The word "method" in Greek means "the way to something." In relation to economic science, this is the way to achieve scientific truth economic processes. A method is a set of techniques, methods and principles of scientific knowledge. If the subject of science is characterized by WHAT is researched, then the method is characterized by HOW it is researched.
The world of economic reality is complex and confusing. The task of economic theory is to bring a chaotic set of facts into a system, to cognize reality and determine promising ways of development. Economic theory establishes connections between facts, generalizes them and derives certain regularities on this basis.
A variety of forms and methods of scientific knowledge help to navigate the diverse economic phenomena. it methods formal logic (observation and processing of the received material through analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, quantitative and qualitative analysis economic processes). it system research methods. it developing hypotheses and testing them, conducting experiments, developing models, plotting. it dialectical method(ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the unity of the historical and the logical, taking into account in the process of research the mutual influence of the material and spiritual foundations of the life of society on each other).
The main methods of study are:
1. Usage scientific abstractions, or generalized concepts, abstracted from everything secondary and accidental, from immediate concreteness, to highlight the most essential features or aspects of the phenomenon under study. The method of scientific abstraction is the knowledge of the essence, the laws of its development through the consistent study of its individual forms.
“If the form of manifestation and the essence of things directly coincided,
then all science would be superfluous.
Using the method of scientific abstraction involves:
a) moving from the abstract to the concrete.
Receptions: analysis - decomposition of the subject under study into components, followed by the study of each and the selection of the simplest link
2 K. Marx, F. Engels. Works, v.25, part 2, p.384.
abstraction that loses quality this phenomenon(goods Money,
capital);
deduction - obtaining private conclusions based on general provisions (from general to particular).
b ) movement from the concrete to the abstract.
Receptions: synthesis - connection of system elements into a single internally interconnected whole;
induction - the formation of general conclusions based on the study of many facts (from particular to general).
The economist investigates reproductive processes, ascending from facts that are constantly noticed to causes that are discovered by strict thinking, i.e. analyzes phenomena. Having studied the most essential in a phenomenon, he shows through synthesis in what forms this essential manifests itself on the surface of economic reality, appears in the form of concrete facts.
The result of using the method of scientific abstraction is the formation of a system of economic categories that characterize this economic phenomenon.
2.Extrapolation – forecast economic development based on identifying trends with some adjustment for the future.
3. Hypothesis - preliminary unverified assertion.
4. Modeling - this is the construction of an image described according to certain rules and expressed in a certain language. Economic model - this is a simplified description of some aspects or properties of the economic system that are of interest to us.
Depending on the presentation language, models are divided into:
Verbal (verbal-descriptive);
Mathematical;
Graphic.
In microeconomic theory, all three types of models are used, but preference is given to mathematical (brevity and rigor) and graphic (visibility). There are also mixed models.
There are a number of economists in economics who attach particular importance to economic and mathematical research methods. Among them: classics - L. Walras, V. Pareto, W. Jevons; contemporaries - V. Leontiev, L. Kantorovich, S. Shatalin and others.
An economic model is a simplified picture of economic reality. Such a model allows a better understanding of the economy, since it abstracts from the unnecessary details of reality. At the same time, economic theory is based on facts, and therefore it is realistic.
To gain new knowledge, it is necessary to consciously apply scientifically based research methods. This is an important condition for the development of all sciences, including economic theory.
The method of science (from Gr. methodos - "the path of research") is designed to provide the most profound disclosure of the essence of its subject.
Economic theory uses wide range techniques and methods of studying its subject, which determine the content of its method.
Method of economic theory - this is a set of techniques, means and principles by which the categories and laws, the functioning and development of economic systems, as well as the economic behavior of its subjects are studied.
The complexity and versatility of the economic system requires adequate methods of its knowledge. The fundamental principle of the methodology of economic theory lies in a systematic approach to analysis. The economy represents a certain integrity, in which there is an interrelation of the elements, components that make up its composition. At the same time, integrity is determined not only by the composition of its inherent elements, but also various connections between them and with the system as a whole.
A systematic approach in economic theory means the study of internal cause-and-effect, structural-functional, hierarchical, direct and feedback relationships. It is their knowledge that makes it possible to understand complex processes development of the economic system, to find out the nature of many economic processes and phenomena.
Economic theory applies both general scientific and science-specific methods of cognition. economic phenomena and processes (Fig. 1.7).
Rice. 1.7. Basic Methods of Economic Theory
Dialectics is a method of cognition common to all sciences, including economic theory. It is based on the use of the laws and principles of philosophy, justified by the outstanding German philosopher Georg Hegel, the essence of which is: in the knowledge of economic phenomena and processes in their interconnection and interdependence; in continuous development; in the understanding that the accumulation of quantitative changes leads to qualitative leaps; that the source of development is the internal contradictions of phenomena, the unity and struggle of opposites.
A feature of theoretical and economic research is that in the study of economic processes one cannot use specific methods and technical means that are widely used, for example, in the natural sciences (physics, chemistry, etc.). Here they use scientific economic thinking as a scientific abstraction.
scientific abstraction as a method it consists in in-depth knowledge of real economic processes by highlighting the main, most significant internal aspects of a certain phenomenon, cleared (abstracted) from everything external, secondary, random, insignificant. The result of applying the method of scientific abstraction is the understanding and formulation of economic concepts, categories and laws.
Analysis and synthesis how the research technique is applied in the unity of its two components. In the analysis, the object of study is speculatively or actually decomposed into its component parts, each of which is studied separately. During synthesis, the dismembered elements of an object are combined into a single whole, taking into account the relationships between them. Analysis contributes to the understanding of what is important in each element, and synthesis completes the disclosure of the essence of the object as an integral unity of all elements.
Induction- this is a method of cognition in which the researcher collects particular facts, draws generalizing conclusions on their basis and formulates theoretical provisions. Deduction- a method of cognition in which the researcher goes from the general position to the particular, from theory to specific facts. The methods of induction and deduction provide a dialectical relationship between the singular and the general, the concrete and the abstract.
Methods of historical and logical knowledge are used by economic theory to study economic processes in unity. historical method studies these processes in the historical sequence in which they arose, developed and changed in real life. However, historical development is not always characterized by certain patterns. It can be influenced by random factors. The logical method explores economic processes in their logical sequence, moving from the simple to the complex, freeing itself from historical accidents, zigzags and details that are not inherent in this process.
economic modeling- this is a formalized description and quantitative expression of economic processes and phenomena (with the help of mathematics and econometrics), the structure of which compactly recreates a complex real picture of economic life. Economic models (Fig. 1.8) provide an opportunity to visually and more deeply explore the main features and patterns of development of a real object of knowledge. In addition, the use of economic and mathematical models in combination with a computer makes it possible to choose the most optimal solution to any economic problem from a variety of options.
Method of graphic images makes it possible to visualize the relationship, the relationship between various economic indicators, their "behavior" under the influence of changes in the economic situation.
economic experiment- artificial reproduction of economic processes and phenomena in order to study them in optimally favorable conditions and further practical implementation. An economic experiment makes it possible in practice to test the validity of scientific theories and recommendations to prevent possible mistakes and failures in the economic policy of the state. The role of experiments on turning points development of the economy, during crises, the implementation of economic reforms, stabilization, etc.
For the knowledge of socio-economic processes, economic theory also uses such general scientific methods of cognition as a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis, the method of comparisons, and the development of scientific hypotheses.
Qualitative and quantitative analysis method. It provides for a clear understanding of the qualitative certainty of an economic phenomenon and the allocation of those components, elements that are subject to quantitative measurement and the identification of factors that affect their relationships in the system.
The combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis is carried out using mathematical and statistical methods. Its use creates a theoretical basis for determining specific practical tasks regarding the pace and proportions of the development of the economy, the development of programs for the development of the economy, etc.
Comparison method. To determine the similarities and differences of economic phenomena, the method of comparisons is used. The need for comparison as a general scientific method is due to the fact that nothing in economic life can be evaluated by itself. Any phenomenon is known in comparison.
In order to know the unknown, to evaluate it, a criterion is needed, which, as a rule, is already known, previously known. Methods of comparison are varied: comparison of signs, properties, statistical values, economic categories, the effect of economic laws in different conditions etc.
Development of a scientific hypothesis. If the content of the economic phenomenon that is being studied is unknown, and there are not enough facts to clarify it, then the researcher is forced to confine himself to a theoretical assumption, that is, a scientific hypothesis. To scientific hypothesis turned into a full-fledged theory, additional evidence, practical confirmation is needed.
The use of the hypothesis has importance for the development of economic science. It helps to resolve the contradiction between new facts and outdated theoretical views. The hypothesis raises problems that contribute to the effective conduct of scientific research. It makes it possible to check all possible ways of research and choose among them the most correct and scientifically based ones.
Content
Introduction 3
1. Methodology of economic theory 5
1.1. Methodology as a science of economic theory 5
1.2. Classification of methods of economic theory 10
2. Economic categories and laws 19
2.1 Economic laws 19
2.2 Economic categories 24
Conclusion 27
List of used literature 29
Introduction
Economic theory is a fundamental (from Latin Fimdamentum - basis) economic science that studies the general patterns of economic life, the basis of economic sciences. It is also a system of scientific views on the economic life of society, which give a comprehensive idea of the patterns of its development. It not only explains how society is reproduced, but also contributes to its development, prevents the recurrence of some negative economic phenomena, and makes it possible to predict the future development of the economy.
Economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and phenomena of economic life, and for this, economic theory must penetrate the essence of deep processes, reveal laws and predict ways to use them. A necessary condition in the study of economic theory is a certain constancy and correct order in the phenomena it studies. Science concerning every kind of phenomena is possible when it can be shown that these phenomena are subject to known kind laws, i.e. they constantly accompany each other or follow one after another in a certain order accessible to observation and study. The subject of economic theory is the laws and factors of economic growth.
If the subject of science is characterized by what it studies, then the method is how it is studied. One follows from the other. The reality of the results depends on the correctly adopted method.
Economics as a science uses a wide range of methods of scientific knowledge.
A method is a set of techniques, methods, principles by which ways to achieve a goal are determined.
The problem of methodology for studying economic processes and phenomena is relevant in modern conditions. This is evidenced by the frequent study of the issues raised.
The current state of science is characterized by a transition to a global consideration of the problems of the topic "Methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena." Many works have been devoted to research questions. Basically, the material presented in the educational literature is of a general nature, and in numerous monographs on this topic, narrower issues of the problem are considered. Consideration of issues related to this topic has both theoretical and practical significance.
object
This study is an analysis of the terms "Methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena."
Wherein subject
research is the consideration of individual issues formulated as the objectives of this study.
The purpose of the study
is the study of the topic "Methodology of the study of economic processes and phenomena" in terms of the latest domestic and foreign research.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks
:
1. Study the theoretical aspects on this topic;
2. To study the main methods of studying economic processes and phenomena;
3. Determine the essence of economic categories and laws.
The work includes an introduction, the main part, consisting of 2 chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography. In the introduction, the relevance of the choice of topic is substantiated, the goal and objectives of the study are set. Chapter one reveals the general questions of the problem "Methodology for the study of economic processes and phenomena." The basic concepts are defined, methods of studying economic processes and phenomena are considered. In chapter two, the concepts of economic categories and laws are considered. In conclusion, an assessment of the effectiveness of the considered methods is given.
The sources of information for writing the work were basic educational literature, fundamental theoretical works of the largest thinkers in the field under consideration, and reference literature.
1. Methodology of economic theory
1.1 Methodology as a science of economic theory.
Methodology - the doctrine of the ways, techniques, methods that are used by certain sciences to study their subject. You can also give another definition of methodology.
Methodology - a general approach to the study of economic phenomena, based on special principles of construction and methods of cognition. It presupposes the existence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, a single philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve the main question: "with the help of what scientific methods, methods of cognition of reality, economic theory achieves true coverage of the functioning and further development of a particular economic system."
The methodology of economic theory is a set of methods, techniques for understanding the economic relations of people and reproducing them in a system of economic categories, principles, laws, models. At the same time, economic processes and phenomena are considered both in statics and in dynamics. Taken in continuous movement and development, in the transition from one qualitative state to another, they are analyzed in order to identify and resolve (remove) contradictions. Concretizing scientific conclusions in the form of certain recommendations, economic theory performs the practical functions of developing the foundations of the state's economic policy. one
The methodology of theoretical economics is the science of methods for studying economic life and economic phenomena. It presupposes the existence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, a single philosophical basis.
In the methodology of general economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:
1. positivist;
2. structuralistic;
3. dialectical;
4. synthetic.
1. Positivist the approach is based on the philosophy of positivism (“positive” philosophy), which recognizes as the main source of knowledge the data of specific (empirical) sciences that do not need proper methodological justification. Positivism was formed in the first half of the 19th century (O. Comte, G. Spencer, etc.), later taking the form of neo-positivism or logical positivism (R. Carnap, M. Schlick, etc.), and then post-positivism (T. Kuhn, K. Popper and others). 2
The most characteristic features of the positivist approach are:
- phenomenalism (reflection of specific factors as a phenomenon);
verification (direct reduction of scientific knowledge to specific knowledge);
pragmatism (the significance of knowledge depending on narrow practical consequences).
instrumentalism (reduction of scientific concepts to the functions of analysis tools);
operationalism or operational analysis (the definition of scientific concepts only through the description of operations performed with these concepts);
explication (description of phenomena through the use of formalized mathematical methods and models);
situational analysis, or “field research” (analysis of specific situations).
In economic theory, the positivist approach in all its varieties has become widespread. This manifested itself in the orientation towards the study of specific economic functional relationships, the active use of economic and mathematical modeling, the search for solutions in specific economic situations, etc., as well as the inattention to identifying and substantiating the underlying patterns of the economy, backbone economic relations, criteria and vectors social - economic development. These characteristics are to a significant extent inherent in the studies of the neoclassical direction of economic science.
2. Structural approach is a methodological direction that focuses on identifying the structure of the system, i.e. its internal structure, the totality of relations between its elements. The most prominent representatives of this approach, which developed in various fields of scientific knowledge in the first half of the 20th century, are K. Levi-Strauss, M. Foucault, T. Parsons, R. Merton. 3
The characteristic features of the noted approach can be considered: the desire for orderliness of elements, the priorities of the structure of the system over the content of its elements and over history, the understanding of the objectivity of the phenomenon only through its inclusion in the structure, the exclusion of everything non-structural from the system.
Widely using a number of formally indicated above - logical methods, the structuralist approach actively applies its own specific local methods. Among them:
structural-functional analysis, focusing on the relationship between the content of the elements of the structure and the functions they perform (the emphasis in this relationship may be different);
the principle of hierarchy of structures (recognition of the subordination of the elements of the system, including with a focus on achieving a specific goal);
the method of "binary oppositions" (use of paired categories: nature - culture, demand - supply, small business - big business, etc.);
the recombination method (the use of various combinations and rearrangements of the existing fundamental elements of the system), etc.
This approach widely uses the methods of mathematical logic and modeling. At the same time, the structuralist approach can be combined with the positivist one, introducing the features of order into the latter. It is no coincidence that there is a position that treats structuralism as a kind of modern positivism.
In economic theory, the structuralist approach has received significant development. This manifested itself, for example, in the ways of aggregating various economic units (parts), in the division into macro- and microeconomics as two different levels of the economic system, in delimiting the functions of various institutions of the economy, in defining the modern developed economy as a mixed economy and analyzing its specific parameters and etc.
3. Dialectic approach is associated with dialectics as a science of the most general laws of development of nature, society and thinking. In a systematic form, it was developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries by German classical philosophy (primarily by G. Hegel), and then developed in the form of materialistic dialectics by K. Marx, who first applied the dialectical approach to political economy. four
The dialectical approach aims at revealing the deep causal investigative links hidden on the surface. He distinguishes between essence and phenomenon, content and form, necessity and chance, possibility and reality, thereby revealing the true nature of the relationships within the framework of a particular subject.
Dialectics focuses on the processes of development, showing their natural character. Development is interpreted through the prism of three basic laws of dialectics: the transition of quantity into quality and vice versa, the unity and struggle of opposites, and the negation of negation. Dialectical contradiction is recognized as the most important principle of movement, the internal impulse of development. the relationship between two interdependent and at the same time negating each other sides (opposites) inherent in an object or its parts. “Resolution” of the contradiction leads to the emergence of a new relation (new category), and so on.
The dialectical approach uses two main specific methods of cognition of the real world (they are treated as methods of dialectical logic, in contrast to formal logical methods) - the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete and the method of unity of the logical and historical.
4. Synthetic approaches have become noticeably widespread in economic theory, which was caused by a quite understandable desire to overcome the one-sidedness that existed within the framework of one subject (science). To a lesser extent, this applies to methodology (general methods of economic theory), since there is a danger of losing the integrity of the study.
In the last period, the position of understanding the relationship of various methodologies has begun to gain strength. This is the so-called “new eclecticism”, which recognizes methodological pluralism (B. Caldwell, D. Houseman and others). characteristic feature(method) of this direction was conventionalism, which laid the basis for the interaction of various scientific theories of agreement (concept) between researchers or scientific schools based on the principles of convenience, simplicity, etc., as well as mutual tolerance. It is also common to use various specific methods of analysis in the study of certain parts (“niches”) of the economy. 5
Methodology should not be confused with methods - tools, a set of research methods in science and their reproduction in the system of economic categories and laws.
1.2. Classification of methods of economic theory
Theoretical economics uses a wide range of methods of scientific
knowledge. In this regard, general scientific and specific methods are distinguished..
General scientific- these are methods that are used in the study of any science: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology, economics, etc. Let's consider them in more detail.
Dialectical method. Dialectics is the science of development. In this regard, the dialectical method involves answers to such questions: Why did this phenomenon arise? How will it develop? And why sooner or later a new phenomenon comes to replace it? The essence of dialectics is that "everything flows - everything changes." 6 Scientists - economists, like scientists of all other sciences, use the method of dialectics as a general scientific method.
If scientists see the basis of changes in social phenomena in the objective, or independent of the will and consciousness of a person, then in scientific analysis used materialistic method. In conjunction with dialectics, it is the method of dialectical materialism, or the method of materialist dialectics. This method is used in studies of the Marxist trend.
If scientists see the basis of changes in the subjective, or dependent on the will and consciousness of people, then the idealistic method takes place.
Specific- these are methods that are used both by economic theory and other humanities: history, psychology, sociology, etc. These include: methods of abstraction, deduction and induction, analysis and synthesis, the unity of the logical and historical, the critical method, mathematical and statistical analysis, graphic representation, etc. Let's consider some of them.
abstraction method. The most important method of economic theory, it consists in abstracting in the process of cognition from external phenomena, non-essential aspects and highlighting (singling out) the deepest essence of the process. Scientific abstraction is a general scientific method of cognition, its importance increases when the possibility of experimental verification of economic theory is excluded. Abstraction is an exclusion from economic analysis of specific facts not related to the study. By itself, the process of collecting the necessary facts already involves abstracting from reality. However, the abstract nature of economic theory does not make this theory impractical and unrealistic. Thus, abstraction, or deliberate simplification, in economic analysis has not only scientific, but also practical significance.
Method of analysis and synthesis. Through analysis, economic theory divides economic relations into their component parts and examines each of these parts separately; through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single holistic picture of the economic process (this takes place at any level, for example, enterprises have special economic departments that actively use method of analysis and synthesis).In analysis, the phenomenon is mentally decomposed into its component parts and its individual aspects are singled out in order to identify the specific that distinguishes them from each other. This is important for solving the subsequent problem of theoretically explaining those features from which they are initially abstracted. With the help of analysis, the essential in the phenomenon is revealed. If we talk about the process of cognition, then analysis is used when moving from the contemplation of reality to abstract thinking, i.e. from the concrete to the abstract, and ends with the development of economic scientific abstractions.
During synthesis, the mental unification of the parts and sides dissected by the analysis takes place in order to reveal the common thing that connects these parts, the sides into a single whole. Synthesis occurs when moving from the abstract to the concrete. In the process of synthesis, the phenomenon under study is studied in the interconnection of its constituent parts, in integrity and unity, in the movement of contradictions, due to which ways and forms of their resolution are opened.
When analyzing various data, a method such as correlation is used - this is a technical term indicating that the ratio of two groups of data is systemic and interdependent.
There are two absolutely different levels analysis from which the economist can deduce laws concerning economic behavior. The level of macroeconomic analysis refers either to the economy as a whole, or to such major subdivisions that make it up, or aggregated indicators (aggregates). On the other hand, microeconomic analysis deals with specific economic units, with detailed study behavior of these individual units.
inductive and deductive methods
. Through induction, the transition from the study of single facts to general provisions and conclusions is ensured. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from the most general conclusions to relatively particular ones. Induction is a study in which the knowledge of reality takes place in the process of developing single statements that provide an opportunity to draw general conclusions and formulate general provisions. Induction is characterized by the knowledge of reality by moving from the concrete to the abstract. And at the level of abstract thinking, economic categories are developed.
Assumption method ceteris paribus, or "ceteris paribus". Economists in constructing their theories assume that all other variables, with the exception of those they are currently considering, remain unchanged. This method simplifies the process of analyzing the relationship under study. In the natural sciences, it is usually possible to conduct control experiments in which "everything else" is actually held constant or substantially unchanged. In this case, the proposed relationship between the two variables can be subjected to empirical verification with great accuracy. However, economic theory is not laboratory, not experimental science. The process of empirical testing carried out by the economist is based on “real life” data, but the end result does not always match the theoretical conclusion. In the course of the actual functioning of the economy, in this rather chaotic environment, “other conditions” often change and, accordingly, the theoretically justified goal is not achieved in a particular life. This method, as it were, refines and complements the method of abstraction, as a result of which together they can lead to theoretical generalizations, or economic principles.
economic experiment. Economic experiments are reasonable and necessary, although it is far from always possible in economic life to accurately predict the likely results of experiments. Verification of the reliability of the conclusions and provisions obtained by economic theory is carried out in economic practice, which is the decisive criterion for their truth. However, the incompleteness of taking into account all the circumstances, the limited scope of the experiment, may lead to incorrect, erroneous conclusions, which can be revealed when the experiment is extended to the economic system as a whole. In the course of the experiment, the researcher's desire to highlight the aspects of interest to him, and ignore the others, may also appear.
In the process of cognition, experiment and theory interact with each other. The experiment not only confirms or refutes this or that hypothesis, but also provides material for the development of the theory.
Unlike the natural sciences, economic theory cannot conduct experiments outside the immediate economic activity, and, therefore, outside of economic entities, people. Therefore, any reforms, no matter how large they are, always affect the interests of people, their lives.
Quantitative analysis and qualitative certainty. Each economic process or phenomenon can be characterized by both qualitative and quantitative assessment. For quantitative analysis, economic theory quite widely uses statistical and mathematical methods of research, with the help of which it is possible to determine the quantitative relationship between economic variables. However, the accumulation of quantitative changes ultimately causes qualitative transformations of the existing economic relationships. Therefore, economic processes and phenomena should be studied in the inextricable connection of their quantitative and qualitative certainties. At the same time, computer technology is widely used. The method plays a special role here. economic and mathematical modeling. Modeling as a tool of scientific thinking contributes to the penetration into the essence of objects of knowledge, the identification of their inherent patterns.
Modeling of any phenomenon, object is understood as the creation of its simplified analogue - textual, graphical, mathematical and computer.
The modeling process includes the following steps:
1. Formulation of the subject and purpose of the study.
2. Allocation of economic objects of interest in the considered economic system. Study of the object. Understanding how an object is arranged, how it functions, what factors affect its functioning, what are the criteria for its evaluation or optimization, under what restrictions in the case of optimization a given goal is achieved.
3. Identification of the most important and essential characteristics of each economic object that meets the task. Descriptive modeling. Fixation and verbal, qualitative description of the relationship between them.
4. Mathematical modeling. The introduction of symbolic designations for the characteristics of the economic object taken into account. Formalization (as far as possible) of the main characteristics of the object and the relationships between them, formulating a mathematical model of the economic object. Translation of a descriptive model into a formal mathematical language using mathematical tools such as variables, functions, equations and inequalities, and others.
5. Choosing a solution method and obtaining it.
6. Solution analysis. Check for compliance with a real object.
According to one or another criterion, economic and mathematical models are divided into microeconomic and macroeconomic, theoretical and applied, static and dynamic, equilibrium and non-equilibrium, optimization and non-optimization, deterministic and statistical. 7
Methods occupy a special place in economics. empirical verification(verification, substantiation, evaluation) of quantitative economic and mathematical models and qualitative statements or hypotheses based on available economic data using methods of probability theory and mathematical statistics adapted to the processing of economic data.
Any economic research always involves the use of statistical data. Statistical data in the economy are the basis for identifying and substantiating empirical patterns. Without specific quantitative data characterizing the functioning of the economic object under study, it is impossible to determine the practical significance of the economic model.
Economic data is usually divided into two types: cross-sectional data and time series. Cross-sectional data is data on some economic indicator obtained for similar objects or for different regions. Time series are data characterizing the same object, but at different points in time. Analysis of time data (short-term interest rates, inflation, unemployment, GNP and other economic indicators) allows you to identify trends in these values and extrapolate them for forecasting purposes without analyzing the internal causes of the time dependence of the studied values.
The purpose of collecting economic data is to obtain an information base for decision-making. Naturally, data analysis and decision making are based on some intuitive (implicit) or quantitative (explicit) economic model. Therefore, they collect exactly the data that is necessary for the corresponding model.
Any economic data are quantitative characteristics of any economic objects or their properties, which are the basis for identifying and analyzing the empirical patterns of behavior of the object of study. They are formed under the influence of many factors, not all of which are available to external control. Uncontrollable factors can take on random values from a set of values and thereby cause the randomness of the data they determine. The statistical nature of economic data necessitates the use of special statistical methods adequate to them for their analysis and processing.
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Note that not every visual and / or auditory perception of the object under study is an observation in the scientific sense. To turn it into a scientific method, it is necessary to carry out the following series of research procedures:
Isolate in the research program those tasks and hypotheses that will be solved and substantiated by observational data.
Define in general program research or special program observations:
The object of observation (the entire staff of the enterprise, separate group him, the leaders of the strike movement or something else); - the subject of observation, i.e. a set of properties (features) of an object (factors of its behavior) that are of interest to the observer; - categories of observation, i.e. specific features from the above set, which simultaneously meet the following requirements: they are especially significant for solving problems and hypotheses defined in the general research program; express those operationalist concepts that are defined in the program; are quantitative in nature, i.e. can be measured;
Observed situations, i.e. those in which the categories of observation may appear;
Observation conditions, i.e. those requirements for the situation, in the presence of which observation can be made (or not);
Units of observation, i.e. those acts of behavior of the observed, in which the categories of observation are manifested in specified situations under certain conditions.
Prepare monitoring tools, i.e.:
An observation diary, where its results will be recorded in a coded or commonly understood form, as well as the actions of the observer and the reactions of the observed;
Cards for registration of units of observation in a strictly formalized and coded form (there should be exactly as many of these cards as there are units of observation);
Observation protocol - a methodological document summarizing the data of all cards and containing at least three evaluation indicators;
Observation Stability Coefficient (CSC), which characterizes the coincidence of the results obtained by the same observer at different times;
Observer Agreement Coefficient (OSC), showing the degree of agreement between data obtained simultaneously by different observers at different times; - classifier of content analysis of diary and protocol records;
audiovisual technical means fixation of units of observation;
Observation data processing program.
Pilot (test) the toolkit, make appropriate adjustments to it, if necessary, multiply it in required quantity copies.
Make a plan and/or network schedule for performing the observation (who, where, when).
Develop instructions for observers, conduct their training and briefing.
Carry out a set of direct observation operations in full compliance with the above requirements and recommendations that will follow.
Observation has a number of advantages in comparison with other sociological methods. The main ones are the direct connection of the researcher with the object of his study, the absence of mediating links, and the promptness of obtaining information.
These advantages, however, do not exclude a number of disadvantages. The observer voluntarily or involuntarily influences the process under study, introduces into it something that is not inherent in its nature. Efficiency, on the other hand, turns into locality, the limitedness of the situation under study, the inability to capture the totality of all the signs of a cognizable phenomenon. In other words, this method is very subjective, the personal qualities of the observer inevitably affect its results. Therefore, firstly, the latter are subject to mandatory rechecking by other methods, and secondly, special requirements are imposed on the behavior of observers.
The survey is the most common method of collecting primary information. Almost 90% of all sociological data are obtained with its help. In each case, the survey involves an appeal to a direct participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation. That is why the survey is indispensable when it comes to the study of those meaningful characteristics of social, collective and interpersonal relations that are hidden from prying eyes and appear only in certain conditions and situations. Accurate information is provided by a continuous survey. A more economical and at the same time less reliable way of obtaining information is a sample survey.
The principles of sampling underlie all methods of sociology - questionnaires, interviews, observations, experiments, document analysis. There are two main varieties sociological survey- questionnaires and interviews.
During the survey, the respondent himself fills out the questionnaire with or without the presence of the questionnaire. According to the form of conducting it can be individual or group. In the latter case for a short time a large number of people can be interviewed. Interviewing offers personal communication with the interviewer, in which the researcher (or his authorized representative) himself asks questions and records the answers.
Depending on the source of the primary sociological information Distinguish between mass and specialized surveys. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are not directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are called respondents.
In specialized surveys main source information - competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge, life experience allows authoritative conclusions to be drawn. In fact, the participants in such surveys are experts who are able to make a balanced assessment on the issues of interest to the researcher. Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is expert surveys or assessments. The quality of evaluations of the results themselves depends on the conceptual and analytical approaches of experts, their ideological bias.
Almost in all industrialized countries sociological experiments have been and are being carried out, delivering empirical information using a variety of methods of social measurement. A social experiment is a method of obtaining social information under controlled and controlled conditions for the study of social objects. At the same time, sociologists create a specific experimental situation with a special factor acting on it, which is not characteristic of the usual course of events. Under the influence of such a factor (or a number of factors), certain changes occur in the activity of the studied social objects, fixed by the experimenters. In order to correctly choose such a factor, called an independent variable, it is necessary to first study the social object theoretically, since it can lead to a comprehensive change in the object or “dissolve” in numerous connections and not have a significant impact on it.
A sociological experiment is most effective for testing explanatory hypotheses. It allows you to establish the presence or absence of the impact of a certain factor (a certain combination of them) on the object under study, i.e. discover causal relationships.
A sociological experiment can be carried out in various forms. There are mental and full-scale experiments, dividing the latter into laboratory and field. Thought experiment called a special technology for interpreting the information received about the object under study, which excludes the intervention of the researcher in the processes occurring in the object.
A full-scale field experiment plays the role of not only a method of collecting information, but also a special social technology, a way of conscious regulation of social processes.
AT methodological sociological experiment is based on the concept social determinism. In accordance with it, a sociologist who has adopted this method must, first of all, highlight the significant determining and determinable factors of the phenomenon under study. These factors (called variables) are categories experimental analysis, and therefore should be systematically presented (pro-operationalized) in the research program.
In the system of variables, an experimental factor is singled out, otherwise denoted by an independent variable. It is characterized by three features.
First, the experimental factor is determined by the sociologist involuntarily, but in full accordance with research program, including the hypothesis submitted for experimental verification. Secondly, the independent variable must be controlled by the experimenter (only the direction and intensity of the action of this variable should depend on him).
Thirdly, the direction and intensity of its action must be subject to the control of the experimenter and sociological measurements.
Along with the experimental factor (independent variable), the dependent variable(s) are determined , those. factors that are expected (hypothetically) to change under the influence of the independent variable.
Establishing a connection between independent and dependent variables is the subject of any sociological experiment, even the most primitive one. The object of the experiment is specified by the concepts of "experimental group" and "control group" . In the first case, it means the group that is directly affected by the independent variable (experimental factor). In the second - a group similar to the experimental (according to the parameters determined by the researcher), which does not undergo the influence of the experimental factor. Comparison of the characteristics of these two groups before and after the experiment allows a deeper assessment of the consequences of the experimental factor and ensures the purity of the experiment, as it creates the opportunity to detect the effectiveness of factors that are random for this experiment.
Qualitative methods of sociological research are methods for studying specific "life worlds", local micro-societies: families, comradely "hanging out", labor collective, student group, neighborhood community, etc.
These methods are aimed not so much at fixing the quantitative parameters of the studied phenomena of microsocial life (although certain quantitative measurements are also made in them), but at understanding the quality of the phenomenon that makes it socially significant, despite its specificity.
The ratio of quantitative and qualitative methods of sociological research is presented in the Table.
Each set of methods has its own research purpose. It is impossible to study macrosocial phenomena and processes on the basis of qualitative methods.
In cases where it is necessary to study the interactions of social classes, strata, social strata, ethnic groups, regions, social institutions and similar macrosocial formations, it is impossible to do without quantitative methods. Qualitative methods are also acceptable here, but not in the role
There are qualitative methods in sociology great multitude, here are just a few of them:
1) ethnographic and historical research as methods of qualitative analysis of local micro-societies;
2) case study method - case study;
3) biographical method and its varieties ( oral history, life history, family history)
4) the method of ascent to the theory (creation of a mini-theory);
5) methods of observing participation and modeling situations;
6) provocation social action according to the author's scenario ("dramatic sociology");
7) the method of narrative (narration);
8) conversation as a qualitative method of sociology;
9) methods of group discussions (" brainstorm"," synectics ", induction of psycho-intellectual activity, etc.);
10) game methods that are actively used in qualitative social research;
11) "problem wheel" method
12) the method of "rapid assessment with participation" (RPE);
13) focus group;
14) integration expert assessments.
The last four methods are the most interesting, they are widely used in microsociological research and may include other qualitative methods.
The focus group technique involves the formation of several discussion groups (10-12 people each) and the discussion of the problem under study in them in order to better understand it and find optimal solutions. At the same time, the focus of attention of the participants in group discussions is focused on one, naturally, important aspect problems, and the attention of researchers is focused on finding out the opinions of the participants on the issue, on the meaning of different points of view of representatives of different social categories, as well as on the search for possible ways to reach consensus.
A focus group discussion of the problem under study is much more productive than finding out opinions about it using questionnaires and individual interviews. It is preferable due to the following factors:
Respondent interaction in a focus group usually stimulates deeper responses and provides an opportunity for new ideas to emerge during the group discussion.
The customer of the study can himself observe the course of the discussion of the problem of interest to him and receive first-hand information about the behavior, attitudes, feelings and language of the respondents, draw his own conclusions about the ways to solve the problem, which will (or will not receive) the support of public opinion.
The focus group method is faster and cheaper than questionnaires or interviews. Its use saves not only time, financial, but also labor costs of researchers.
This method allows you to quickly determine the causes of the problem under discussion. (For example, to understand why a certain variety of a particular product is not in demand in one region, although it is sold well in neighboring regions. If consumers of this product participate in a focus group discussion, they usually accurately list the main reasons for this phenomenon).
Methodology for Rapid Participant Evaluation (RAP) of the Discussion of Microsociety Issues It is used, firstly, not in all cases of research practice, but only in the analysis of the actual problems of social microgroups (families, neighboring communities, the primary labor collective, pensioners of a certain microdistrict, mothers of large villages, persons registered with the labor exchange, etc.). P.); secondly, in situations where prompt intervention in the life of the microsociety is required, and therefore a quick assessment of its problems; thirdly, in such a way that the surveyed people directly and directly participate in the development of scientific assessments of the social problems of the microgroup of which they are members.
The main difficulty in applying the BOU method lies in the obligatory observance of the principle of triangulation . It requires the following three conditions to be met:
Creation of a special research group.
Use of various sources of information.
The use of a specific set of specific research methods that make up their "battery" and tools that form a special "basket".
The specific composition of the team conducting BOU depends, of course, on the object, subject, goals and objectives of the study. If, say, the problems of disabled people in a certain region are studied, then it is obvious that it would be expedient to include a sociologist, psychologist, medical therapist, and heads of regional social protection services in the research group. In cases of studying topical issues of life of other groups of the population, the research teams will be different in composition. But in any case, they should include a sociologist and a psychologist.
The scope of the optimal number of research groups working according to the BOU method, as practice shows, fluctuates in a narrow limit from 5 to 7 people. With less and greater numbers the heuristic potencies of the BOU are markedly reduced.
In addition to specialists, representatives of the microsociety under study are necessarily involved in the conduct of BOU, moreover, not randomly selected, but specially selected by researchers. They should most adequately represent the social, age, gender, professional and other groups present in this microsociety, as well as categories of the population that differ from each other in terms of material wealth and dissatisfaction with living conditions. If the rule of representativeness is observed, it becomes possible to select such representatives of the microsociety who are able to express the most common needs, interests, mood, attitudes and other characteristics important for solving research problems. The BOU method involves the use of various sources of information. At the stage of preparation for BOU important place occupy secondary sources , the role of which is played by previously recorded scientific data related to the subject of research. It's about about statistical information scientific publications, dissertations, reports, maps of settlements, texts of laws, orders of authorities and other documents. The analysis of the information contained in them creates the basis of the BOU method, makes it possible to clarify its problem and topic, and formulate the hypotheses that will be tested by this method.
In a set of specific research methods of BOU, the so-called semi-structured interviewing (SSI) is used, which differs from other types of interviews of researchers with respondents, primarily in that they have a rigid "home-made" only for some of the questions, and assume that during the interview there will be other topics and the need to discuss them. The peculiarity of PSI as a BOU methodology is also manifested in the fact that here the interviewed persons play the role not only and not so much of traditional respondents, but of experts. They are more competent than others in those problems that are the subject of BOU.
The technology of the "problem wheel" method essentially depends on the problem of which social subject and in the context of which scientific discipline they are being studied. But in any case, it is characterized by: first, five-stage; secondly, multi-step, at least three-step, i.e. identification of three circles of problems of the studied subject; thirdly, a combination of various quantitative and qualitative methods of collecting and analyzing social information; fourthly, by crossing out special schemes-cartograms of the problems of the studied society.
The first stage has a preliminary (preparatory) character. It involves the study of the content, nature and severity of the problems experienced by the studied group of people. These problems can be identified through questionnaires, telephone, press, expert or other surveys, biographical, focus group or other qualitative methods. The result of the first stage is the determination of the most important and urgent need of the subject under study, the satisfaction of which is clearly difficult. .
The second stage consists of several consecutive research steps.
The essence of the first step is to find out and rank the responses of people representing the subject under study to the question: "Why did that problem arise that seems important, relevant and difficult to solve?" This task solved by interviewing (usually semi-standardized) or focus group discussion. The result of the first step is the definition of the first circle of problems, the solution of which depends on the satisfaction of the previously identified acute need.
The second step is to identify the second set of problems. To do this, the question "why" is again asked, but in relation to each of the reasons identified in the first circle, which are comprehended as separate problems. Thus, the areas of causes are lined up - problems of the second level.
The third step establishes the third circle of problems of the studied microsociety, derived from each problem of the second circle. The fourth, fifth and subsequent steps are done similarly. At the same time, the problems of the previous level are comprehended as the basis for constructing the problems of the next circle that detail them.
It is important to note that the second and all subsequent steps that make up the second stage of the "problem wheel" methodology are implemented in the form of a group discussion based on the principle of a "focus group" or other methods of "brainstorming".
The third stage of the study, carried out according to the described methodology, is the assessment of the identified problems of all circles in the context of the reality of their solution. It is necessary to determine those causes of the problems of each circle, which:
Not subject to the subject, i.e. which he cannot influence;
Amenable to control by the social subject;
They fully depend on the subject, i.e. which he can influence in a decisive way, changing the current problem situation.
The fourth stage is designed to solve two problems: firstly, the development of a cartogram of the circles of problems agreed upon by all researchers; secondly, the definition in this cartogram of problems that:
a) should be taken as a given, independent of the subject under study;
b) can and should be controlled ;
c) which the subject can influence .
The fifth stage is the final analytical work of the research group, the development of the system practical advice to solve the problems of the surveyed microsociety.
The method of integration of expert assessments is a set of methods for translating the quantitative analysis of these assessments into a qualitative one.
Integration (coordination, integration) of expert assessments is necessary when it is necessary:
1) develop a scientifically based management decision;
2) formulate a mini-concept that explains new phenomena and processes occurring in the microsociety under study and provides a basis for subsequent theorizing.
The implementation of the described method involves the implementation of a number of research operations in the following sequence:
Establishing the opinions of experts on the problem under study in in absentia, i.e. by questioning, filling in by experts of special documents (maps, forms), studying by the monitor of memorandums and other materials of an expert nature.
Scaling the identified expert opinions, i.e. comparison of indicators of their attitude to the subject of examination either by rank, or nominal, or metric scales, or by some combination of these scales.
Coordination of experts' opinions according to the Delphi technique, which provides for a three-six-fold repetition of correspondence surveys of experts and the corresponding number of scaling of their assessments. At each new stage of the survey (integration), the monitor informs the experts about the results of the previous survey, tells them about the opinion of the majority and asks them to argue their opinion, i.e. its coincidence or divergence with that which claims the dominant role. At the same time, at each stage, the expert is asked to determine the place of his opinion in a pre-prepared scale. Each stage ends statistical processing scales received from experts, calculation of arithmetic averages, medians and quartels, determination of indicators of the spread of opinions, identification of extreme opinions, i.e. deviating from the opinions of the majority. Typical spokesmen for extreme opinions and the dominant assessment are invited to participate in subsequent procedures for integrating expert assessments.
Face-to-face clarification of the attitudes of experts to the subject of expertise and different options problem solving in a group discussion. The latter can be carried out not only according to the above methods (focus groups, BOU, "problem wheel"), but also on the basis of other methods of activation creative thinking in a group ("brainstorming", synectics, IPID, etc.).
Brainstorming technique involves the elimination of subordination boundaries between the participants in the discussion, the prohibition of criticism of any ideas voiced by experts, the encouragement of the free expression of any opinions and the combination of each other's ideas, the promotion of unusual, even unrealistic positions, the reduction in the level of self-criticism of the participants in the discussion, the unfettering of the creative thinking of the participants in the discussion. Thanks to this, it is possible to find out original approaches to the problem under study, its diversity possible solutions, to determine the most optimal option, to bring together the opinions of experts, to achieve their certain consensus in understanding the problem under discussion.
The synectic method of discussing and agreeing on the opinions of experts is used when the problem under discussion is characterized by a particular difficulty in solving, and the experts are characterized by increased competence. It allows you to identify the largest number of original ideas and analyze each of them in detail.
The value of this technique is manifested in another way. The participants of the "synectic group" are given the following tasks:
1) clearly express their understanding of the problem;
2) listen carefully to the opinions of others;
3) put yourself in the position of those participants in the discussion who express opposite point vision, and try to understand why their opinion is the way it is (i.e. show empathy);
4) adjust your position, taking into account the reasonableness of the positions of others.
If these conditions are met, then a significant step forward is made towards the integration of expert assessments.
This problem can also be solved with the help of a special methodology for conducting a discussion that focuses on "inducing psycho-intellectual activity" (IPID). It should not be used to identify different positions of the debaters, but in conditions where these positions have already been established by other methods. The purpose of IPID is to develop a common understanding of the problem, to ensure the unity of actions of the participants in the discussion to resolve the issue under discussion. To do this, a variety of consensus-building techniques are used, both those used in the "synectic group" (empathy manifestations), and many others. We are talking, first of all, about the "Stop technique", "Yes-technique", "What-the-technique", "non-conflict communication formula", "password for friends", etc.
The ranking of the options proposed by experts for solving the problem under study, their ordering is carried out on at least three grounds:
degree of popularity, i.e. representation in collective opinion experts;
feasibility, possibilities practical implementation; consequences of their implementation for those social systems(and subsystems) in which the problem under study has developed.
In the future, expert assessments are synthesized in the form of a mini-theory , those. consistent scientifically evidence-based explanation of the studied phenomenon, its causes and trends of change, the possibilities of influence on it by various subjects of social life. This operation requires the researcher to have a solid theoretical background (because the development of a mini-theory presupposes knowledge of theories of a higher level), analytical skills and scientific reliability. It is designed to summarize all the experts' assessments, to reflect not only the level of their agreement reached, but also opinions that fall out of their overall picture.
The development of such a mini-concept is necessary in two respects: firstly, as a "brick" from which sociological theories of the "middle" and then the "higher" levels are built; secondly, to complete the procedure for integrating expert assessments.
Integration of expert assessments - the latest research operation to integrate expert opinions. Its end result is a comprehensive program for solving the studied problem (or several variants of such a program). It should logically follow from the mini-theory described above and contain a list of measures, the implementation of which will ensure the solution of the issue under study. The proposed measures are differentiated:
On strategic (important and long-term) and tactical (detailing the first);
By execution time (primary, secondary, etc.);
According to the costs of various resources;
According to the expected effect of these costs;
By addressees (organizations, persons) who can implement the recommendations;
For other reasons, depending on the nature of the problem and how to solve it.
The use of the considered sociological methods in economic research allows not only to form an empirical base scientific work, determine the research agenda, but also receive scientific result. As a result, economic research may well (within a certain subject) be carried out by sociological methods.
2.2 Statistics in economic research
In the process of economic research, a scientist has to process large amounts of data obtained as a result of observations, surveys, analysis of reports, etc., in order to extract the most accurate information about the phenomenon under study. To solve this problem, statistical methods are used, which make it possible to identify certain dependencies and trends in the economy based on the distribution of random variables.
The importance of statistical methods in economic research increases dramatically in the context of transformational processes and economic uncertainty, when previous theoretical calculations are not confirmed by practice, and it becomes necessary to search for new patterns and dependencies in the environment of economic phenomena. In this case it is statistical analysis acts as the primary basis for identifying the relationships of determination and structuring of the economic system.
3 DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL RESEARCH METHODSBUTNIA ECONOMYAndCZECH SCIENCE
3.1 Substantial economics and its methods
Substantial (from Latin substantia - essence) economic science considers the economy as a complex structured whole, where behind the world of phenomena there is a world of entities, the knowledge of which is the task of the scientist.
In economics, the division into phenomenon and essence initially coincided with the process of abstraction and the selection of a specific abstract from the set (for example, classical political economy considered value as the basis of price from the standpoint of its general content for all the variety commodity world). Only with the advent of dialectics did substantial economic science acquire its own specifics.
K. Marx is considered to be the founder of substantial economic science. It was he who developed and used its main methods:
1. The method of dialectical materialism is the result of the combination by K. Marx into a single whole of the doctrine of the "anthropological" materialism of Ludwig Feuerbach and the idealistic dialectics of Hegel. Dialectical materialism itself is complete system philosophy, a science that studies the most general patterns of development and functioning of the world as a whole, the relationship and interaction of man with the surrounding reality and the most general principles of its cognition and transformation.
With regard to the study of economic processes, this method determines the primacy of the sphere of production, involves consideration of economic processes in their permanent shift and development, the source of which is the internal contradictions of these processes. Three laws of dialectics: the unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, and the law of negation of negation, were actively used in the analysis of economic processes and phenomena. This determined the basic principle of building the economic system of Marxism: development through contradiction - each economic category keeps a contradiction in itself, which is resolved in the process of development, giving birth to a new category that denies the previous one.
2. The method of historicism involves the knowledge of processes and phenomena in their formation and development, in organic connection with the conditions that give rise to them. In this case, not any change is fixed, but only one that expresses the formation of specific properties and relationships of things that determine their essence and originality. This method allowed Marxism to affirm the transitory nature of capitalism, reveal the origin and essence of complex social phenomena, and evaluate certain changes in the economy from the standpoint of their significance for the present and future.
In addition, the method of historicism also determined the goal of economic studies of Marxism - proof of the inevitability of the replacement of capitalism by socialism; and the direction of development of the entire economic system, from the simplest forms of commodity production to complex system socialized capitalist economy.
3. The class approach defines the history of all societies based on private property and exploitation as the history of class struggle, i.e. class struggle acts as the driving force behind the development of an antagonistic society. In the conditions of the 19th century, this meant that the class struggle of the working class necessarily leads to socialist revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. At the same time, the class approach involved the consideration and evaluation of economic processes from the standpoint of the interests of a particular class, in this case- the proletariat.
Thus, the methodology of economic studies of Marxism made it possible to study processes and phenomena in their relationship with the external environment and with each other; in their formation and development; in their essential features and qualitative originality.
The further development of substantial economic science also took place within the framework of the Marxist tradition. Soviet economists made a significant contribution to this development.
They considered the economic system as an integral organism, controlled from within and determining itself, being the cause of itself and containing all its subsequent movements and changes in the form of internal potential.
The development of the economic system occurs due to the continuity of the acts of "positing" (transferring part of its content to external being) and "assuming" (the impact of external order on the internal), i.e. due to the continuity of the processes of production and consumption. Believing and assuming mutually complement each other, forming a single ring of self-causation, specific structure self-determination.
The movement of the economic system is aimed at gradually acquiring the properties of universality, integrity, totality, in which the economy of the entire external world is subordinated and it acquires the ability to find all the conditions for its development within itself. Certain stages of this movement towards totality are distinguished: the stage of formal foundation, real and universal (complete).
The stability of the economic system is ensured by the very fact of organic integrity, which implies continuous self-creation, as well as the unity and coordination of all parts with the whole. Efficiency is considered as minimizing the cost of self-renewal.
The sources of development of the economic system are considered at three interrelated levels.
First, as a consequence of any activity that involves influencing an object, external world going beyond the form of the active principle. Then it is necessary to return energy from the object, and the active principle can assimilate this reverse flow only by improving its structure.
The nature and degree of assimilation of external being depends on the stage of development of the system (its progress towards its universality) and on the internal selection mechanism that controls the content of what is absorbed from the outside world. That is, a person, showing activity and directing it to the outside world, must compensate for the expended energy by consuming certain objects of this world. Human needs act as an impulse of activity and an internal mechanism of selection.
It is with the help of human action that the natural environment is transformed into the subject area. own self-development individual. Through goal-setting, reality is transformed into human world. Thanks to the act of goal-setting, a special kind of reality arises, a "second nature", structured around human needs. The growth of human activity expands the boundaries of "humanized" existence, the artificial world grows, created and determined by human needs.
If the active principle is not able to assimilate the reverse flow of energy (due to a rigid selection mechanism or structure), then it is doomed to stagnation and death.
Secondly, development is stimulated by the contradiction of the whole and the part. For the completeness of its development, the part must separate itself, acquire formal independence in relation to the whole. At the same time, excessive isolation is fraught with an increase in the imbalance of the system and the loss of its integrity. The system enters a state of pathomorphosis - its unity is destroyed and the collapse of the system becomes a real threat, since the nature of the organism is such that if not all parts become identical, if one part considers itself as an independent whole, then all must perish.
There are two ways to fight pathomorphism - either by destroying the "rabid part", or by pulling up the entire system to its level. In the latter case, pathomorphosis becomes a stimulus for development.
Situations of pathomorphosis in the economy arise very often - the reproductive mechanism includes many separate links that seek to switch resource flows to themselves and thereby generate macroeconomic imbalance, which is also overcome in two ways: by cutting resources for an overdeveloped link or by increasing stimulation of other links of reproduction.
Thirdly, development is conditioned by the “budding” of a new integrity from the system of the embryo, which, in turn, arises on the basis of the activation of some specific function, i.e. a separate organ of the whole organism begins to claim to be completely independent existence and the status of the new integrity. This case is the third variant of the development of events with an excessively isolated organ (the other two are the pathomorphosis of the system and its development). It arises in a situation of full deployment of the old system, which no longer perceives the external world as a transforming source, since, due to its totality, it is completely self-determined. Such a system ceases to respond to changes and becomes inadequate. This is where relatively independent parts of it get a chance to turn from an organ into an organism.
The applicant for a new integrity initially resides within the framework of the previous system and is at the first stage of gaining universality - at the stage of formal metamorphosis (formal transformation). At this stage, it is amorphous, can take any form, develop according to different directions, it is sensitive to the external environment and obeys its laws. The germ of a new integrity can only be defeated by minimizing the cost of self-renewal. In this case, it transfers the charge of the new formation through functional connections to the surrounding elements of the system and begins to subordinate them to its nature. At this stage, a complete separation of the new integrity from the old is observed and a real metamorphosis occurs. The state of structural instability is overcome and the process of gaining universality, totality, i.e. transition to complete metamorphosis. The result is a transition from one integrity to another. This is exactly how K. Marx considered the formation of value (through its individual, complete, universal forms) and capitalism (through its commercial, monetary, industrial forms).
Thus, all dynamic processes in the economy are associated with the isolation and development of the carrier of any function in economic system, which, for one reason or another, is activated and forces the system to somehow react to this, to deviate from the established norms of life.
The following can be distinguished as patterns of development of economic integrity:
1. The impossibility of constructing new socio-economic forms - they can only be initiated and brought to their own, genetically embedded lines of development, since only those structures and directions of evolution arise in organic integrity that were potentially laid down in it.
2. The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones is considered as a general law of dynamic processes, the very possibility of which is due to the operation of the law of unity and struggle of opposites. The direction of dynamic processes in time and space is determined by the operation of the law of negation of negation.
3. The development of economic integrity is possible only with the return and assimilation of energy by the carrier of activity.
4. With rigid selection mechanisms, economic integrity weakens and ceases to develop.
5. The softer the selection mechanism, the faster the content is recruited, the more diverse it is, and the faster the exit of economic integrity to a new sustainable development is carried out.
In general, substantial economic science makes it possible to grasp the most important thing in the economy - the conditions for the conjugated and coordinated functioning of all its elements, i.e. conditions for efficient reproduction. The consistent application of the methods of this science makes it possible to reveal the formation of the integrity of the reproductive process both at the macro and micro levels.
Substantial economics is not without its shortcomings. For example, it presupposes a certain initial position, invariance in the germ of integrity (the same selection mechanism). This results in a certain internal predetermination and rigid determination social development determined from the outside, in addition to the desire and will of man.
At present, the methodology of substantial economic science is practically not used purposefully - economists prefer functional and institutional analysis of economic processes. But if it is necessary to study the movement of the economy as a whole, the economy as an associated and integral reproduction process, the methods of substantial economic science are indispensable.
3.2 Positivism and functional economicsatka
Positivism as a method of cognition involves obtaining accurate and indisputable knowledge based solely on facts. He refuses to divide the world into entities and phenomena, considering only phenomena. The acquired knowledge, according to positivists, should be useful and convenient for application, and main function any science is not an explanation, but a prediction.
Such an understanding of the process of cognition was brought to life within the framework of functional economic theory, which analyzes economic phenomena not according to the principle of movement from underlying causes to surface phenomena, but according to the principle of interdependence and mutual definition, revealing not genetic links between phenomena, but functional ones. The neoclassical direction and partly Keynesian can be attributed to functional economics. Since these directions occupy a decisive place in economic science, the consideration of positivism as their methodological basis needs to be done in as much detail as possible.
Positivism went through several stages in its development: the first positivism associated with the activities of Auguste Comte (30-40s of the 19th century); the second positivism is empirio-criticism, the founder of which was Ernst Mach (60-70s of the 19th century); neo-positivism (20-30s of the 20th century) and post-positivism (50-60s of the 20th century).
The first positivism is interesting in the development of three specific laws.
1. The law of three stages, which determines the stages of a person's mental development and the stages of his knowledge of the world. The first stage is theological (the intervention of supernatural forces). The second stage is metaphysical (the desire for absolute knowledge about the world, for revealing the primordial essence, i.e. what is hidden behind phenomena, behind everything that we perceive in experience). The third stage is positive (accumulation of positive knowledge obtained by private sciences).
2. The law of constant subordination of the imagination to observation. At the same time, observation is interpreted as a universal method of acquiring knowledge and determines the predominantly descriptive nature of scientific knowledge. The priority in learning is not why something happens, but how it happens.
3. The encyclopedic law, which classifies the sciences and provides for the reduction of the methods of the natural sciences to the humanities (sciences about society began to be called social physics).
The second stage in the development of positivism - empirio-criticism relied on the unity and coordination of subject and object in reality, in experience, which became the rationale for positivism's denial of the separation of subjective and objective, external and internal, phenomenon and essence, i.e. allowed us to assert that there is nothing behind experience, there is no reality independent of our sensations.
As the main concepts of empirio-criticism, consider the following:
1. The theory of "neutral elements of experience". From the point of view of its content, experience includes elements (things) and characters (living feelings), which determines the unity of the experience of the individual and the components of the environment. Because of this fusion of object and subject, it is impossible to achieve the independence of the researcher, since the observer distorts experience by the very fact of observation. Therefore, experience cannot be divided into objective and subjective; it is a function of both the objective (the environment) and the subjective (the person and his feelings).
2. The program of "purification of experience". It arose as a result of the fact that the objective and the objective are merged in the experience, and it is necessary to establish criteria for its purification from extraneous additions and impurities, i.e. leave only what is given by the object, and not by thinking.
Experience is distorted by: ethical and aesthetic assessments, as well as anthropomorphic impurities (mythological - an inadequate assessment of one's self, epitic - behavior based on feelings, emotions, passions; intellectual-formal - a priori, pre-given categories). Experience is especially distorted by a priori knowledge - introjections (prescribing experience and knowledge to other people and putting it into them). Since it is impossible to get rid of impurities, it is necessary to take them into account and correct both experience and knowledge.
3. Theory of economy of thinking. This theory was developed on the basis of the synthesis of biologism (cognition as a biologically economical adaptation to the environment: based on the fact that nature is simple and economical, it is possible, based on real facts to obtain the same simple and economical knowledge), positivism (description of phenomena) and subjectivism (the criterion of economy in cognition is determined by the subject before experience).
This theory requires a logical and meaningful simplicity of knowledge, which involves the rejection of cause-and-effect relationships in order to describe the visible results of actions. Laws must be directly observed. How easier theory, the greater the range of phenomena falls under its definition. The more abstract the scheme, the harder it is to refute it, the easier it becomes dogmatized and enters the consciousness of the cognizer.
The basis of this theory is the principle of least action, based on:
reduction theory: reduction of the unknown to the known (comparison of new experience with the old, reasoning by analogy), reduction of the particular to the general. Convergence hinders the acquisition of new knowledge.
the principle of decreasing marginal knowledge: the more information, the less knowledge gain. There is a certain critical mass of knowledge, upon reaching which no additional sources of information are needed - the logic of the subject itself leads to new knowledge.
the principle of choosing the path of cognition: with a multitude of these paths, one is chosen that requires less intellectual effort (that is, the method that is already familiar to the researcher) or the one that gives more knowledge with the same effort.
The third stage in the development of positivism - neopositivism became the most fruitful for economic science.
Among his main achievements are the following:
1. Classification of judgments. All judgments are divided into meaningless (developed in violation of logic) - metaphysical and meaningful, developed in compliance with logic. Meaningful judgments are divided into analytical (they are tautological and do not carry meaningful information - logic, mathematics) and synthetic (knowledge of experimental sciences). The truth test for analytic judgments is logical analysis without resorting to facts, and for synthetic ones - in comparison with sensory experience, in which this judgment is logically derived from protocol sentences (statements fixing the observation).
2. Reductionist model of scientific knowledge: all theoretical provisions of any science are reducible to protocol, i.e. to an empirical basis.
3. Hypothetical-deductive model of scientific knowledge: scientific generalizations - hypotheses are put forward without justification, since the process of their derivation is considered as psychological. The results of knowledge are important, not its process. The choice of various hypotheses is carried out purely logically by comparison with facts.
4. Instrumentalism: consideration of scientific concepts, theories and hypotheses as tools necessary for orienting a person in his interaction with nature and society. Truth is interpreted as something subjective and ensuring success in a given situation (i.e., truth as such is not needed, the benefit is important).
5. Operationalism: the meaning of any concept can be determined by describing the operations used in the formation, use and verification of this concept, i.e. the object is defined through the description of the method. Concepts without connection with some operations to detect them are meaningless.
6. Pragmatism: the value of knowledge is determined by its practical implications. Truth is what works best for us, what is compatible with our experience (reality).
7. Utilitarianism: the usefulness of an act is the criterion of its morality.
The identified principles of positivism were widely used in the neoclassical direction of economic thought. So, its founder A. Marshall proposed the following as research methods:
1) Denial of cause-and-effect relationships, recognition of only interaction relationships;
2) The method of partial equilibrium (the effect of only one of the factors on the phenomenon under study is studied, while all the others remain unchanged).
Marshall came to the conclusion that the postulates of economic theory in themselves are of little worth and do not bring anything closer to essentially useful and practical conclusions. It's all about how they are used to interpret everyday economic life. And this requires profound knowledge real facts from the practice of the functioning of the economy. However, these facts and people's attitudes are changing rapidly. The economist must study these changes.
All positivist economists (both classical - J.S. Mill, W.S. Jevons, and late neo-positivists - T. Hutchison, M. Friedman, P. Samuelson, M. Alle, F. Machlup, etc.) done on empirical knowledge. One way or another, in one form or another, they declared it to be self-valuable knowledge and the goal of everything. scientific research. Accordingly, economic hypotheses were largely qualified as aids, tools of knowledge, which are either a form of generalization of economic facts, or an artificial sign-symbolic, operational construction that acquires the status of knowledge only to the extent that it can be associated with economic data and forecasts.
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The economic processes taking place in society are complex and intricate. It takes a long way to understand their tendencies. The methods of economic research are just that. They help to understand scientifically the truth of what is happening. The word "method" in Greek means "the path to truth." After passing it, you can reach the goal. With regard to the economy, the end result of the study is an understanding of the patterns in economic activity at the macro level. This will help capture the perspective that the operating principles of the system will lead to.
The essence of economic research methods
The economy in real life is very complex. On the scale of one state, there are many branches of management, which, in turn, consist of many enterprises of various sizes. All these subjects are interconnected by financial, organizational, technological dependencies. Changes in the parameters of the activities of one enterprise can affect many other related companies.
Each manufacturer has its own interests, and they are aimed at maximizing profits. In contrast to businesses, consumers seek the highest quality products at the lowest prices.
Consumer preferences are constantly changing. All this leads to fluctuations in the economy. In order not to get lost among the variety of factors that affect the reality in the field of management, apply various methods economic research. There are many ways to get the necessary knowledge on a topic of interest. There are many paths to the goal, so you should consider them in more detail.
Research stages
Any field of science uses its own methods for collecting data. In biology and medicine, a microscope is used for these purposes, in astronomy - a telescope. The economy involves the use of very different ways.
The system of economic research assumes the following sequence of actions.
- Observation of the object of economic research.
- Processing of information received at the first stage. For this, many methods are used. These include synthesis, analysis, analogy, induction, deduction, modeling, abstraction, comparison and analogy.
- Conducting experiments.
- Construction of logical and mathematical models.
To conduct economic research, a certain number of methods are used. They may be general or applied to a single industry.
Dialectics and metaphysics
Economics uses methods such as metaphysics and dialectics to obtain information about the object of study. The difference between these systems lies in their point of view on economic reality. 
Metaphysics considers the factor outside the general system. At the moment of investigation, the phenomenon is at rest and does not change over time. This helps to understand the internal structure of the industry. A feature of metaphysics is the fact that the results of economic research are obtained on the basis of disparate phenomena.
Dialectics has a greater approximation to reality. The results obtained by summarizing all processes suggest such an economic study.
The basis of dialectics are contradictions that appear in their inseparable unity. The interaction of opposites drives processes forward like a motor. Dialectics makes it possible to avoid one-sided, flat judgments about reality. This contributes to the elimination of erroneous decisions to a greater extent.
In economics, the struggle of opposites (supply and demand, monopoly and competition, etc.) is one whole, and they must be considered in their inseparable interaction. In this case, the final result of the study is close to reality.
Data processing
After observing with the help of the considered approaches, we should consider more specific tools that allow us to analyze the economy.
Apply specific and general scientific methods.
Specific approaches to the study of economic relations are applicable to a particular industry. This is a more accurate analysis. In this case, general scientific approaches are adjusted to the conditions of the object of study.
Qualitative Methods
General scientific methods include historical, logical, mathematical, statistical approaches.
The historical method considers the origins of the origin of economic processes. This allows you to understand the state of the system in different periods of time. The economy is not something historically unchanged. The historical approach does not reveal typical features systems.
The logical method helps to penetrate into causal relationships. Objective logic helps to understand the patterns of processes.
These two methods will allow you to evaluate the system from the standpoint of its qualities. But modern approaches also seek to identify the number of factors influencing the system.
Quantitative Methods
Among the quantitative methods for studying processes are economic-mathematical and statistical research methods. 
In an effort to generalize a certain number of phenomena and factors, modern economic science resorts to mathematical expressions of indicators. For a certain amount of time, the studied factors change their value. Statistics are used to evaluate these changes.
Mathematical techniques allow you to calculate quantitative changes in indicators that affect the result of the study. To do this, conducting basic economic research, the relevant indicators are grouped into single system. This allows us to draw a conclusion about the impact of each of them on the final result.
Economic-mathematical and statistical methods are an integral part of the study.
Research of economic ties
After collecting information, it is analyzed and processed. This helps to draw conclusions about reality and predict the course of events. 
The Institute for Economic Research uses all sorts of techniques to build a general picture of reality. In addition to the descriptive stage of the study, knowledge of the relationships between elements is used. To do this, use the method of scientific abstraction, deduction, induction, analogy.
Economic theories are generated by creating a model of reality. Bringing existing relationships to a single predictable principle of functioning is the main technique in achieving the goals of economic research.
By developing a pattern according to which the system operates, one can understand the state of the entire system. This is comparable to a blood test. Based on a small amount of biomaterial, a laboratory assistant can judge the state of the whole organism and predict its state in the future.
Method of scientific abstraction
The presented method makes it possible to create a model of economic reality by eliminating insignificant factors. 
The object of economic research in scientific abstraction is cleared of many private, short-term, single characteristics.
At the end of this process, only the most reliable are left for research. economic ties, only frequently encountered processes.
There are no clear boundaries of abstraction. No rules have been established as to the extent to which the object of study should be generalized. If we delve into cutting off the non-essential factors of the system, we can also dismiss the indicators that affect the result of the study. Therefore, the depth of abstraction is determined intuitively, based on experience and general knowledge of the processes.
Deduction and induction
Induction and deduction complement each other. The goals of economic research are achieved by formulating hypotheses. Induction involves the formation general principles and provisions based on private indicators. Scattered facts are reduced to theories and laws.
Deduction applies a different philosophy. Collecting data about general provisions, the state of a certain economic object is explained. Deduction puts forward a hypothesis and tests it for correctness. If the real facts fit into the proposed assumption, it is considered successful. On this basis scientific theories are developed.
Basic economic research, limited in time, is carried out by the deductive method.
Models
In order to simplify the economic reality, abstract models are compiled for clarity.
Based on the topics of economic research, models can be presented in mathematical form, in the form of graphs or tables.
The Institute for Economic Research supplements the conclusions about the analysis of indicators with visual expressions of their relationships. The most popular of them is the schedule. Words become more convincing when they are complemented by a picture of the dynamics of factors that affect the result.
The table helps to compare the quantitative indicators of the model. With the help of formulas, the economic and mathematical dependencies of the system are expressed.
Limit analysis method
Dependence between the interacting elements of the system is sometimes estimated by the method of marginal analysis.
The limiting value in the presented approach acts as an additional indicator. This may be additional income for the enterprise, additional costs, etc.
When an additional unit of a product is sold, the additional cost of its production also increases. The essence of the method of limiting analysis is the comparison of such quantities.
Depending on the topic of economic research, the factors increased to the maximum value are compared. If the ratio of marginal cost and marginal income is more profitable than the indicators existing in reality, it is advisable for the enterprise to increase the volume of production. If the marginal cost begins to exceed the marginal benefit, the increase in turnover is unprofitable.
Errors in the study
Modeling processes in the economy sometimes makes a number of mistakes. These are false statements arising from the logical paths of searching for the real picture of the object. 
Among the most common mistakes allocate a false construction of evidence, as well as a false drawing of conclusions. Such situations should be taken into account in the course of the study.
The erroneous modeling of evidence stems from the false assumption that "what is good for one is good for others." good example such a situation can serve as an increase in wages at one enterprise. This led to an increase in the consumer ability of its employees. But it does not mean at all that with an increase in wages at all enterprises, people will be able to buy more goods. The latter will lead to higher prices and inflation. The purchasing power will remain the same.
The second mistake lies in the false construction of the effect, the cause. This happens when the third factor C is omitted or a random (non-systemic) change A from B. For example, an increase in car prices led to an increase in sales. This is contrary to the law of demand. The car example does not take into account the inflation index, which caused consumption to rise when the price increased.
Therefore, when building economic models, maximum attention should be paid to all factors.
Research results
Existing methods of economic research to a greater or lesser extent contribute to the knowledge of factors and their interaction in the system.
Having received the result in the course of a comprehensive analysis of indicators and having gone one way or another to a theoretical conclusion, it is tested in practice.
In order to avoid a large-scale error that will be difficult to correct, an experiment should be carried out.
It is not always possible to test the correctness of the theory in practice without causing consequences among market relations. However, finding true statement, can be achieved main goal economic research - forecasting and optimization of the process in the planning period.
Having become acquainted with the main approaches that are used to understand the economic reality, one can master the understanding of the relationships between the elements of the system. The problems of the economic organization of society do not tolerate frivolity and groundlessness in their solution. The methods of economic research used in the analysis will help to minimize the risk of erroneous decisions in the field of managing market processes. Mistakes made on the way of knowing the truth can be very costly at the level of macroeconomic relations.
