior in dynamic programming problems has the property that whatever the initial state and decision (i.e. "control"), subsequent decisions should constitute optimal behavior relative to the state, resulting from the first solution. This principle can also be expressed by reasoning from the contrary: if we do not make the best use of what we have now, then in the future we will not be able to make the best use of what we could have. Therefore, if there is an optimal trajectory, then any part of it is also an optimal trajectory. This principle allows us to formulate an efficient method for solving a wide class of multi-step problems. (See Dynamic Programming for more details.) Business plan 31 The principle is named after the prominent American mathematician R. Bellman, one of the founders of dynamic programming. Non-cooperative games [pop-coalition games] - a class of games in which each player makes a decision in isolation, i.e. e. without coordination, negotiations, agreements or coalitions with other players. A non-cooperative equilibrium is such an outcome of the game in which each player, knowing about the decisions of other players, does not change his own decision. It is often called the Nash equilibrium, after the scientist who first mathematically investigated the question of the possibility of the existence of a point of non-cooperative equilibrium (see also the Nash principle of stability). INFINITE GAMES - a class of games in which at least one of the players has an infinite number of strategies. INFINITE METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING - numerical optimization methods, solving mathematical programming problems (eg, large-scale linear ones) by successive steps (iterations), giving an increasingly accurate approximation to the desired solution. The calculation process can be interrupted at the stage when the required accuracy is obtained. Wed Finite methods of mathematical programming. BUSINESS PLAN - a document developed by a new or existing firm, company, which systematizes the main aspects of the planned commercial event. Procedure for the development of B.-p. allows you to anticipate possible problems, avoid mistakes in management, recognize and evaluate the two main types of risks present in any business: internal, over which the entrepreneur as a whole has control (staff, inventory, location of the business), and external (economic conditions, behavior of partners, competitors, new legislation, weather), i.e. something that the entrepreneur is not able to change. According to the content and purpose of B.-p. quite varied. For example, complete B.-p. commercial idea or investment project - a presentation for a potential partner or investor of the results of marketing research (see Marketing), justification of the market development strategy, expected financial results. B.-p. are compiled at the level of the firm (company), their structural divisions, etc. The content and structure of B.-p. may vary depending on the purpose of compiling this document, the scope (manufacturing, service, trading, and other companies). But on the whole, it usually contains the following components: 1) a summary (briefly summarizing the main points of the B.-p.); 2) information about the company (the content of the business and areas of work are disclosed); 3) environment for business (the volume of the sales market for the product, services, etc., the market share that is supposed to be taken is determined); 4) marketing and sales plan (according to

Professor Sergei Lopatnikov, now based in the US and working at the University of Delaware's Center for Composite Materials, debunks propaganda myths about the Soviet Union in his spare time. For example, he is ready to prove with figures in his hands that the standard of living of Soviet people by the 80s was equal, and in some ways exceeded the standard of living of 80% of modern Americans.

When people talk about the backwardness or inefficiency of the Soviet economy, they forget all the time to take into account, according to the professor, several unfavorable factors. First, the Soviet Union started from a very low start. If in Britain already in the 19th century peasants made up only 17% of the population, then in Russia in the 1920s there were more than 80% of peasants. And in such conditions, the country had to industrialize, since no one doubted that the First World War was not “played out” to the end, but only stopped.

Lopatnikov recalls that in 16 years, under conditions of incredible exertion of all forces and resources, the USSR built a powerful industry, which no capitalist country could ever do. Of course, a sharp explosion in the population of the cities where the former peasants arrived caused a severe housing crisis - the very “damned housing problem”. But it was about the very existence of the country in view of the impending military threat.

The Great Patriotic War inflicted unprecedented human and material damage on the Soviet Union, and it was followed almost without interruption by the Cold War with the entire West. In conditions that were actually military, the USSR was able to overcome the post-war devastation and rebuild industry. By the 1980s, the standard of living in the country significantly exceeded the pre-war level.

Other countries that have chosen socialism can be cited as an example. Little North Korea exists despite being almost completely isolated from the world. People somehow live there. What if we take Cuba? People there do not live well, but Cubans can compete with the United States in terms of life expectancy, and the level of medicine there is such that rich people from America want to be treated in Cuba.

According to Professor Lopatnikov, the socialist countries did not have time to show the full potential of socialism. In addition, the West deliberately tried to destroy these countries, limiting their development. If under such conditions these countries were able to provide their inhabitants with an acceptable standard of living, then it is difficult to imagine what would have happened under more favorable circumstances.

"... you impudently confuse 1985 and Gorbachev's 1989. In 1985, I not only lived in Moscow, but also headed the laboratory. And then the department. So I fed people.
And the meat in stores for 1.90 kopecks was ALWAYS, sometimes with queues, and VERY GOOD MEAT, such as a brisket, which simply cannot be bought in the USA, was "thrown away" for several hours a day. AT THE SAME TIME THE MEAT IN THE MARKET FOR 6 RUBLES IS A TENDERING! - not translated at all.
And, I note, the shortage of meat was eliminated in one day by simply increasing the price from 2 to 2.50 rubles.
But there is another, even more important, moment to refresh your brain: in 1985, the average inhabitant of the USSR consumed 72-74 kilograms of meat per year. Where did the deficit go - WHEN CONSUMPTION REDUCED. Have people fallen out of love with meat?

There were no problems at all ANYWHERE to arrange a child in a kindergarten. I was just growing up my daughter, and then my nephew came to live. Kindergarten was right in the yard. And even in the 90s - the youngest went.

Manufactured goods? - This is NOT a BASIC CONSUMPTION. The main thing is a) housing b) transport to work c) food. These are DAILY EXPENSES YOU CANNOT DO WITHOUT. and TV, LETTEN IT COSTS EVEN 700 RUBLES - IT IS 70 RUBLES A YEAR, 5-6 RUBLES A MONTH. 20 TIMES LESS than food.
Although it is possible and manufactured goods. Men's woolen suit, which in the early 80s cost 120 rubles. A similar one in the USA in terms of quality costs starting at least $ 500-700 /
Just do not tell me about the "jeans". They were worn and worn in the USA because they are CHEAP WORKING CLOTHING, TENS OF TIMES LOWER IN QUALITY (AND PRICE) than the suits are absolutely similar to the Soviet suits from the "Bolshevichka", the Kyiv clothing factory "Kashtan", etc.
Well, for men's low shoes. Here the difference is smaller: ordinary Czech ones cost 23-27-30 rubles, similar American ones (often the same Czech ones, or even Vietnamese ones) cost at least $60, but on average $120-150 ...

The USSR had its own trading system. The main thing was not the blockage of shelves, but the quality and availability of this quality. Now we see goods of the lowest quality, this also applies to industrial and food products. In the USSR, any pensioner could buy genuine leather shoes for 5-10 rubles with a pension of 80-90 rubles, now such shoes cost about 10,000 rubles at least with a pension of 8,000 rubles. For 1000-2000 now you can only buy disposable shoes made of obscure materials. The shelves of food "supermarkets" are littered, but with what? Remove goods that do not meet GOST USSR from the stream and only salt will remain on these shelves.

Do you see the American numbers? Will you argue? - Not. Excellent.
Do you see Soviet numbers? Can you refute? - Not? - Free.
Keep on being a clown...

I removed the question mark from the title. Because my guess turned out to be correct.

An amazing story: Leonid Isidorovich Lopatnikov (1923-2014), went to war after school, was wounded, graduated from the Higher Economic Courses of the State Planning Commission and postgraduate studies at the Plekhanov Institute, Candidate of Economics, Senior Researcher at the Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, participated in development of the "Comprehensive program of scientific and technological progress of the USSR", the author of the "Economic and Mathematical Dictionary" (6 editions in the USSR, 10 - abroad) and many other books.

His son, Sergei Leonidovich Lopatnikov, graduated Moscow Power Engineering Institute. Specialization - radiophysicist. In 1977 he defended his Ph.D. thesis at the Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and Radio Wave Propagation of the Russian Academy of Sciences.Head of the Laboratory of Methods of Mathematical Modeling of the All-Union Institute of Nuclear Geophysics and Geochemistry (1986), in the past - a leading researcher at Moscow State University, later - a lecturer at the University of Delaware (USA).

And now, already living in the States, Lopatnikov Jr. suddenly becomes ... a Stalinist! And he argues furiously (across the ocean) with his father. As a result, my father wrote a book About Stalin and Stalinism. 14 dialogues". The book was published in 2010, and the controversy continued until the death of his father. However, in his blog Sergey Lopatnikov continuesthis controversy still exists.

Well, I will give the floor to his late father here:

Published in the magazine:
"Bulletin of Europe" 2014, No. 40-41

Obituary. Last dialogue with a Stalinist

Leonid Lopatnikov (1923-2014) - participant and invalid of the Great Patriotic War, journalist and economist, translator. Author of the "Economics and Mathematics Dictionary", author of books on the latest economic history of Russia ("Economics of dual power" and "Pass") and other works.

Leonid Isidorovich Lopatnikov until the last day (he died unexpectedly for relatives) worked on this book, which was published in 2010 by the Vozvraschenie publishing house and included 14 dialogues. He was told that the topic had been worked out intellectually for a long time, that everything had already been said and retold a thousand times, that the Stalinists simply do not hear, do not want to hear and will never hear the arguments of their opponents, they ignore the most terrible facts. But he, stubborn, insisted that the topic was not closed and would not be closed as long as at least one Stalinist and at least one of his staunch opponents remained on earth. He also had personal reasons to do this, to look for and find more and more new - certainly new - arguments in this dispute, anew, and for good reason, which again became relevant.

Stalinism is marginal, outdated and dilapidated intellectually, politically - quite in force, in trend and even in fashion, it finds fresh, young adherents. The long-term, tireless rehabilitation of Stalinism from television screens is bearing fruit and is building a psychological foundation for the anti-democratic deconstruction of Russian political and public life. It is not really about the past, but about the future.

We publish those sent by L.I. Lopatnikov to the editors shortly before his death, the first and last, 15th, NEW chapters of the book.

Instead of a preface

After much thought, I found the main difference: anti-Stalinists want convince Stalinists, the Stalinists want anti-Stalinists(following the example of his idol and teacher) - shoot.

The rest is details: Stalin is an effective manager or godfather of an organized crime group that has taken hostage an entire country; Stalin repressed millions of innocent people or punished only potential enemies by destroying a certain “fifth column”; Stalin is a murderer who shot 3 million or "only" (as Zyuganov once put it) 680 thousand people ... Stalin -

the one who led the world to the great Victory over the Nazi plague, or Stalin - the one who helped Germany prepare for revenge and bring Hitler to power. Finally, Stalin is the creator of the great Soviet Union or the designer of an unviable system that inevitably had to collapse sooner or later ... In short: Stalin is the “name of Russia” or its curse,

Yes, and the Stalinists themselves disagree about such details: was Stalin a true Leninist and revolutionary, or destroyed Leninists and revolutionaries because they destroyed great Russia, did Stalin build socialism in the USSR, or, conversely, was ready to return the market economy, yes only preparations for war prevented this good intention, whether he was preparing a world revolution or, as a truepatriot and Russian nationalist, just wanted to use it to expand the Russian Empire...

I repeat: these are all details. And most importantly, what characterizes the opponents, their human appearance and moral qualities - in the first paragraph. And this, in my opinion, is the verdict.

However, details do matter. We will try to understand them in a genre known since antiquity - in the genre of dialogue between a convinced Stalinist, let's call it FROM., and equally convinced anti-Stalinist- let it be BUT.

However, I will emphasize: dialogues are not fictional. They recorded sharp disputes between the two opponents about Stalin and Stalinism, which lasted for several years - by phone, e-mail, on the Internet. As much as possible, not only the arguments and facts presented by the parties are preserved, but also the style of presentation, as well as methods of argumentation and handling of facts.

Dialogue 1. Starting positions

FROM.In the West, the "public history" of distant times is usually seen as a meaningless set of disparate historical events, the only "meaning" of which is the dates of the events and the names of the participants. In the "recent" public history, these "meanings" are supplemented by the current ideological assessment of the personalities of the participants in the binary logical arithmetic "good-evil" understandable to the public. Such history is essentially no different from the medieval chronicles, supplied with politically biased "moral assessments". Such a "chronicle approach" is based on the commonplace truth imposed on the mass consciousness: "History has no subjunctive mood", "What happened, happened." I categorically reject this approach. History is, first of all, the history of decision-making. Consequently, the only task of real History, History as a social science, is to study as carefully as possible the conditions for making historical decisions: that is, the reasons and grounds for which certain decisions were made, which includes an analysis of the objective tasks that forced one or another to proceed in general. tasks, target functions and resources for their implementation. In particular, this approach involves the analysis of possible alternative solutions, that is, the paths of "virtual history", and their conceivable consequences.

The "functional" approach to history is immeasurably more complex, but also immeasurably more meaningful and honest than the "chronicle" one. The fact that this approach is almost never used in practice is due to an exceptionally important circumstance. It colossally limits the possibilities of historical speculation and is therefore unacceptable to political speculators, because it brings historical events to the solid ground of reality and limits the possibility for manipulation: for without exception, all speculative political "moral assessments" are based on deliberate ignoring of real alternatives and resorting to a comparison of real events. in a given place and at a given time, either with abstract models of the "kingdom of heaven" or with arbitrary samples taken from conditions and epochs that are incomparable in terms of objective parameters. By and large, this is the main feature of "orange thinking" - to make absurd conclusions based on arbitrary assessments and analogies.

BUT.It is quite right that the historian should study the conditions in which the historical person acts, the alternatives that are possible under these conditions, and the decisions that signify the choice of one or another of these alternatives. This is true, although not new: this direction of historical analysis began to develop in the 1920s, it is known under many names: alternative history, counterfactual history, "experimental" history, retro alternativeism etc. (Hook, Toynbee and others).

But you, S., forget that the process is continuous: the adoption of one or the alternative changes the conditions, therefore, new alternatives arise, and so on ... Let's look at this using an example, which we will return to in more detail in one of the following dialogues. You recently wrote: "The Stalinist period, the Stalinist economy and politics were an organic consequence of the objective conditions of the country's existence in the pre-war and post-war period." But what created such "objective" conditions? There is a point of view among historians that the decisions of Stalin himself played an important role in this, who supported the illegal preparation of Germany for revenge, bypassing the conditions of the Versailles Peace, although there was such an alternative! - might not be supported. Moreover, a special role in this was played by Stalin's ban on the Communists of Germany to bloc in the elections with the Social Democrats, which led - on completely legal grounds, as a result of national elections - Hitler to power. It is possible (there is also such a hypothesis) that all this was done with a long-term aim: so that Germany would defeat England in a future war and thereby facilitate the conditions for the second stage of the world revolution - the European revolution. I write "maybe" because it's for sure to no one unknown, documented not confirmed. We can only operate with "analysis of possible alternative solutions, that is, the paths of" virtual history ", and their conceivable consequences," as you put it.

With this option, it turns out that "objective conditions", i.e. Stalin created the pre-war situation in the country. And this is explained in an elementary way: such a situation is the best reason for planting the ideology of a “besieged fortress”, which for many centuries and in many countries has been successfully used to subjugate peoples to a not very self-confident power (most often a dictatorial one). In other words, having climbed to the pinnacle of power, Stalin used a historically tested means of preserving and strengthening it. But the further opposition of the USSR to the rest of the world, natural for the “besieged fortress”, ultimately turned out to be suicidal: the outbreak of a new cold war led to the defeat of the socialist empire created by Stalin. That is, the collapse of the USSR less than half a century after Stalin's death is the result of Stalin's activities! Here is what, it would seem, unexpected conclusion leads to a consistent " counterfactual" analysis…

But let's get to the main point of contention. You once posted the following emotional text in your blog (it fully deserves the name "Journal of Stalinist propaganda" and enjoys, I know, success with the appropriate audience). your creed. It is convenient to take it in its entirety, without changing a word, for further discussion. The only change that I will allow myself is to renumber the paragraphs so that each of them can be considered separately.

Here is the text:

1. People don't know the truth. Namely, that from 1922 to 1938 the industrial production of Russia grew 67 times - according to Western studies. And such a phenomenal increase was barely enough to withstand the Patriotic War against the potential of all of Europe.

2. The people do not know that in 1937-1938, on all types of charges - criminal, including, not 40 thousand "commanders" were arrested in the army, but about 6,000 out of 120 thousand, which does not exceed the average number of "landings" "- 50 people per 1000 "military population - 5%". Today in Russia there are about a million people sitting on 70 million adults - this is the lowest level in many years and this is 1.4%.

3. People really don't know. that collectivization was caused not by delusional communist ideas or "malicious intent", but by a simple and obvious fact: back in 1928, 84% of the population in the country were employed in agriculture and without transferring people to industry, without industrialization - hasty, emergency, - the country would perish.

4. The people really do not know that the main Stalinist blow in 1937-1938 fell precisely on those comrades who destroyed Russia during the revolution.

5. The people really do not know that the notorious “Law on three spikelets” was adopted just when it finally became clear that the country did not have enough crops to save as much grain as possible. Otherwise, not 1.5 million people would have suffered in the "Holodomor", AS REALLY, but much more, and the crazy numbers that the orange bastard sculpts today from the lantern could really turn out to be a reality.

6. The people do not know that Stalin was forced to leave his troops in Europe, because apart from this - the threat of a land war - he had nothing to oppose to the armadas of strategic bombers that the "allies" had and which Truman had already put on full alert in 1945 and 1946, plus the Impossible Plan, plus atomic weapons.

7. The people do not know that the creation of nuclear weapons is forced! - cost the country almost as much as the second world war cost.

Here's what the people need to know. And the people should also know that Napoleon, who suppressed the Vendée and waged openly aggressive wars in Europe, lies quietly in Les Invalides in Paris and is considered a national hero.

BUT. Probably, this is not even a complete list of Stalin's real (and more mythical, invented), positive deeds, for which not only you, S., but also millions of other people are ready to once again raise him to the pedestal of the "leader of all peoples", to proclaim him again "the greatest genius of all times and peoples", sing the song "about the great friend and leader" again. First of all, no one forgets that Generalissimo Stalin was the Supreme Commander-in-Chief during the Great Patriotic War, and no matter how many examples and arguments are given about the unimaginable number of victims, about the tragedy of 1941 and 1942, nevertheless, the main truth is that we won. No one, not even the most vehement anti-Stalinists, will deny this.

Another thing is the analogy with Napoleon, or, in other words, the question of the demand you, S., expressed in the same blog: "incorporate Stalin into history."

Is it necessary, and what can it lead to? However, let's leave this question open for now. The answer to it will reveal itself when we return to it at the end of the book.

And now we will consider your, S., "creed" point by point, without missing anything - neither important nor less significant. And here we will consider these theses briefly, in a telegraph style: we will return to the details later. And we will see that all seven of your theses, except for the last one, how can I put it mildly? – clean not true, an attempt to deceive readers. So…

1. You claim that "according to Western studies" from 1922 to 1938, Russia's industrial production increased 67 times. This is nonsense! Perhaps you, S., have found such an extravagant figure among the many estimates of the rates of development of industry in the USSR that are available in the world. I have not met. Meanwhile, the vast majority of Western economists, every single research organization has always maintained and continues to maintain that Soviet statistics overestimated the results of the economic development of the USSR for propaganda purposes. They displayed indicators lower than the official data of the Central Statistical Bureau of the USSR - they can be found in hundreds of the most authoritative reference publications. But what did Soviet statistics say? According to her, the growth over these years was three times smaller than what you mentioned. By the way, the growth is quite worthy (about 20 times), and why it was necessary to stun the reader with a figure taken from the ceiling is not clear. (It is also unclear why you attribute these figures to Stalin's rule - he came to power not in 1922, but later).

2. The traditional method of unscrupulous statisticians: averaging of incomparable data. Here it is important not how many, a " how many”: all the repressed persons of the highest command staff of the army and navy are known by name - this is only 0.05% of the total number of “commanders”, and maybe even less. But this is twice as many as the number of generals who died on the battlefield during all the years of the Great Patriotic War! This is almost the entire leadership of the army and navy of the country in the prewar years. It is known that an army without command is not an army, but a mob. Now remember what happened in the summer of 1941...

3. I am not an expert in the field of agriculture, and I don’t know exactly how it was possible to solve the specified problem differently (where it came from, this problem itself is another question, we will have an opportunity to return to it). However, in the USSR of that time there were specialists who offered other ways besides collectivization. Were they persuaded? No, they shot down. And collectivization has become just one of the elements of building a new "socialist society" - a society of universal subordination to one leader and one party, a society of universal fear and a rigid system of centralized planning of everything and everyone in the economy.

4. You claim that the “main Stalinist” blow fell in 1937-1938 precisely on those comrades who destroyed Russia during the revolution.

What is true is true: in the struggle for absolute power, Stalin destroyed, first of all, his rivals, and these were people who occupied certain high positions in the state precisely as a result of the revolution (to which, as you know, he also had a hand, and if you use your expression, "destroyed Russia"). But the main blow did not fall on them (there were several tens of thousands of old Bolsheviks, and the number of repressed people was in the millions). The main blow of the repressions fell on the hard-working peasants, on the intelligentsia, especially the technical and creative, that is, on the entire thinking part of the country's population, especially on those who showed the slightest disagreement with Stalin's policies.

5. You remember the Law on Spikelets (August 1932), but you forgot that the famine was preceded by mass forced collectivization, during which millions of peasants who knew how and wanted to work on the land (that is, kulaks and a large part of the middle peasants) were torn off the land and exiled to "special settlements", to regions not so remote. In addition, you forgot that the last grain was taken from the peasants in order to get money for industrialization in the West, although, given the crop failure, it was possible to delay deliveries - such cases of history are known. In this case, I will not argue about the numbers - let the experts discuss them until they come to a consensus.

6. Probably, you still mean 1946, not 1945, here the accuracy of dates matters! Meanwhile, until the autumn of 1945, the US bombers were occupied by Japan, and the relations of the USSR with the allies all this year were at the peak of victorious euphoria and friendship. Relations began to deteriorate after that how the USSR, “leaving troops in Europe”, began to establish the regimes it needed in the liberated countries - to form the so-called socialist camp, and in East Germany a powerful shock fist was concentrated, thousands of tanks, ready, as they said then, “to go to Lamanche." It was then, after Churchill's speech in Fulton (1946), that the "cold war" actually began, with all the ensuing consequences.

7. Here I am ready to join your opinion. I, like the rest of the people, also do not know how much nuclear weapons cost the country: the USSR never published data on military spending (unlike most other countries). Yes, by the way, and until now we remain in the dark about this important component of our people's finances.

Well, it was a kind of warm-up.

... Understand: the victory of Stalinism - if it comes true - will be a pyrrhic victory not only for the Stalinists themselves, but also for the country they supposedly love. Russia will be rejected by all mankind and will perish

Still, I hope that if not common sense, then at least a sense of self-preservation will allow our people to prevent their death. In this sense, anti-Stalinists, democrats and liberals, who warn of possible danger, show themselves to be much more patriotic of Russia than you, the Stalinists, and your allies.

(to be continued)

Professor Sergey Lopatnikov is a native of Russia, lives in America, teaches something like mathematics or physics at the University of Delaware and maintains a highly visited (professor thousandaire) politicized blog dedicated to debunking propaganda myths. However, Lopatnikov himself speaks of his blog as follows: “This journal is an attempt to create an expert community capable of identifying political and economic problems and producing their specific effective solutions that can serve as a basis for practical actions.”

Lopatnikov, of course, never created a serious expert community (after all, the main contingent of those who write in LiveJournal are not experts at all, but people who compensate for their inferiority by screaming into the emptiness of the Internet), but he himself, a professor, is an extremely smart person . However - not without bells and whistles. Either he loses his temper over the statements of wretched Russian liberals, then he demands to throw Russian tanks on Tbilisi (if not directly on Kyiv), then he stands up for strengthening the Russian State and preaches Stalinism, or he speaks of the inevitability of a nuclear war. Approximately in this tone: everyone did not do as I said, now only war remains (ultimately - nuclear).

And yet, much of what Professor Lopatnikov says is very clever, exciting, sharp. Although - with some enumeration. Perhaps this is just from an excess of the mind, which excess often turns into an excessive enthusiasm for some idea. Or maybe it's something else. The fact that the world Octopus uses a professor to throw in some octopus ideas and run them in society. He provokes a Russian-American professor (inspires him, gives him some tasks), and the professor is already provoking the public. So to speak, it drops into its mass-like soul (collective unconscious) some seeds beneficial to the Octopus, intentions, which are then picked up by readers, spread to other publications and, becoming a commonplace, reach each individual representative of the elite and other masses.

The last post in Antidote is very characteristic in this sense (especially against the backdrop of a long series of previous statist and anti-liberal posts). It is called not catchy and even indistinctly:. In them, the professor decided to talk about the withering away of the modern state and, in fact, the creation of a cellular world. The idea of ​​a "cellular world" is not new, it was expressed in the book "The Fifth Russia" by the regular author of Changes (and in particular, Octopus) Oleg Dobrocheev, who owns the term "cellular world". Lopatnikov, however, does not use this term, but speaks specifically of the cellular world. And in the performance of a Russian-American professor (Jewish-noble origin), this idea no longer sounds academically, but quite octopus-like. I suggest you make sure.

PROBLEM FIELD. THESES.

1. Society without power and the state in a civilized form cannot exist. Those who wish can get acquainted with a society without a state in Somalia, in Rwanda, in Ukraine in 1918, and in many other places. With a society without power - in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina.

2. The elite is the essence of the state, because these are people who make decisions concerning the whole society and have an objective opportunity to implement them. The elite is indestructible. The elite arises in any society. The circle of the elite is narrow, because the number of decisions of the maximum level is relatively small, and the resources necessary for their implementation are large and should be concentrated and directed towards the implementation of the decisions made.

3. Until now, states have served as the social expression of the elite. The state is a feud, a territorial monopoly of this elite. The division of the world into states is the territorial division of elite groups, which does not exclude, but reduces the costs of their direct collision.

4. Changes in relation to the state are associated with two factors. First, for the most powerful elite groups, the boundaries of a particular state have become narrower, since the scale of their capabilities has surpassed the scale of tasks that can be set and solved within the framework of a given country. Second, the completion of the monopolization of the largest markets makes the “guild” (sectoral, corporate) rather than territorial division of the elite more efficient. The guild division of the elite reduces the costs of direct conflict to an even greater extent compared to the territorial-state division, since the “world guild” forms a “vertically integrated” structure that includes the necessary natural and human resources, as well as the final market. In this case, the boundaries of workshops are products and technologies, not geographic boundaries, and inter-shop exchange becomes the equivalent of foreign trade activity with a single integrator: the market for goods and services.

5. Territoriality in this case acquires the meaning of the organization of everyday, not related to labor, life of the population. In essence, we are talking about reducing territorial tasks to the level of tasks of "local self-government" - providing infrastructure. In addition, the most important meaning of the territorial barrier for the spatial separation of the "world of proletarians" - people engaged in labor-intensive activities, and the "world of consumers" - the function of which is to utilize the maximum amount of goods in order to accelerate turnover, remains. At the same time, taking into account the growth of opportunities for remote performance of labor duties, in the future we can expect a significant reduction in labor migration of the population.

6. In the event of the destruction of the state, the residual functions, primarily the police, will be transferred to the relevant workshops, the need for the activities of which will be determined by other workshops interested in the stability of society, a certain level of education and physical health. At the same time, care for education and physical health will be assigned to private people through a payment system.

7. In connection with the identified prospects, we can expect significant shifts in the organization of global society:

- It can be expected that the trend of separating people belonging to different classes in space (rich areas, middle class areas, ghettos) and in lifestyle will intensify and globalize, which will reduce interclass tension, since the poor will simply not overlap with the “celestials”.
- One can expect a significant standardization of life and an even sharper delimitation of "class cultures"
- There will be no need for armies, which will be replaced by police forces, capable of suppressing any manifestations of social discontent.
- Significant changes will undergo political life. In practice, it will be closed within the limits of local government.

I will try in due course to describe the picture of the “new world order” more fully and convexly. Enough for seeding.

In this regard, the question arises of the expediency and possibility of preserving states, including Russia, in principle. In this sense, the issue of abandoning the Westphalian system is relevant and requires serious analysis. It is quite likely that the movement towards the "New Order" will go through several stages, and the closest of them is the delimitation of the world community into a small number of mega-states - civilizations. The USSR with the "socialist camp" had the potential to form such a mega-state. The requirement for such civilizations is the completeness of resources and markets with their geographical separation.