How to effectively prepare for the exam in society. The state is the main institution of the political system. Market Reforms in Modern Russia

USE in social studies- the most popular elective exam after compulsory USE in mathematics and Russian. And at the same time it is one of the most difficult exams.

Five pitfalls of social science

There is a common misconception among alumni that social studies is one of the easiest subjects. Many of them are sure that it is really possible to “blame something” on him. This is the first trap of social science. Students rely on their experience of verbal answers in the classroom, where you can really say a lot, and the teacher himself will single out the correct answer from what was said. On the Unified State Examination, where even the detailed answers of Part C consist of only a few sentences, it is impossible to "blank", but you need to give clear answers.

And here we have the second trap of social science: knowledge of terminology and the ability to operate with it. If terminology can be learned, then the ability to operate with it requires skills logical thinking: ability to compare and analyze. And this means that the Unified State Examination in social science, to a greater extent than any other exam, involves not simply reproducing the memorized material, but its "preparation", which is much more difficult.

The USE in social studies is a real integral exam: it includes five topics related to different sciences Key words: economics, law, philosophy, sociology and political science. Every science has its own conceptual apparatus: terminology, approaches to evaluation and analysis. This is the third trap - the student needs to master all the terminology and logic of each of the five sciences. The complexity of the exam in social science is that, unlike, for example, mathematics, where geometric problems occupy a clear place in the structure of the exam, the comparison question can be both in the topic of economics and sociology. Consequently, the student must, first of all, determine what discipline he is dealing with, and then "turn on" the necessary conceptual apparatus.

The Unified State Exam in social studies is taken for many specialties - for economics, law, public administration, architecture, customs, logistics and other specialties of the humanitarian and socio-economic profile.

When preparing for the exam in social studies, it is difficult to avoid the fourth trap: numerous textbooks and manuals. Some of them, unfortunately, are not always conscientious and can do a disservice. It is best to take two basic textbooks as a basis - Kravchenko and Bogolyubov, which are used in most schools. However, keep in mind that schools may use textbooks different years, and FIPI in their USE developments based on recent editions.

The fifth trap of the exam - an insufficient amount hours assigned to this subject at school. This is due, first of all, to the paradoxes of development Russian education. As it improves, the exam in social science becomes more difficult, and at school this time runs departure from profile study this subject. And this despite the fact that it is in demand in more than 30% humanitarian universities. Today, social science school curriculum exists only as a basic subject, which is given only one hour a week.

Five expert tips

First trap: When choosing this subject, evaluate your knowledge objectively. Treat social science as an exact science.

Second trap: learn terminology and practice thinking logically. All types of tasks are described in the FIPI materials. Search for answers to questions, find out what exactly is required in a given answer, and how each answer is scored. In detailed tasks, specify how much you need to write to answer each question.

Third trap: learn to distinguish the terminology of each of the five disciplines included in the exam in social studies. When answering, the first thing to do is determine the discipline to be dealt with.

Fourth trap: choose training manuals with care: a number of them use unused terminology and concepts. Consider the changes that have been made to the USE-2016

Fifth trap: insufficient number of hours can be compensated by only one - additional training to the exam in social studies.

Irina Zotova

Please note: The Ministry of Education and Science recommends in 2017/2018 academic year include educational events dedicated to the year of ecology in the programs of upbringing and socialization(2017 is declared the year of ecology and specially protected natural areas in Russian Federation).

We recommend that teachers of grades 1-11 and educators of preschool educational institutions, together with the children, take part in international competition "I love nature" dedicated to the year of ecology. Participants of the competition will test their knowledge of the rules of behavior in nature, learn Interesting Facts about animals and plants listed in the Red Book of Russia. All students will be rewarded with colorful award materials, and teachers will receive free certificates on the preparation of participants and prize-winners of the international competition.

A guide to preparing for the exam in social studies

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Spiritual life of society

Religion. Freedom of conscience. Atheism.

Religion is a form of worldview that divides the world on the real one, in which a person lives, and the other world, in which a supernatural power resides - God.

religious belief is the inner conviction of existence higher power, God, who created the world, who rules the world, who bestowed moral standards, frightening and comforting, punishing or rewarding.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 18 declares: “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion: this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom to manifest his religion or belief…”

According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation is a secular state. No religion can be established as a state or obligatory one. Religious associations separated from the state and equal before the law. Article 28 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation states: “Everyone is guaranteed freedom of conscience, freedom of religion, including the right to profess any religion or none, to freely choose, have and disseminate religious and other beliefs and act in accordance with them.”

Functions of Religion

Religion explains to man the phenomena of physical and social environment, the structure of the world, determines its place and indicates what the meaning of life is.

Religion gives people comfort, hope, spiritual satisfaction, support.

Religion educates and connects generations

She is can influence into large communities and entire states living according to the laws of a given religion.

Religions bring together people, help the formation of nations, the formation and strengthening of states, smoothes social conflicts

Major religions today:

The main world (supranational) religions are Buddhism, Christianity, Islam.

Buddhism is a religion that arose in the northwest of India in the 5th-6th centuries. BC.

It is the oldest of the world's religions. Currently, the number of its supporters has reached half a billion people. Its founder was the Indian prince Gautama.

Buddhism is based on the four noble truths.

First truth is the truth of suffering. From the point of view of Buddhism, life is suffering.

Second truth is the truth about the causes of suffering. A person suffers because his activity is based on passions.

Third Truth is the truth of the cessation of suffering. To stop suffering, a person must give up his passions and desires.

Fourth Truth is the truth about the path to the cessation of suffering. This truth instructs a Buddhist to believe in the Buddha and his teachings, to observe moral principles (not to lie, not to slander, not to commit bad deeds), and to concentrate on the only right purpose- renunciation of passions.

Christianity – world religion arising in the 1st. century AD

Now it is the most widespread religion on Earth with over 1900 million adherents

Islam (Muslim)- a world religion that arose in the 7th century. n. e. Muhammad was its founder. Islam is spread mainly in Arab countries; the number of his supporters is approx. billion people.

Duties of Muslims:

Believe that Allah is the only god.

Perform namaz (prayer) 5 times a day

At least once in a lifetime, make a hajj - a pilgrimage to Mecca. In Mecca is the shrine of Muslims - the Kaaba

Make a post.

Give 10% of your income to the authorities, as well as make voluntary alms

Judaism (national religion the Jews)

Confucianism(national religion in China)

Shintoism(national religion in Japan)

Atheism It is a denial of the existence of God and a denial of religion in general.

Man and culture.

The spiritual sphere of society is usually associated with culture. In the broadest sense of the word culture- this is different kinds transformative activities individual and society, as well as its results. In this meaning culture is everything that is created by mankind.

Highlight the main functions of culture:

Cognitive → A holistic view of the people, country, era

Estimated → Selection of values, enrichment of traditions

Regulatory

(normative) → The system of norms and requirements of society for all its members in all areas of life and activity (norms of morality, law, behavior)

Informative → Transfer and exchange of knowledge, values and experience

previous generations

Communicative → The ability to preserve, transmit and replicate cultural values; personal development and improvement through communication

Socialization → Assimilation by an individual of a system of knowledge, norms, values, accustoming to social roles, normative behavior, striving for self-improvement

According to prevalence It is customary to divide culture into world and national.

Subculture- part common culture inherent in certain social groups

(teenage, biker, bureaucratic, etc.).

Counterculture- an alternative culture that opposes the prevailing values.

Art - specific shape public consciousness and human activity, which is a reflection of the surrounding reality in artistic images.

The significance of art for man and mankind lies in its basic functions.

Socially transformative function of art It manifests itself in the fact that it, having an ideological and aesthetic impact on people, includes them in a directed and holistically oriented activity to transform society.

Comforting-compensatory function is to restore in the sphere of the spirit of harmony lost by man in reality.

Artistic and conceptual function expressed in the property of art to analyze the state of the surrounding world.

Anticipation function characterizes the ability to anticipate the future (fantastic and utopian works).

educational function reflects the role of art in the formation of a holistic human personality, feelings and thoughts of people.

The inspiring function is manifested in the impact of art on the subconscious of people, on human psyche.

aesthetic function shapes aesthetic tastes and human needs, awakens in the individual the desire and ability to create according to the laws of beauty.

hedonic function lies in the ability of art to give a person the joy of aesthetic pleasure.

cognitive function reflects the ability of art to reflect and master those aspects of life that are difficult for science.

Education and its role in the development of society.

Education - purposeful cognitive activity people to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, or to improve them.

Purpose of education- involvement of the individual in achievements human civilization. main institution modern education is a school. Fulfilling the "order" of society, the school, along with educational institutions of other types, trains qualified personnel for various spheres of human activity.

Functions of education.

1. Transfer social experience (knowledge, values, norms, etc.).

2. Accumulation and storage of the culture of society. Education supports required level cohesion of society, contributes to maintaining its stability, leads to the direct social reproduction of society as a cultural integrity.

3. Socialization of the individual. Training qualified personnel to maintain and increase the survival of society in an ever-changing historical conditions his existence.

4. Social selection (selection) members of society, especially young people. Thanks to this, each person occupies in society that position that best satisfies his personal and public interest.

5. Security vocational guidance person.

6. Introduction of socio-cultural innovations. Education promotes discoveries and inventions, the development of new ideas, theories, concepts.

7. social control . Legislation in many countries provides compulsory education which contributes to the stability of society.

Main trends in the development of education

 democratization of the system of education and upbringing

humanization of the education process

computerization

 internationalization

‌continuity of education

 Attention to the personality of the student, his needs, interests, individual characteristics

Education system

preschool educational institutions

General education schools (gymnasiums)

Professional and technical educational establishments(lyceum, colleges)

Spiritual educational institutions

Universities, colleges, technical schools

Preparation of scientific and scientific and pedagogical personnel

Advanced training and retraining of personnel

Independent education of citizens

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Line "Society"

The concept of society.

Stage historical development;

A group of people;

Society is humanity as a whole, the totality of all peoples and nations, it is the entire population of the Earth.

Society- this is historical result naturally developing relations between people, it is isolated from nature, but closely with it related part world, which includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their association.

Society is complex dynamic system. The word "system" is Greek origin, means a whole made up of parts, a set

Subsystems (or spheres) of public life:

economic(material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production wealth, their exchange and distribution);

social(the structure of society, consisting of classes, social strata, nations, is taken in their relationship and interaction with each other);

political (political and legal)(politics, state, law, their correlation and functioning);

spiritual (spiritual and moral) (various forms social consciousness: religion, science, moral standards, education, art, etc.)

Each sphere of social life is a complex, dynamic formation, consisting of many parts and elements.

Society institutions:

2. production;

3. state;

4. education;

5. religion.

social institution is an association of people to meet a specific and important need.

Progress and regress. progress criteria.

Progress- this is the direction of development, characterized by the transition from lower to higher, from simple to more complex and perfect forms, which is expressed in more high organization.

Regression- movement from higher to lower, degradation, return to obsolete structures and relationships, i.e. all. That leads to negative consequences in the life of society.

Global problems of mankind

Global problems are a set of human problems that confronted him in the second half of the 20th century and on the solution of which the existence of civilization depends.

Causes of global problems:

World community of people, integrity modern world, contradictions, conflicts, problems from local become global.

Actively transforming human activity is not always corresponding to the level public organization, political thinking and environmental consciousness.

Classification of global problems

- crisis of attitude to nature (environmental problem): discord in the system of interaction with nature, exhaustibility of natural resources, irreversible changes in the environment.

-economic crisis: economic and industrial-financial shocks. The need to contribute to narrowing the gap in the level economic development between developed countries West and developing countries of the "third world"

-political crisis: collapse of the world social systems, ethnic and racial conflicts, the threat of a new world war, international terrorism.

-demographic crisis: uneven and uncontrolled population growth in developing countries, the possibility of a population explosion.

- threat of thermonuclear war: exhausting arms race, pollution caused by testing nuclear weapons, the genetic implications of these tests.

-problems of health care and prevention of the spread of AIDS, drug addiction.

- the crisis of human spirituality: loss moral values addiction to alcohol and drugs .

The main directions of solving global problems.

Formation of a new planetary consciousness (Education of a person on the principles of humanism, wide informing people about global problems)

Clear international system forecasting

Concentration of efforts of all countries to solve global problems (cooperation in the creation of new environmental technologies)

Civilizations and formations

The concept of "civilization" in the world historical and philosophical literature is used:

1. As a certain stage in the development of local cultures (O. Spengler)

2. As a synonym for culture (A.Toinbee)

3. As a stage of historical development

(L. Morgan, F. Engels, O. Toffler).

As a level (stage) of development of a particular region or a separate ethnic group

There are many typologies of civilizations. The most common division of civilizations into Western and Eastern

comparisons

Western

civilization

Eastern

civilization

1.Features

perception of the world

Rational, contradictory perception-

"Faustian-Hamletian"

Emotional, holistic perception (ikebana, belief in an endless chain of death and rebirth)

2.Attitude

to nature

The desire to subjugate nature.

Strive to be in harmony with nature. Human - organic part nature.

3.Ratio

Individuals and societies

The priority of a free person with civil rights.

values of individual

Freedom.

The priority of the system of subordination of the individual

(subjects) to society (state).

The dominance of the traditions of collectivism.

4. Relations of power

The principle of separation of powers. Estates - representative structures. Parliamentarism.

political monism. Eastern despotism

(unlimited power, deification of the monarch)

5.Relationships

property

Dominance of private property

The predominance of state and communal property.

6.Attitude

to progress

The desire for progress, the use of innovations.

Maintaining a traditional lifestyle.

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Cognition

Cognition- the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement.

Forms of sensory knowledge

1. Feeling- this is a sensual image of individual aspects, processes, phenomena of the objective world.

2. Perception- this is a holistic image of an object, directly given in a living contemplation in the aggregate of all aspects and connections, a totality of individual relations.

3.Performance- it is a generalized sensory-visual image of reality, stored and reproduced in consciousness through memory.

Forms of rational knowledge

Concepts- a form of thinking that reflects the general regular connections, sides, signs of phenomena that are fixed in their definitions (terms)

Judgments e is a form of thought in which something is affirmed or denied through the connection of concepts.

inference- this is a form of thought in the form of reasoning, during which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments, called premises, which is called a conclusion or consequence.

Examples

1. Concepts (“house”, “person”, “animal”, etc.)

2. Judgments (for example, "all people are mortal")

3. Deductive or inductive reasoning (for example, all people are mortal, Socrates is a man, therefore, Socrates is mortal).

Deduction- one of the main ways of reasoning (inference) and research method. Deduction is an inference from the general to the particular.

Induction- one of the types of inference and research method.

Example

Judgment. Mammalian teeth have roots.

Judgment. The dog is a mammal.

Inference. The dog has teeth.

True- this is an adequate reflection of reality by the subject, its reproduction as it is outside and independently of consciousness.

absolute truth- complete, exhaustive, accurate knowledge, not refuted by the subsequent development of science.

Relative truth- this is:

incomplete, inaccurate knowledge, corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines certain ways of obtaining this knowledge;

knowledge, depending on certain conditions, place and time of their receipt.

Example. Let's see how people's knowledge and ideas about the structure of the Universe have changed.

objective truth- this is the content of knowledge that does not depend either on man or on humanity.

subjective truth- the truth, which can be influenced by our views, feelings, etc.

Truth Criteria

The main criterion of truth is practice. In philosophy, practice is accepted as a system worldwide historical activity humanity.

sensory experience

Empirical level . Sensual cognition, living contemplation predominates. rational moment is present, but has a subordinate value. Signs of empirical knowledge: collection of facts, their primary generalization, description of observed and experimental phenomena, their systematization and classification.

Theoretical level of scientific knowledge characterized by the predominance rational forms knowledge - concepts, conclusions, theories, laws.

Main Components theoretical knowledge:

Problem- a form of knowledge, the content of which is that which is not yet known by a person, but needs to be known (2 stages - posing a question and solving).

Hypothesis- a form of knowledge containing an assumption formed on the basis of a number of facts.

Theory- the most developed form scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic display of regular and essential relationships.

Methods of scientific knowledge: observation, experiment, scientific modeling, analysis, synthesis, etc.

Science and modern society

Modern society gradually becoming post-industrial.

Science shapes the worldview

Science is closely related to technological progress.

Science helps to create forecasts for the development of society.

Doubling scientific information happens every 10-15 years.

Features of social cognition

Through the efforts of scientists who study social phenomena society knows itself.

The subject of knowledge (society) and its object (society) coincide.

Being a member social development a person cannot be indifferent to what is happening. One social forces He sympathizes with parties, leaders, and condemns others. And this leaves an imprint on the process of cognition.

Study social connections more complex than relationships in nature. Finding patterns in social life is not easy.

If in the study of nature great place occupies direct observation and experiment, then in social cognition the possibilities of observation and experiment are limited.

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Politics

The word "politics" is of Greek origin. It means science and art government controlled

1.Policy is the activity of state bodies, political parties, social movements in the sphere of relations between large social groups, primarily classes, nations and states, aimed at uniting their efforts to strengthen political power or its conquest by specific methods.

2. Politics is purposeful participation large masses people, organized social groups and individuals in the affairs of the state, in solving problems related to the life of society as a whole.

In the 20th century, the understanding of politics came as a single, complexly organized mechanism - political system. To her structural elements(components) include:

1. Organizational(state, political parties, socio-political movements).

2) Regulatory(political, legal, moral norms and values, customs and traditions)

3) Cultural (political ideology, political culture)

4) Communicative(from lat. Communicatio - communication, communication) (forms of interaction, communication, communication within the political system, as well as between the political system and society).

State main institute political system.

State – central organization political system with supreme authority in a certain territory, which has the exclusive right to issue generally binding laws and to use violence when necessary.

State signs:

- separation of public authorities from society (the emergence of a layer of professional managers);

- a territory delineated by a clearly defined boundary;

- sovereignty (independence);

- monopoly on the legal use of force, physical coercion;

- the right to levy taxes and fees from the population, etc.

unitary state - it is a single integral state, consisting of administrative-territorial units, which are subordinate to the central authorities and do not have their own sovereignty.

Signs:

Uniform, common for the whole country, the highest representative, executive and judicial bodies.

There is one constitution, a single system of legislation, one citizenship, a single monetary system

The constituent parts of a unitary state (regions, departments, districts, provinces) do not possess state sovereignty. They do not have their own Legislative bodies and other attributes of statehood.

Federation(from lat. - union) - connected, union state. it complex shape state structure, which is a voluntary union of several previously independent formations into one union state.

With this form of state structure, the highest bodies of power and management bodies common to the entire federation are formed, and the highest bodies of power and management are retained by each of the members of the federation.

signs federal states:

The territory of the federation consists of the territories of its individual subjects: states, lands, republics, etc.

Supreme legislative, executive and judicial branch owned by the federal government.

The subjects of the federation have the right to adopt their own constitution, legislation that cannot contradict the federal constitution.

At the federal state device, one of the chambers of parliament represents the interests of the subjects of the federation.

As a rule, subjects of a federation cannot unilaterally secede from a federation.

Confederation- (from lat. community) is a union of sovereign states created to ensure their common interests, to achieve limited goals.

The states that formed the confederation. They retain their sovereign rights, remain subjects of international legal communication, having their own citizenship, systems of authorities, administration, and justice.

Signs of a confederation:

The Confederation does not have its own common legislative, executive and judiciary. Members of the confederation have their own constitution.
The confederation has no united army, unified system taxes and the unified state budget.
Confederations are created for a fixed period. They either disintegrate upon reaching common goals, or turn into federations.

Signs of a totalitarian political regime:

One official ideology dominates, which is formed by the ruling party, headed by the leader. Repressive measures are applied to dissidents.

Full control of the state over all spheres of public life.

The ruling party is merging with the state apparatus.

Organized socio-political movement in support of the ruling regime.

All power is concentrated in one hand ruling person, body or elite that does not take into account the fundamental interests of the population.

The people under such regimes are actually removed from the formation state power and control over its activities.

Possible use of violence. The advantage of the state over the law.

Democracy means "power of the people" - a political regime based on the recognition of the people as the source of power.

Principles of democracy:

1. recognition of the people as the source of power and the bearer of sovereignty;

2. equality of citizens (though only formally legal), equal opportunity to participate in political life;

3. the existence of fundamental human rights and freedoms, their recognition, guarantee and protection by the state;

4. the principle of the majority - it is the majority, and not the minority, that expresses its will through the institutions of democracy;

5. the right of the minority to oppose (subject to the decisions of the majority);

6. political pluralism, i.e. the presence of various autonomous socio-political parties, movements, groups that are in a state of free competition;

7. constitutional state;

8. a system of separation of powers, in which the various branches of state power are quite independent and balance each other, preventing the establishment of a dictatorship;

9. publicity in the actions of state bodies and officials, the possibility of unimpeded control over them by society;

10. electivity of the main authorities on the basis of universal, direct, equal suffrage by secret ballot;

11. developed system of local governments.

Civil society- aggregate non-state relationships and institutions

expressing the private interests of citizens in various fields.

Within the framework of civil society, non-state social institutions arise and function: a market economy based on pluralism (diversity) of forms of ownership, freedom of labor and entrepreneurial activity, family, school, church, facilities mass media, democratic elections. The institutions of civil society also include interest groups and their voluntary associations (unions of entrepreneurs, environmentalists, trade unions, interest clubs, municipal communes - local self-government, etc.)

Political pluralism(lat. pluralis - plural) - the fundamental principle of political life, according to which a variety of ideological, social and political currents, movements, organizations, parties and other associations. A manifestation of political pluralism is the multi-party system.

Populism(lat. people) trait political leader prone to demagoguery, i.e. to obviously unrealistic promises and empty talk.

Functions of political parties:

political;

social representation;

social integration;

political reconstruction;

Ideological;

Electoral;

Recruit new members.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation (adopted on December 12, 1993) recognizes political diversity and multi-party system (art. 13). All public associations are equal.

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Right

Law in the system social norms.

social norms- general, binding rules behavior that governs social relations. The most important types social norms are customs, religious, moral and legal norms.

Law- formally defined, generally binding rules of conduct established by the state and provided by its coercive power.

Any rule of law includes a hypothesis, a disposition and a sanction.

Hypothesis These are the conditions and circumstances in which the rule of law operates. These conditions may be specified or partially specified.

Disposition- these are the actions that the subject must perform in these conditions. The disposition contains an indication of both the rights and obligations that are assigned to a citizen, organization or state.

Sanction establishes punishment for violations of those prescriptions contained in the disposition

Right- a system of obligatory, formally defined rules of conduct, established and protected by the state.

Signs of law:

Refers to state power phenomena.

It has a general mandatory character.

Regulates social relations.

Reflects the level and needs of development public relations.

Accepted by strictly defined government agencies.

Provided by a system of protective measures.

Law Functions:

Being a universal regulator of social relations, it consolidates the foundations of the existing system

Establishing rights and obligations specific individuals, organizations, brings a certain order to society and the state.

Obliges to take active positive action contributes to the development of social relations.

It plays an educational role, developing in people a sense of justice, kindness, humanity.

The criterion of lawful and unlawful behavior of people is the basis for the application of measures of state coercion to violators of law and order.

Constitutional state.

Constitutional state - this is a state in which the rule of law is ensured, the rule of law, where human rights and freedoms are recognized and guaranteed, the equality of all before the law, and the principle of separation of powers is put in the basis of the organization of power.

Signs of the rule of law:

Law supremacy: all state bodies, officials, public associations, citizens in their activities are obliged to obey the requirements of the law;

Observance and protection of human rights and freedoms– the state should not only declare adherence to this principle, but also enshrine fundamental human rights in its laws;

Consistently carried out the principle of separation of powers, mutual limitation and mutual control of each other of all branches of government;

Mutual responsibility of the state and the citizen- for violations of the law, the measure of responsibility provided for by law must necessarily follow, regardless of the personality of the offender.

↓ ↓ ↓

Private right- a set of branches and institutions of law that regulate relations in which individual interests, their legal status and property relations.

public law- a set of branches and institutions of law that provide public and state interests, the legal status of the state, its bodies and officials.

Legal capacity- this is the ability of a person to have subjective rights and legal obligations, enshrined in the norms of law. Legal capacity arises for natural persons from the moment of birth and terminates with death, legal entities- since their state registration.

legal capacity- this is the ability of the subject of law to acquire and exercise rights, to fulfill obligations by their actions.

international humanitarian law - a set of norms that ensure during the war the protection of people who are not participating or have ceased to participate in hostilities, as well as limiting the methods and means of waging war.

Hierarchy of legal acts in R.F.

The Constitution of the R.F.

federal laws

Decrees of the President R.F.

Decrees of the Government of R.F.

Regulations ministries and departments

Types of regulatory legal acts

Signs of an offense:

public danger

Wrongfulness

Guilt

Punishability

Legal responsibility, its types.

The offense entails the legal liability of the perpetrator.

Legal liability is backlash state to commit an offense in the form of application of measures of state influence to the guilty person.

Types of legal liability

Criminal liability applied for the commission of crimes, i.e. socially dangerous acts prohibited by the norms of criminal law, the main source of which is the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. Criminal liability can be applied by the only state body - the court, which, when issuing a guilty verdict, determines the measure of criminal punishment in it.

Administrative responsibility , provides for measures of state influence applied to persons guilty of committing administrative offenses. The main source is the Code of administrative offenses. The types of administrative penalties include: a warning, a fine, a paid seizure or confiscation of certain items, temporary deprivation of a certain right, such as driving a car, and other measures. It is imposed by officials to whom the offender is not subordinate in service.

Civil law liability arises for violation of obligations arising from the contract, as well as for causing property damage. This type of liability is often expressed in the application of sanctions that provide for compensation for property damage. The law also provides for such a measure as the restoration of the violated right, as well as the possibility of recovering from the person guilty of violating contractual obligations a penalty in the form of a fine or penalty.

Disciplinary responsibility applied for a disciplinary offence. Unlike administrative responsibility, it is imposed official to which the offender is subordinate in service. Measures disciplinary action are a remark, a severe reprimand, a temporary transfer to a lower-paid job, and some others.

AT special kind stands out material liability workers and employees, which is applied if they caused damage to the enterprise, organization, institution in the performance of their labor duties.

Constitution is the basic law of the state, having a higher legal force which, in accordance with the socio-political forces existing in society, consolidates the foundations of popular sovereignty, state sovereignty and legal status individual.

In accordance with chapter I of the Constitution of the R.F.

The foundations of the constitutional order are, first of all:

Constitutional duties of man and citizen

Comply with the Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation (Article 15)

Obligation to pay legally established taxes and fees (Art. 57)

Duty to defend the Fatherland (Art. 59)

Duty of parents to raise and care for children (art. 38)

Duty of adult and able-bodied children to care for disabled parents (Article 38)

Obligation to receive basic general education(st43)

The obligation to take care of the preservation of the historical and cultural heritage to protect historical and cultural monuments.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation defines the system supreme bodies the state power of the Russian Federation: it consists of the President, the Government, the Federal Assembly and the judiciary.

Russia is a legal state, there is a principle of separation of powers.

The president - majority elected head of state modern states With republican form board.

Constitution of the Russian Federation, Chapter 4. President R.F.

Functions of the President (Article 80)

Head of state.

Guarantor of the Constitution

Guarantor of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen.

The President is Supreme Commander Armed Forces.

Determines the main directions of internal and foreign policy states.

From the functions follow the powers of the President (Constitution art. 83-90)

Parliament R.F.- a permanent representative and Legislature R.F. , consists of two chambers (the Federation Council and State Duma) sitting separately.

The Constitution of the R.F. ch.5,

article 102( Powers of the Federation Council)

article 103( Powers of the State Duma)

Constitution of the Russian Federation, Ch. 6 Government of the Russian Federation.

Powers Art.114.

Local governments

Local self-government in the Russian Federation- a form of exercise by the people of their power, ensuring, within the limits established by law, an independent and under their own responsibility decision by the population directly and (or) through local self-government bodies of issues local importance proceeding from the interests of the population, taking into account historical and other local traditions.

In st.12 The Constitution establishes the basic guarantees of local self-government in the Russian Federation: recognition of local self-government as independent and not included in the system of state authorities.

Chapter 8 of the Constitution reflects the foundations of local self-government, in particular the right to own, use and dispose

municipal property, the election of local governments, judicial protection, etc.

Law on local government Local issues include:

Legal basis of marriage and family.

A family is a traditional form of union between a woman and a man. The establishment and regulation of the rights and obligations of spouses in relation to each other and children is carried out through their registration, i.e. marriage.

The conditions and procedure for entering into marriage, its termination and invalidation are governed by family law.

The regulation of the rights and obligations of spouses, as well as parents and children in Russia is carried out in accordance with the Family Code, adopted in 1995.

According to the law, persons who have reached the age of majority - 18 years old can enter into marriage. AT exceptional cases marriage is registered at the age of the bride and groom 16 years.

Marriage is registered in government bodies records of acts civil status(registry office), where the birth of a child is also registered. A marriage concluded according to a religious rite or in accordance with the customs of any nationality has no legal significance.

Refusal to register a marriage may be the following reasons: persons who are in another marriage, as well as in direct family relations- father and daughter, brothers and sisters, adoptive parents and adopted children, and persons recognized by the court as legally incompetent due to mental illness or dementia.

Spouses have equal property rights in relation to joint ownership, regardless of the size of the contribution. Separate property includes things that belonged to the spouse before marriage, gifts and inheritance. The property relations of the spouses can be changed with the help of a marriage contract or if the marriage contract is terminated or declared invalid.

The Family Code of the Russian Federation provides for two procedures for dissolution of marriage - judicial and administrative. If the spouses do not have common minor children and they both agree to dissolve the marriage, then the divorce is registered by the registry office within a month from the date of filing the application without specifying the reasons for the divorce. Otherwise, the marriage is dissolved in a judicial proceeding with the establishment of the reasons for its dissolution. The husband is not entitled to dissolve the marriage during the wife's pregnancy or within a year from the birth of the child.

Family law regulates relations not only between spouses, but also between parents and children. If the parents are not married and one of them evades parental functions, then the proceedings are carried out in court. Cohabitation, management general economy, biological research when establishing paternity, they allow the court to make a decision and collect alimony from a spouse who avoids matrimonial duties. The right to receive alimony belongs to the child, and not to the mother, who is his legal representative.

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Sociology

Sociology- the science of society, the patterns of relationships and interactions between individuals, social groups and social institutions.

social norms- rules established in society, patterns, standards of human behavior that regulate public life.

Varieties of social norms

aesthetic standards, reinforcing ideas about the beautiful and the ugly, not only in artistic creativity but also in human behavior.

Norms of traditions and customs in which habitual patterns of behavior are reinforced.

Religious norms, which include the rules of conduct contained in the tests sacred books or established by religious organizations.

Politically e rules govern political activity, the relationship between

personality and power, between social groups, states.

moral standards, i.e. norms that express people's ideas about

good and bad, good and evil, justice and injustice.

legal norms - formally certain rules behaviors established

or sanctioned by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by its

social status (from lat. position) - the place of an individual or group in social structure society defined by social characteristics ( economic situation profession, qualification, education).

Socialization- the development of social norms by the individual and cultural property society.

Adaptation- adaptation to changes in the environment, as a result of which a person acts in accordance with its requirements, norms and values.

Social differentiation is the division of society into groups occupying different social positions.

social stratification - social difference, inequality in accordance with the position of people in the social structure based on 4 criteria: income, level of education, access to power, prestige of the profession

A stratum is a social stratum, a group of people united by some common social feature (property, professional, etc.)

social mobility - changes in social position individual or social group (horizontal, vertical).

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of a person to a group located at the same level (transition from one family to another upon remarriage, from one factory to another, change of citizenship, geographical movements ...)

Vertical mobility- moving from one step of the hierarchy (stairs) to another (ascent, descent ↓)

Social group (or social community) called one of the main forms of association of people, the purpose of which is to satisfy the needs of individuals in the implementation of joint, solidary and coordinated actions.

Social groups are subdivided:

by number: large and small;

by the nature of interaction: primary and secondary;

according to the method of organizing and regulating interaction: formal and informal;

by the number of values around which they are united: unilateral and multilateral.

Social inequality- a specific form of social development, which is characterized by an uneven distribution of income, power, education, prestige between different strata, strata of the population.

lumpen(from German rags) - common name declassed sections of society. These are morally degraded, materially and spiritually poor people.

Outcasts(from Latin, located on the edge) - representatives of social groups occupying an intermediate position in relation to recognized, dominant cultures, sustainable lifestyles social communities.

Prestige is an assessment by society of the social significance of a particular status,

embedded in culture and public opinion.

Tolerance(lat. patience) - in the social science sense, tolerance for other opinions, beliefs, actions, behavior, lifestyle, customs, feelings. Tolerance has its limits, it is connected with existing in this society moral, legal, political and other norms.

ethnicity (people)- a community of people that has historically developed in a certain territory, possessing a common, relatively stable features language, culture, psyche, as well as the consciousness of its unity and difference from all other similar formations.

Historically formed ethnic communities - tribe, nationality, nation.

When solving interethnic conflicts, it is necessary to comply with humanistic principles policies in the field of national relations:

rejection of violence and coercion;

search for consent based on the consensus of all participants;

recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;

willingness to peacefully resolve disputes.

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Human

The concept of "man" is used to denote the universal abilities inherent in all people that distinguish us from the animal world.

The difference between man and animal:

Complex brain

articulate speech

bipedalism

Ability to make tools with the help of other tools

Ability to creative activity

goal setting

Self-knowledge.

Human - a holistic biopsychosocial being. At the same time, an organism in a number of other organisms (representative kind of homo sapiens), creator and bearer of culture human society, main contributor historical process.

Individual- this is a single representative of the human race, a specific owner of all the features and characteristics of humanity: mind, will, needs, interests, etc.

Personality- this is a person actively mastering and purposefully transforming nature, society and himself. This is a person with his socially formed and individually expressed qualities (intellectual, emotional, strong-willed, moral, etc.)

Individuality- the originality of a person, a set of his unique properties.

human being- most general concept denoting:

the existence of man in all the diversity of his manifestations;

the real process of life, activity, communication.

Only man has such a form of activity as an activity that is not limited to adapting to the environment, but transforming it.

Subject -one who carries out activities

An object - this is what it is directly directed at, about what it arises.

motive- motivating reason

Target- this is a conscious image of the expected result, the achievement of which the activity is aimed at, a mental model of the outcome of the activity.

Funds must correspond to the purpose (To build a house, materials, mechanisms, tools, etc. are needed)

Need- this is a need experienced and realized by a person for what is necessary to maintain the human body and develop his personality.

Need groups according to A. Maslow:

Physiological: the need for food, eating, breathing, movement, etc.

Existential: the need for security, comfort, confidence in tomorrow etc.

Social: the need for communication, caring for others, understanding, etc.

Prestigious: the need for self-respect, recognition, success, etc.

Spiritual: the need for self-expression, self-actualization.

Every person's needs next level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.

human ability levels.

Makings- these are the anatomical and physiological features of the body, mainly the central nervous system, which are biological prerequisites for the development of abilities.

Capabilities- this is individual characteristics personalities, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain kind of activity.

Talent- a high level of development of abilities.

Highest Degree creative manifestations personalities - genius.

The diversity of human activity

There are various classifications of activities. First of all, we note the division of activities into spiritual and practical (material).

Practical (material) activity is aimed at the transformation of real objects of nature and society. It includes material and production activity (transformation of objects of nature) and

socially transformative (change in the life of society and the consciousness of people).

Spiritual activity is also associated with a change in people's consciousness. It includes:

- cognitive activity(reflection of reality in artistic and scientific form);

- value-oriented activity(definition of positive or negative attitude people to the phenomena of the surrounding world, the formation of their worldview);

- predictive activity(planning or anticipation possible changes reality.

There are other classifications of activities.

Spiritual world of personality. Worldview.

The spiritual world of a person includes knowledge, faith, feelings, needs, abilities, aspirations, goals of people.

Spiritual (or inner) world of a person- this is a combination of his internal, mental processes (sensations, perceptions, emotions, feelings, will, memory, reason, level of knowledge, spiritual interests, life positions, value orientations). The spiritual world of a person is what determines his uniqueness and originality, makes him a person. basis spiritual world man is a worldview.

outlook in broad sense The word includes the totality of all views on the world - on the phenomena of nature, society, on the phenomenon of man. Exist different types worldview:

- ordinary (or worldly). It is formed under the influence life circumstances, based on personal experience;

-religious. It is based on the religious views, ideas and beliefs of a person;

-scientific. It is formed on the basis of the achievements of modern science, reflects scientific picture the world, the results of modern scientific knowledge;

- humanistic. It is spoken of more as a goal than as a reality. The humanistic worldview unites the best sides scientific worldview with ideas about social justice, environmental safety, moral ideal.

Values are the core of a person's worldview.

Values- it is specific social definitions objects of the surrounding world, revealing them positive value for the individual and society. common ground values and anti-values are the concepts of good and evil, reflecting, respectively, the ability to satisfy the healthy or vicious needs of people. The highest spiritual values play important role for the formation of one or another type of worldview.

spiritual production- this is the production of consciousness in a special social form, carried out by specialized groups of people who are professionally engaged in skilled mental labor.

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Economy

In the conventional sense, the term "economy" has two meanings.

1. Economy - economy, economic complex, which includes a set of industries of the production and non-production spheres.

Work environment - these are industries engaged in material production (industry, agriculture, construction, transport, etc.)

Non-manufacturing sphere - this is a sphere that creates a spiritual product, services, information (education, culture, art, health care, consumer services, etc.).

2. Economy - a science that explores how people in conditions of limited resources satisfy ever-growing needs.

Economy as an economic system represents the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services that are vital for a person.

Production is the creation of goods and services.

Distribution- stage of economic activity, which consists in the fact that the produced product and the income received as a result of production is divided between the participants in production.

Exchange- the stage of economic activity at which a participant in economic relations exchanges the produced product for other products or money.

If a product is exchanged for another product, they speak of barter; if it is exchanged for money, they speak of buying and selling.

Consumption- this is final stage reproduction, in which the produced product reaches the consumer. Consumption can be both the use of a product and its destruction.

Main economic issues:

1.What to produce? What set of goods and services will most fully satisfy the needs of society?

2. How to produce? How should production be organized? Which firms should produce, and which technology should be used?

3. For whom to produce? Who should receive this product?

How should production be distributed among individual consumers?

Types of economic systems

1.Traditional economic system is a way of organizing economic life where land and capital are in common ownership, and limited resources are distributed in accordance with the long-term existing traditions.

Main features:

Usually in traditional systems people live in villages and work agriculture, hunting or fishing.

Absence technical progress;

Limited number of goods produced.

2. Command-centralized economic system

(administrative planning) - a way of organizing economic life, in which capital and land are owned by the state, and distribution economic resources carried out on command central authorities management.

Main features:

State ownership of the means of production;

Prices are set by the state;

Enterprises produce those products that, in the opinion of the state, best meet the interests of the people;

Non-economic methods of coercion.

3. Market economic system (capitalism) - a way of organizing economic life in which capital and land are owned by individuals and economic resources are distributed through markets.

Main features:

Private property;

Competition;

Free price;

Income inequality.

4.Mixed economic system - this is a way of organizing economic life, in which land and capital are privately owned, although there is limited state ownership of part of the economic resources.

The distribution of limited resources is carried out both by markets and with significant state participation.

Factors of production- resources used by people to create life's goods. These include labor, land, capital and entrepreneurial ability.

Work- set of physical and mental ability that people use in the process of creating economic wealth.

Earth - all kinds of natural resources.

Capital - man-made means of production used for the production of goods and services and generating income (machines and equipment, industrial buildings, structures, vehicles, extracted raw materials and semi-finished products, etc.).

Entrepreneurial ability - this is a person's ability to entrepreneurial activity, managerial and organizational skills used in the production process.

Market- the system of economic relations associated with the exchange of goods and services; place of trade.

Market classification:

1. According to the objects of the application, the market for goods, the market for services, construction market, technology market, information market, credit market, stock market, labor market.

2. In terms of space, a local, regional, national, world market is distinguished.

Market reforms in modern Russia

The market transition in Russia began in October 1991.

Since 1992 price liberalization(free prices)

Privatization the process of transferring state property into private hands.

Denationalization - the process of narrowing the state sector in the economy, creating conditions for the development of other, non-state forms of ownership, and ultimately a multi-structure economy.

Demand is the quantity of goods a certain kind that a buyer is willing to buy at a given price level.

Sentence- is the amount of goods that the seller can offer the buyer in specific location and in exact time.

Money. Modern economic theory defines money as any means of payment that performs the basic functions of money.

Money functions:

Money is a measure of value. Any product has a price that allows you to correlate one product with similar products.

Money is a means of payment. We do not have to exchange goods for other goods.

Money is a means of accumulating wealth.

Money is a store of value.

Inflation-upgrade process general level prices in the country.

Sources of replenishment of the state budget:

1. Taxes.

2. Government loans(securities, treasury bills, etc.)

3. Issue (additional issue) of paper and credit money.

4. Loans from international organizations.

taxes- these are mandatory payments that are collected from individuals and legal entities in accordance with the legislation in force in the country.

Tax functions

a) fiscal(a source of state revenues necessary for the development of the country's public sector);

b) redistributive(from rich to poor, from one industry to another);

c) stimulating(to contribute to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the expansion of exports, the alignment of the development of territories, the increase in employment, the strengthening of the family, etc.). The stimulating function is mainly carried out through a system of tax incentives and privileges.

Direct taxes are taxes levied directly on a specific legal or individual. The objects of taxation are the income and (or) property of taxpayers (salary, profit, interest, land, cottages, houses, cars, etc.) These include income tax, corporate income tax, inheritance and gift tax, property tax.

(Direct taxes are taxes that are levied on any profit)

Indirect taxes - These are mandatory payments included in the price of a good or service. Indirect taxes are partially or fully included in the prices of economic goods offered for sale.

These include:

excise duties;

sales tax;

Value Added Tax.

(indirect taxes are levied on certain goods and services)

Competition- competition, competition, rivalry between manufacturers (sellers) of goods for top scores.

Types of competition:

Perfect competition (pure, ideal) takes place in the market of a similar, interchangeable product with many small sellers and buyers is not able to have a decisive influence on the price and scale of sales.

Monopoly- a situation in which the supply of goods and the price for it is controlled by one seller. An example of such a situation is the activity of RAO "UES of Russia" or the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Federation, which, being the only sellers in the domestic market, can significantly influence the price.

Oligopoly- a situation in which the supply of goods and the price for it is controlled by a small number of sellers. An example of this situation is the activity of domestic oil companies.

Monopsony- a situation in which demand is controlled by one buyer. An example in this case is the activities of the Gazprom company, since it is the sole owner of the gas pipeline, which all gas producing companies in Russia are forced to use.

Own- is a system of economic and legal relations between people about the possession, disposal, and use of life's goods.

Constitution of the Russian Federation (on property)

Everyone has the right to free use of their abilities and property for entrepreneurial and other economic activities not prohibited by law.

Not allowed economic activity aimed at monopolization and unfair competition.

The right of private property is protected by law.

Everyone has the right to own property, own, use and dispose of it both individually and jointly with other persons.

No one may be deprived of his property except by a court decision.

The expropriation of property for state needs may be carried out only on the condition of prior and equivalent compensation.

The right to inherit is guaranteed.

Citizens and their associations have the right to own land in private ownership.

Ownership, use and disposal of land and other natural resources carried out by their owners freely, if it does not cause damage to the environment and does not violate the rights and legitimate interests of other persons.

The conditions and procedure for the use of land are determined on the basis of federal law.

Efficiency indicators of social production

Gross national product (GNP) - a macroeconomic indicator representing the value of the final product produced by the country during the year, calculated in market prices. GNP includes the value of a product created at home and abroad using factors of production owned by the country.

Gross domestic product (GDP)- this is the total value of all goods and services produced during the year on the territory of the country without dividing the resources used for their production into imported and domestic.

National income - it is calculated in monetary terms the value of the total product newly created in the country during the year, representing the income brought by all factors of production. The national income of a country is equal to GNP minus depreciation (depreciation of fixed assets) and indirect taxes.

The functions of the state in the economy.

No economic system, even a market one, can be called absolutely free, since it cannot work without state intervention.

Redistribution of public revenues;

Social protection;

Antimonopoly regulation;

Regulation of the labor market;

Support for a domestic manufacturer;

Regulation financial system;

Control of foreign trade and foreign exchange transactions;

Security strategic breakthroughs in the field of science and technology;

Maintaining the quality of the environment.

Economy +

Unemployed - these are unemployed able-bodied citizens registered with the Employment Service as unemployed in order to find suitable job.

The unemployed are citizens who:

are able-bodied;

have no income;

registered with the Employment Service in order to find a suitable job;

looking for a job;

ready to start at any moment.

Cannot be recognized as unemployed:

persons under the age of 16;

pensioners;

persons who did not appear within 10 days from the date of registration for a job offer;

persons who refused within 10 days from the date of their registration from two options for a suitable job.

Types of unemployment

Voluntary - associated with the unwillingness of people to work, for example, in conditions of lowering wages. Voluntary unemployment increases during an economic boom and decreases during a recession; its scale and duration are different in individuals different professions, skill level, as well as among various socio-demographic groups of the population.

forced (waiting unemployment ) Occurs when an employee is able and willing to work given level salary but cannot find a job. The reason is the imbalance in the labor market due to the inflexibility of wages (due to minimum wage laws, the work of trade unions, raising wages to improve the quality of work, etc.). When real wages is above the level corresponding to the equilibrium of supply and demand, the supply in the labor market exceeds the demand for it. The number of applicants for a limited number of jobs increases, and the likelihood of real employment decreases, which increases the unemployment rate . Varieties of involuntary unemployment:

cyclic - caused by recurring declines in production in a country or region. Represents the difference between the current unemployment rate business cycle and the natural rate of unemployment. For different countries recognized as natural different level unemployment.
seasonal - depends on fluctuations in the level economic activity during the year, typical for some sectors of the economy.
technological - unemployment associated with the mechanization and automation of production, as a result of which part of the workforce becomes redundant or needs more high level qualifications.

Registered - unemployed population engaged in job search and officially registered.

Marginal - Unemployment of poorly protected sections of the population (youth, women, the disabled) and the social lower classes.

unstable - caused by temporary reasons (for example, when employees voluntarily change jobs or are fired in seasonal industries).

Structural - due to changes in the structure of demand for labor, when a structural mismatch is formed between the qualifications of the unemployed and the demand for vacant jobs. Structural unemployment is caused by a large-scale restructuring of the economy, changes in the structure of demand for consumer goods and production technology, the elimination of obsolete industries and professions, and there are 2 types of structural unemployment: stimulating and destructive.

institutional - Unemployment resulting from government intervention or in setting wage rates different from those that could be formed in a natural market economy.

Friction - the time of the employee's voluntary search for a new job that suits him in more than the previous workplace.

Hidden:

formally employed but actually unemployed persons; as a result of the decline in production, the labor force is not fully used, but not fired either
the presence of persons wishing to work, but not registered as unemployed. In part, hidden unemployment is represented by people who have stopped looking for work.

Firm's costs by volume of resource consumption

Permanent

Do not depend on production volumes, are not related to the number of products

(constant volume consumption)

Variables

related to the volume of production

dependent on production

(changing volume of consumption)

Costs for:

Paying management and maintenance staff

(time wage);

Depreciation deductions;

Interest payments on loans

Costs for:

- raw materials;

materials;

Fuel;

Certifications 50% discount

From 13 800 6 900 rub. / 300 hours

From 17 800 8 900 rub. / 600 hours

Portal for the student. Self-training

A guide to preparing for the exam in social studies

Types of unemployment

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