Norway country geography according to the plan. Norway: geography, government, infrastructure

Introduction

Relevance. The topic considered in the course work reveals the essence and features of the tourist resources of Norway, the economic conditions for the development of tourism in Norway and the comparison of the tourist resources of Norway and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

Norway is a country of amazing nature, combining mountains and waterfalls, tundra and glaciers, forests and seas. The nature of Norway is so diverse and changes so dramatically from north to south that it is hard to believe that all this can be in one country. The Norwegians managed to preserve their nature and create an oasis of prosperous life in difficult times. northern conditions. Norway has unique natural, cultural and historical attractions that annually attract a large flow of tourists.

The purpose of the study: to study the economic conditions for the development of tourism in Norway, the features of its tourist resources and their comparison with the resources of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

Object of research: tourist resources of Norway.

Subject of research: comparison of tourist resources of Norway and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

Research hypothesis: good infrastructure plays a major role in the implementation of the tourism business.

Research objectives:

Explore Features geographical location and natural and climatic conditions of Norway;

Economic conditions for the development of tourism;

Characteristics of industries, industries related to tourism;

Culture of Norway;

Tourist resources of Norway;

Compare the tourist resources of Norway and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

The scientific novelty lies in the comparison of the tourist resources of Norway and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

The theoretical and practical significance of the course work lies in the possibility of using the information contained in it to study the features of the tourist resources of Norway, the possibility of considering a comparison of the tourist resources of Norway and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

The structure of the course work. The course work contains a total of 38 pages, consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references from 19 titles.

TOURIST RESOURCES IN NORWAY

Features of the geographical location and natural and climatic conditions of Norway

Norway is located close to the prime meridian and not far from the north pole, in the northern part eastern hemisphere. Norway is located in the west of Europe, in the western and northern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It is washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, the North, Norwegian, Greenland and Barents Seas. Jutland is separated from the Jutland peninsula by the Skagerrak and Kattegat straits. Most of the territory of Norway is occupied by the Scandinavian mountains. Almost the entire territory of the country has a temperate climate, except for its northern regions, where the subarctic climate prevails. Most of the country is located in the altitudinal zone, only in the north-west of Norway there are zones of taiga and mixed and broad-leaved forests. Norway borders in the east with Switzerland, Finland and Russia.

Svalbard is an archipelago beyond the Arctic Circle. Territory - 62 thousand square meters. km. There are over 1,000 islands in the archipelago. Svalbard, together with Bear Island to the south, form the Norwegian administrative district of Svalbard, which is governed by a governor appointed by the King of Norway.

Norway is located two climatic zones. In the far north there is a very narrow strip of the subarctic belt. The predominant territory is occupied by the temperate zone. Within the temperate zone dominated by moderate air masses. In the subarctic zone, air masses change: in summer - moderate, in winter - arctic air masses. The temperate zone is dominated by a temperate climate, while the subarctic zone is dominated by a subarctic climate. The temperate zone is under the influence of two subtypes of air masses: in the west, maritime, in the central part, continental air masses.

In Norway, in the middle of winter there are polar nights, and in the middle of a short summer, the sun shines even at midnight. These regions are known as the Land of the Midnight Sun.

Assessment: the climate is favorable for the development of tourism, as there is little rainfall, the weather is not hot in summer, and the winter is not too cold.

Norway occupies the western, mountainous part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This is a large boulder, composed mainly of granites and gneisses and characterized by a rugged relief. The block is asymmetrically raised to the west, as a result, the eastern slopes (mainly in Sweden) are more gentle and long, and the western ones, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are very steep and short. In the south, within Norway, both slopes are present, and between them there is a vast upland.

To the north of the border between Norway and Finland, only a few peaks rise above 1200 m, but towards the south the heights of the mountains gradually increase, reaching maximum heights of 2469 m (Mount Gallhöppigen) and 2452 m (Mount Glittertinn) in the Jutunheimen massif. Other elevated areas of the highlands are only slightly inferior in height. These include Dovrefjell, Ronnane, Hardangervidda and Finnmarksvidda. Bare rocks are often exposed there, devoid of soil and vegetation cover. Outwardly, the surface of many highlands is more like gently undulating plateaus, and such areas are called "views".

The relief of the country is very favorable for tourism. Of particular interest are not only the coastal areas of the coasts, but also the mountainous areas of the country. Thanks to the varieties of landforms, it is possible to develop various types of tourism, such as ski tourism, surfing, camping, yachting and many others.

The Barents Sea is the marginal water area of the Arctic Ocean on the border with the Atlantic Ocean, between the northern coast of Europe in the south and the Vaygach Islands, New Earth, Franz Josef Land in the east, Svalbard and Bear Island in the west.

The area of the sea is 1.405 thousand km2, the average volume of water is 282 thousand km3, the average depth is 200 m.

The Barents Sea is rich in various fish species, plant and animal plankton and benthos. Seaweed is common off the south coast. Of the 114 species of fish living in the Barents Sea, 20 species are the most important for commercial purposes: cod, haddock, herring, sea bass, catfish, flounder, halibut, etc. Mammals are found: polar bear, seal, harp seal, beluga whale, etc. The seal is being hunted. Bird colonies abound on the coasts (guillemots, guillemots, kittiwakes).

From the point of view of tourism, the Barents Sea is not favorable. Since most of the year its part is covered with ice. And the water does not warm up more than 9 ° C.

The inland waters of Norway are represented by rivers and lakes. The largest river is the Glomma, which is 611 km long. It originates from Lake Eursunden in the southeastern part of the Scandinavian Mountains, near the border with Sweden, and flows into the Oslo Fjord. The Glomma, with tributaries, has a drainage basin that occupies about a third of the country's area.

River runoff is often naturally regulated by lakes. There are 200 thousand lakes in Norway, and they occupy 4.7% of the country's area. The largest, Mjøsa, has an area of 369 sq. km.

Landscape

This whole country is extremely mountainous; it forms a huge upland, consisting of gneiss, granite and other formations of the Archean and Paleozoic periods; in the eastern part it is cut by large valleys, and in the western and northern parts - deeply protruding into the land sea bays or fjords. In many places the mountains are rounded, and the landscape is chiefly the appearance of a great undulating plateau, in which the valleys and bays appear to be but very slight fissures.

A quarter of the entire area of the country is covered with forests. Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is occupied by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, the opportunities for plant growth and development are limited.

Political structure

The population of Norway is 5,006,000 people (2011), 114th in the world. The average population density is 16 people per 1 sq. km. Over 1/5 of the population is concentrated in the south of Norway, on a narrow coastal strip around Oslo Fjord (1/2) and Trondheims Fjord. The urban population is 80%, including over 1/5 in the metropolitan agglomeration.

The largest cities are the capital Oslo (906,681 people), Bergen (252,051 people), Trondheim (169,343 people), Stavanger (122,602 people). Norway is one of the countries with the highest life expectancy in the world. Life expectancy is increasing every year for both sexes. The population is increasing mainly due to natural increase. Newborn boys can live up to 77 years, and newborn girls can live up to almost 82 years. The most common causes of death in Norway are diseases of the heart and blood vessels ( cardiovascular diseases) and cancer. Norway ranks first in the Human Development Index. In terms of per capita income, Norway ranks 4th in the world (84,290 US dollars), in terms of life expectancy by 13-14m (80.2 years, according to the UN 2005-2011), the level of education of the population is 100%. (data as of 2011)

Mono-ethnic country: Norwegians make up more than 90%.

National minorities Saami (about 40 thousand people), Kvens (Norwegian Finns), Swedes, Russians and Ukrainians (in Svalbard), Gypsies, Jews.

In recent decades, a significant number of immigrants, including Russians, have appeared in the country.

The official language is Norwegian..

The dominant religion is Evangelical Lutheranism (82.7% of believers).

The form of government is a constitutional monarchy, the form of government is unitary. King - Harald V, Prime Minister - Jens Stoltenberg. Norway is subdivided into 19 counties, which are combined into 5 main unofficial regions. The capital of Norway and the seat of government is Oslo.

The Storting is the supreme state power in Norway. The Storting is made up of 165 representatives from many political parties. Norwegians elect representatives to the Storting for a term of 4 years.

Also in Norway there is the Sameting (Saami Parliament), which is designed to strengthen the political position of the Saami people.

Norway (Kingdom of Norway) is a state in the North of Europe, occupying the western and northern parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Territory - 323895 sq. km; together with the Svalbard archipelago, Jan Mayen Island and others - 387 thousand square meters. km. The population is about 4.3 million, Norwegians (98%), Sami, Kvens, Finns, Swedes, etc. The capital is Oslo. The official language is Norwegian. Religion - Lutheranism.

The monetary unit is the Norwegian krone.

Norway gained independence in 1905

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king. Administrative - territorial division (18 county). The supreme legislative body is the Storting (unicameral parliament). Executive power is exercised by the government appointed by the king.

Natural conditions and resources of Norway

Norway is located in a maritime temperate climate with cool summers (+6 - +15 degrees Celsius) and fairly warm winters (+2 - -12 degrees Celsius). Precipitation on the plains is 500-600 mm, on the windward side of the mountains their amount increases to 2000-2500 mm. The seas don't freeze.

Most of the territory of Norway is occupied by the Scandinavian mountains. Here is the highest Mountain peak Northern Europe - Mount Gallhepiggen. The coastline of Norway is indented by long deep bays - fjords.

Norway has large reserves of hydropower, forests (productive forest occupies 23.3% of the territory), deposits of iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, titanium, molybdenum, silver, granite, marble, etc. Proven oil reserves are more than 800 million tons ., natural gas - 1210 billion cubic meters. Total capital investment in the offshore oil sector reached a record high of NOK 60 billion, or 7.5% of GDP, significantly contributed to the growth of other industries that manufactured equipment for oil production and created the corresponding infrastructure. The purpose of this huge investment is to increase the profitability of the oil industry and improve the state of the country's macro economy. Investments are mainly focused on the giant Stotford field, discovered 20 years ago at the dawn of Norway's oil era.

If oil production tends to decrease, then gas production in Norway is on the rise. Norway is successfully turning into an important gas producing country. Its share in the Western European gas market is approaching 15%. Gas production is expected to reach 70 billion cubic meters by the end of the century, and contracts for the sale of gas have already exceeded a total of 50 billion cubic meters per year.

More than half of all discovered gas fields in Western Europe are located on the Norwegian continental shelf. According to representatives of the Norwegian state company Statoil, unlike the 20th century, which was the century of oil, the 21st century is likely to become the century of gas, especially since concern for the cleanliness of the environment is becoming more and more important. with a high share in the economy of energy-intensive industries, as well as shipping, fishing and, in recent years, the oil refining and petrochemical industries.

The dominant position in the economy is occupied by the private capitalist sector. In the post-war period, an intensive process of capital concentration takes place in the country. Large enterprises (500 or more employed), accounting for 1% of the total number of industrial enterprises (82% of enterprises are small, with up to 50 employees), account for about 25% of all employees; The 3 largest banks control about 60% of bank capital. The concentration of production is accompanied by the disappearance of a large number of small and medium enterprises. The number of small farms is also decreasing. The penetration of foreign capital into the country is constantly increasing, mainly American, British, Swedish (mainly in the oil industry and shipping)

Population

There are two indigenous, aboriginal peoples in Norway - the Norwegians, who make up 97% of the country's population (3,920 thousand), and the Saami (30 thousand).

The Norwegian language belongs to the Germanic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Until now, there are two of its literary forms - riksmol (or Bokmål) and lannsmol (or nynorshk). Norwegians live in forested and arable valleys and in coastal areas. The traditional occupations of the Norwegians are agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, and now they work in a wide variety of industries.

To the mountain colors of northern and partly middle Norway, the Sami live in the forest-tundra and tundra.

By religious affiliation, almost all believers in Norway are Protestants (Lutherans).

There are more than 50,000 permanent or long-term foreigners living in Norwegian cities, many of whom have retained their national citizenship. These are emigrants from economically highly developed and developing countries who came to Norway after the war in search of work.

Emigrants from England (8 thousand), Iceland (1 thousand) and the USA (11 thousand) are predominantly highly qualified specialists. They communicate with Norwegians in English or have mastered the Norwegian language, rarely maintain compatriot contacts in Norway, and therefore do not form a community. Almost a third of the economically active population of Norway is employed in industry. A little more than 1/10 of the economically active population works in fishing, agriculture and forestry. A relatively large share is employed in transport, especially in the navy. Norwegians are considered the most "seafaring" nation in the world. Employment in the service sector is growing every year, where almost half of the economically active population works.

At the same time, the plateaus of the southern part of Norway are almost deserted. The northern part of Norway is very sparsely populated, occupying about half of the country's area. 10% of the population lives here. Its average density in the north is less than one person per 1 sq. km. km. The population is concentrated in coastal cities and towns. In summer, the Saami roam in the mountains with herds of deer. Between the southern and northern parts of Norway there is a low area around the Tronnheimsfjord, where the average density reaches 4-5 people per 1 sq. km. km. Norway in the past was a peasant country. In 1890, the rural population was over 70% and the urban population a little over 20%. By the end, since the 1970s, the proportion of city dwellers had tripled. Now the share of the urban population in Norway is 78%.

A city in Norway is considered to be a densely populated area in which the distance between houses is no more than 50 m, where at least 3/4 of the economically active population is employed in all “urban sectors of the economy” (i.e., in any non-forest and non-agricultural work), and where the number of inhabitants at least 2 thousand. Norway is characterized by small towns. There are 532 urban settlements, and only in 32 of them the number of inhabitants exceeds 10 thousand people. The most populated Norwegian cities are the country's capital Oslo (720 thousand inhabitants), Bergen and Trondheim. Most Norwegian cities are located on the sea coast. Only a few small towns are found in the Estlann valleys.

The rural population lives either on farms or in small fishing villages. Rural residents often combine work on their plots with fishing or with work in factories in a nearby city.

Norway stands out for the equal participation of women in all spheres of public life. So, almost half of the country's parliament is women.

Industry in Norway

About 400 thousand workers and employees are employed in the industrial production of Norway, including electricity, of which about 95% work in manufacturing enterprises, and the rest in the mining industry and the electric power industry.

In the sectoral structure, the so-called export industries stand out sharply for their large scale and high technical level, most of whose products are exported. On the one hand, fish-processing and pulp and paper enterprises operating mainly on local raw materials, and on the other hand, electrometallurgy and electrochemistry processing imported raw materials with the help of abundant and cheap electricity. The export industries should also include the mining industry - mines, the products of which are exported in the form of concentrates, and, of course, the oil and gas fields of the North Sea. In addition, mechanical engineering, especially large-tonnage shipbuilding, electrical engineering and electronics, which, as a rule, work in close industrial and economic cooperation with Swedish, Danish and other foreign partners, are becoming increasingly export-oriented. The branches of the "domestic market" include, first of all, light and food (without fish processing) industry. These industries, due to strong foreign competition, are experiencing increasing difficulties from year to year. Norway's industry is very unevenly distributed. The vast majority of the country's industrial potential falls on the enterprises of the southern regions - Estlanna, Sørlanda and Vestlanna, which provide 4/5 of all industrial output. Approximately 1/10 falls on the friction-lag area. On the vast territory of Northern Norway, in spite of the construction of large state enterprises there, no more than 1/10 of the industrial output of the country is now produced.

Almost 9/10 of Norway's industrial enterprises are concentrated in port cities. This facilitates and reduces the cost of the delivery of raw materials and the shipment of finished products.

One of the main factors of the entire industrial development of Norway is a highly developed energy sector. It is based mainly on hydropower and liquid fuels. Until recent years, Norway was rightly considered a classic country of hydropower. Outstripping all countries of foreign Europe in terms of hydropower reserves (120 billion kWh per year), it ranks first in the world in terms of electricity production per capita. Almost all of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of more than 18 million kW. Thanks to numerous natural lakes-reservoirs on high plateaus, waterfalls and steeply falling rivers, it is not necessary to build expensive dams, which makes the cost of electricity extremely cheap. In Norway, water resources are distributed relatively evenly throughout the country, which makes it possible to build powerful energy complexes in the Estland valleys, on the Tele-Park plateau, in the Westland fjords and on the rapids of the rivers of Northern Norway. Almost all large power plants are connected by power lines into a single power system, which in turn is connected with electrometallurgical and electrochemical enterprises and with all cities. Back in the mid-1970s, hydropower accounted for more than half of Norway's energy balance. About 2/5 of the generated electricity is consumed by industry, including 1/3 by metallurgy. In some years, excess electricity is transferred to Denmark (via an underwater cable) and to Sweden. Hard coal plays an insignificant role in the energy balance of the country. Its share, including about 0.5 million tons produced in Svalbard and about the same amount imported from abroad, does not exceed 3-4% 350 km southwest of Stavanger). as well as gas and oil - 200 km west of Bergen. In 1971, a first ton of oil was produced in the Ekofisk field, and in 1979 its production reached almost 40 million tons, which is four times higher than all the country's current needs for liquid fuel. Norway was the first of the developed capitalist countries to become a net exporter of oil. Oil from a whole complex of drilling platforms is supplied through a 335-kilometer pipeline to the coast of East Anglia, and the produced gas goes through pipes to the northern coast of Germany; The state fisheries of Sgatfjord (northwest of Bergen) are being exploited. The rapid development of oil and gas production led to the rise of the oil refining and petrochemical industries. Monopoly capital relies on accelerated production of oil and gas, primarily for export to the countries of Western Europe. However, the Norwegian authorities are trying to control the growth rate of oil and gas production. The extraction of metal raw materials has received significant development in Norway: iron ore, titanium, molybdenum, copper, zinc, and pyrites. Enriched iron ore of one of the most northern world mines Sør-Varaiger - sent through the neighboring port of Kirkenes to Western Europe and partly to the smelter in Mo i Rana. It is also supplied with raw materials by the Dundermann mine. In total, more than 4 million tons of iron concentrate are produced, half of which is exported. In terms of the extraction of titanium ore from the Haugs mine in the Titania deposit on the southwestern coast of the country (about 1 million tons of ilmenite concentrate), Norway is one of the first places in the world; while almost all products are exported. The Kiaben molybdenum mine in the Serlanna mountains is also one of the largest in the world. The extraction of copper and zinc ores is small - about 30 thousand tons each per year. Pyrites, mined mainly in Trennelag (Lekken mine), are used to extract copper from them. Zinc and sulfuric acid production.

One of characteristic features structure of the Norwegian industry - the widespread development of electrometallurgy. The country occupies one of the leading places in the world in the production of aluminum, nickel, magnesium, and ferroalloys. In addition, a large amount of alloyed electric steel, zinc, and cobalt is smelted. For example, in the smelting of aluminum and nickel, it is in 5th place, a. second only to the United States in magnesium production. Ferroalloys, zinc and cobalt smelted in Norway are considered the highest quality in the world. The main part of electrometallurgy products is made from imported raw materials and almost completely exported. Many electrometallurgical enterprises are located on the coast of the country - from the extreme south to the polar regions. With the development of powerful power transmission lines, the choice of a plant construction site is determined primarily by favorable conditions for the construction of berths for ships delivering raw materials and exporting finished products, as well as the availability of the necessary labor force. The country's only relatively large ferrous metallurgy plant (the northernmost in the world) was built by the state in the 50s in the subpolar town of Mo i Rana. It smelts annually up to 700 thousand tons of electric iron and up to 900 thousand tons of electric steel.

A relatively young industry in Norway is mechanical engineering. In the post-war years, with the participation of foreign capital, large shipyards, factories for the production of offshore oil drilling platforms, hydraulic turbines, industrial and household electrical and electronic equipment, and production lines for the fish processing industry were created in Norway. At present, more than one-third of the country's industrial workers are employed in all branches of mechanical engineering and metal-working, and about one-third of the gross industrial output is produced, a significant part of which is exported. Norway also trades in projects and licenses, in particular for offshore drilling platforms. The main centers of mechanical engineering are Oslo, Bergen, Stavanger, Drammen. The oldest branch of industry in the country - the timber industry of Norway was. The first of the Nordic countries to start a wide export of timber to Western Europe, primarily to the UK. However, predatory deforestation - especially in the western and southern regions of the country, has sharply reduced their ranges. With increasing competition from richer timber Sweden and Finland, Norway has gradually shifted to higher value products such as mechanical wood pulp, pulp, paperboard and paper. Pulp and paper production is one of the main branches of the country's international industrial specialization. More than 1.5 million tons of wood pulp and pulp and more than 1.3 million tons of various grades of paper and paperboard are produced annually, the vast majority of which is exported. The main centers of sawmilling and pulp and paper production are located around the Oslo Fjord, usually at the mouths of the rafting rivers flowing down the wooded slopes of Östland. This is primarily Sarpsborg, Halden, Mose, Drammen, Skien. Individual enterprises are located directly in the forest areas - in the large valleys of Estland and in Trennelag.

The formation of the modern chemical industry in Norway began at the beginning of the 20th century. in the province of Telemark electrochemical production. These were the plants of the Norsh Hydro concern, which received electricity from a cascade of hydroelectric power plants, extracted nitrogen from the air and produced ammonia and its compounds, including the so-called Norwegian saltpeter. Now the capacity of the concern's plants for the production of "bound nitrogen" exceeds half a million tons. as “by-products” the concern's plant in Rjukan produces heavy water and noble gases - argon, neon, etc. From other electrochemical industries, the production of calcium carbide has been established. In recent years, petrochemistry has been rapidly developing and, based on it, the production of plastics and other synthetic materials. businesses are located mainly in the coastal towns of Estland and on the west coast.

Agriculture

Agriculture is dominated by small farms (up to 10 hectares of land). Distributed production and marketing cooperation. The leading branch is intensive animal husbandry of the meat and dairy direction, as well as crop production (forage grasses) that serves it. Sheep breeding and pig breeding are developed. Cultivated crops (mainly barley and oats). Approximately 40% of the population provides for itself with agricultural products of its own production.

An important place in the economy is occupied by fishing, which is an industry of international specialization in Norway (it is the second largest exporter of fish products in the world). Fish catch in 1985 amounted to 2.3 million tons. Forestry is of great importance, since large tracts of coniferous forests have long been a source of wealth for the countries of Northern Europe.

Norway's agriculture is somewhat vulnerable due to difficult northern climatic conditions, so it needs constant government funding.

Transport

Shipping plays a leading role in both internal and external transport links. This is due to the specifics of the geographic location, the strong indentation of the coastline, combined with the mountainous terrain and the historical seafaring skills of the Norwegians. By sea is 9/10 of foreign trade and more than 1/2 of domestic cargo turnover Norway is one of the leading shipping powers in the world In terms of merchant fleet tonnage, it is in 5th place.

It is an important source of foreign exchange to cover the usually deficit trade balance. More than 80% of the Norwegian fleet is engaged in the transportation of goods between foreign ports, which brings the country several billion crowns of foreign currency per year. Every year, more than 50 million tons of various cargoes pass through the seaports of Norway. About half of these are iron ore in transit from Sweden, which is exported through the port of Narvik. other major ports are Oslo, Bergen, Stavanger.

The length and transport role of railways and motor roads is rather limited. The total length of railways, usually single-track, is 4.24 thousand km, of which slightly more than half are electrified. The most important railway junction - the capital of Norway Oslo is connected by lines with Stockholm, Gothenburg (Sweden) and the main cities of the country - Bergen, Trondheim and Stavanger.

The length of roads is 79.8 thousand km. There are 1.3 million cars in the country, of which 1.1 million are cars.

Norway's main air gate is Forneby Airport, near Oslo. Norway is one of the first places in the world in terms of passenger transportation by aircraft (per capita.)

Foreign economic relations and culture

Foreign trade, which plays an extremely important role in the economic life of Norway, is characterized by a traditional large deficit: the value of imports of goods far exceeds the value of their exports. This deficit, in the conditions of a favorable development of international trade, was usually almost completely covered by income from foreign shipping. However, now these revenues are often not enough, and the country is forced to resort more to foreign loans, as a result of which its external debt is growing rapidly.

The structure of exports reflects all the shifts in the structure of the Norwegian economy. The share of fish and fish products is systematically falling, which in the early 1950s accounted for up to 25%, and now - only a little more than 5% of the value of exports. The same can be said about timber products. Somewhat decreased (from 30% in 1960 to 20% in the late 70s) the share of products of electrometallurgy and electrochemistry. On the other hand, the share of engineering products is constantly growing. Now it has reached more than 30% and includes a wide range of products. In recent years, exports of oil and gas (through pipelines) have risen sharply. However, the pace of development of the oil economy is declining, oil production is gradually declining, while gas production, on the contrary, is on the rise. Therefore, gas exports are increasing sharply, and contracts for the sale of gas have already exceeded the total volume of 50 billion cubic meters per year.

Imports are wider and more varied. The import of various engineering products, including ships and cars, is the most significant. 4/5 of all exports go to European countries and about 3/4 of imports come from there. Including trade with the countries of Northern Europe accounts for approximately 1/4 of imports and exports.

Among the largest trading partners of Norway are Great Britain, Sweden and Germany. Russian-Norwegian trade is developing.

Kingdom of Norway, a state in Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Territory area - 385.2 thousand square meters. km. It ranks second in size (after Sweden) among the Scandinavian countries. The length of the border with Russia is 196 km, with Finland - 727 km, with Sweden - 1619 km. The length of the coastline is 2650 km, and taking into account the fjords and small islands - 25 148 km.

Norway is called the land of the midnight sun because 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun barely sets below the horizon from May to July. In the middle of winter, in the far north, polar night lasts almost around the clock, and in the south, daylight hours last only a few hours.
Norway is a country of picturesque landscapes, with jagged mountain ranges, glacier-carved valleys, and narrow, steep-sided fjords. The beauty of this country inspired the composer Edvard Grieg, who tried to convey in his works the mood swings inspired by the alternation of light and dark seasons of the year.

Norway has long been a country of seafarers, and most of its population is concentrated on the coast. The Vikings, experienced sailors who created an extensive system of overseas trade, ventured across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the New World ca. 1000 AD In the modern era, the role of the sea in the life of the country is evidenced by the huge merchant fleet, which in 1997 occupied the sixth place in the world in terms of total tonnage, as well as the developed fish processing industry.

Norway is a hereditary democratic constitutional monarchy. It received state independence only in 1905. Prior to that, it was ruled first by Denmark and then by Sweden. The union with Denmark existed from 1397 to 1814, when Norway passed to Sweden.
The area of the Norwegian mainland is 324 thousand square meters. km. The length of the country is 1770 km - from Cape Linnesnes in the south to the North Cape in the north, and its width ranges from 6 to 435 km. The shores of the country are washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Skagerrak in the south and the Arctic Ocean in the north. The total length of the coastline is 3,420 km, and including the fjords - 21,465 km. In the east, Norway borders on Russia (the length of the border is 196 km), Finland (720 km) and Sweden (1660 km).

Overseas possessions include the Spitsbergen archipelago, consisting of nine large islands (the largest of them is Western Spitsbergen) with a total area of 63 thousand square meters. km in the Arctic Ocean; o.Jan Mayen with an area of 380 sq. km in the North Atlantic Ocean between Norway and Greenland; small islands of Bouvet and Peter I in Antarctica. Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.

NATURE

Terrain relief.

During the great ice age, glaciation developed in the mountains of Norway, but modern glaciers are small. The largest of them are Jostedalsbre (the largest glacier in Europe) in the Jotunheimen mountains, Svartisen in northern central Norway and Folgefonni in the Hardangervidda region. The small Engabre glacier, located at 70° N, approaches the shore of the Kvenangenfjord, where small icebergs calve at the end of the glacier. However, usually the snow line in Norway is located at altitudes of 900-1500 m. Many features of the country's topography were formed during the Ice Age. Probably, there were several continental glaciations at that time, and each of them contributed to the development of glacial erosion, deepening and straightening of ancient river valleys and their transformation into picturesque U-shaped steep troughs, deeply cutting through the surface of the uplands.

After the melting of the continental glaciation, the lower reaches of the ancient valleys were flooded, where fjords formed. The fjord shores amaze with their extraordinary picturesqueness and are of great economic importance. Many fjords are very deep. For example, Sognefjord, located 72 km north of Bergen, reaches a depth of 1308 m in the lower part. A chain of coastal islands - the so-called. skergor (in Russian literature, the Swedish term shkhergord is more often used) protects the fjords from strong westerly winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Some islands are exposed rocks washed by the surf, others reach considerable sizes.

Most Norwegians live on the banks of the fjords. The most significant are Oslo Fjord, Hardanger Fjord, Sognefjord, Nord Fjord, Stor Fjord and Tronnheims Fjord. The main occupations of the population are fishing in the fjords, agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry in some places along the banks of the fjords and in the mountains. In the fjord areas, industry is poorly developed, except for individual manufacturing enterprises that use rich hydropower resources. In many parts of the country, bedrock comes to the surface.

Water resources.

In the east of Norway are the largest rivers, including the Glomma 591 km long. In the west of the country the rivers are short and fast. There are many picturesque lakes in southern Norway. Lake Mjosa, the largest in the country, with an area of 390 sq. km is located in the southeast. At the end of the 19th century Several small canals have been constructed connecting the lakes to seaports on the south coast, but these are now little used. The hydropower resources of the rivers and lakes of Norway make a significant contribution to its economic potential.

Climate.

Despite the northern position, Norway has a favorable climate with cool summers and relatively mild (for the corresponding latitudes) winters - the result of the Gulf Stream. The average annual precipitation varies from 3330 mm in the west, where moisture-carrying winds first arrive, to 250 mm in some isolated river valleys in the east of the country. The average January temperature of 0°C is typical for the southern and western coasts, while in the interior it drops to -4°C or less. In July, average temperatures on the coast are approx. 14 ° C, and in the interior - approx. 16 ° C, but there are higher.

Soils, flora and fauna.

Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is covered by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, the opportunities for plant growth and development are limited. Five geobotanical regions are distinguished: a treeless coastal region with meadows and shrubs, deciduous forests to the east of it, coniferous forests further inland and to the north, a belt of dwarf birches, willows and perennial grasses higher and even further to the north; finally, at the highest altitudes - a belt of grasses, mosses and lichens. Coniferous forests are one of Norway's most important natural resources and provide a variety of export products. Reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes and eiders are commonly found in the Arctic region. Ermine, hare, elk, fox, squirrel and - in small numbers - wolf and brown bear are found in the forests to the very south of the country. The red deer is distributed along the southern coast.

POPULATION

Demography.

Norway's population is small and growing at a slow pace. In 2004, 4574 thousand people lived in the country. In 2004, per 1,000 people, the birth rate was 11.89, the death rate was 9.51, and the population growth was 0.41%. This figure is higher than natural population growth due to immigration, which in the 1990s reached 8-10 thousand people a year. Improvements in health and living standards have ensured a steady, albeit slow, increase in population over the last two generations. Norway, along with Sweden, is characterized by record low rates of infant mortality - 3.73 per 1000 newborns (2004) against 7.5 in the USA. In 2004 life expectancy for men was 76.64 years and for women 82.01 years. Although Norway's divorce rate was below some of its neighboring Nordic countries, after 1945 this figure increased, and in the mid-1990s, about half of all marriages ended in divorce (as in the US and Sweden). 48% of children born in Norway in 1996 are illegitimate. After the restrictions introduced in 1973, for some time immigration was sent to Norway mainly from the Scandinavian countries, but after 1978 a significant stratum of people of Asian origin appeared (about 50 thousand people). In the 1980s and 1990s, Norway accepted refugees from Pakistan, African countries and the republics of the former Yugoslavia.

In July 2005, 4.59 million people lived in the country. 19.5% of residents were under the age of 15, 65.7% were between the ages of 15 and 64, and 14.8% were 65 or older. The average age of a resident of Norway is 38.17 years. In 2005, per 1,000 people, the birth rate was 11.67, the death rate was 9.45, and the population growth was 0.4%. Immigration in 2005 - 1.73 per 1000 people. Infant mortality - 3.7 per 1000 newborns. The average life expectancy is 79.4 years.

Density and distribution of the population.

Apart from Iceland, Norway is the least populated country in Europe. In addition, the distribution of the population is extremely uneven. Oslo, the capital, is home to 495,000 people (1997), and about a third of the country's population is concentrated in the Oslofjord area. Other large cities - Bergen (224 thousand), Trondheim (145 thousand), Stavanger (106 thousand), Berum (98 thousand), Kristiansand (70 thousand), Fredrikstad (66 thousand), Tromsø (57 thousand .) and Drammen (53 thousand). The capital city is located at the top of the Oslofjord, where ocean-going ships dock close to the town hall. Bergen also occupies an advantageous position at the top of the fjord. The tomb of the kings of ancient Norway is located in Trondheim, founded in 997 AD, famous for its cathedral and Viking Age sites.

It is noteworthy that almost all major cities are located either along the coast of the sea or the fjord, or close to them. The strip, confined to a winding coastline, has always been attractive for settlements due to its access to the sea and temperate climatic conditions. With the exception of large valleys in the east and some areas in the west of the central highlands, all interior highlands are sparsely populated. However, certain areas are visited in certain seasons by hunters, nomadic Sami with herds of reindeer, or Norwegian farmers who graze their livestock there. After the construction of new and reconstruction of old roads, as well as with the opening of air traffic, some mountainous areas became available for permanent residence. The main occupations of the inhabitants of such remote areas are mining, servicing hydroelectric power plants and tourists.

Farmers and fishermen live in small settlements scattered along the banks of the fjords or river valleys. Farming in the highlands is difficult, and many small, marginal farms have been abandoned there. Not counting Oslo and its environs, the population density ranges from 93 people per 1 sq. km in Vestfold, southwest of Oslo, up to 1.5 people per 1 sq. km. km in Finnmark in the far north of the country. Approximately every fourth inhabitant of Norway lives in a rural area.

Ethnography and language.

Norwegians are an extremely homogeneous people of Germanic origin. A special ethnic group is the Saami, who number approx. 20 thousand. They have lived in the far north for at least 2 thousand years, and some of them still lead a nomadic lifestyle.
Despite the ethnic homogeneity of Norway, two forms of the Norwegian language are clearly distinguished. Bokmål, or the book language (or riksmol, the state language), which is used by most Norwegians, originated from the Danish-Norwegian language, common among educated people at a time when Norway was ruled by Denmark (1397-1814). Nynoshk, or New Norwegian language (otherwise called Lansmol - rural language), received formal recognition in the 19th century. It was created by the linguist I. Osen on the basis of rural, mainly western, dialects with an admixture of elements of the medieval Old Norse language. Approximately one-fifth of all schoolchildren voluntarily choose to study as a nurse. This language is widely used in rural areas in the west of the country. At present, there is a tendency to merge both languages into a single one - the so-called. Samnoshk.

Religion.

The Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church, which has state status, is under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, Science and Religion and includes 11 dioceses. By law, the king and at least half of all ministers must be Lutheran, although there is discussion about changing this provision. Church councils play a very active role in the life of parishes, especially in the west and south of the country. The Norwegian church supported many public events and equipped important missions to Africa and India. In terms of the number of missionaries in relation to population, Norway probably ranks first in the world. Since 1938 women have been entitled to be priests. The first woman was appointed a priest in 1961. The vast majority of Norwegians (86%) belong to the state church. Church ceremonies such as the baptism of children, the confirmation of adolescents, and the funeral of the dead are widespread. A large audience is collected by daily radio programs on religious topics. However, only 2% of the population attend church regularly.

Despite the state status of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Norwegians enjoy complete freedom of religion. Under a law passed in 1969, the state also provides financial support to other officially registered churches and religious organizations. In 1996, the most numerous of them were Pentecostals (43.7 thousand), Lutheran Free Church (20.6 thousand), United Methodist Church (42.5 thousand), Baptists (10.8 thousand), denominations of Jehovah's Witnesses (15.1 thousand) and Seventh-day Adventists (6.3 thousand), the Missionary Union (8 thousand), as well as Muslims (46.5 thousand), Catholics (36.5 thousand) and Jews (1 thousand).

The religious composition of the population in 2004: parishioners of the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church - 85.7%, Pentecostals - 1%, Catholics - 1%, other Christians - 2.4%, Muslims - 1.8%, others - 8.1%.

STATE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

State device.

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. Norway has a constitution of 1814 with numerous subsequent amendments and additions. King of Norway (since January 17, 1991) - Harald V. The king communicates between the three branches of government. The monarchy is hereditary, and since 1990 the eldest son or daughter has passed the throne, although Princess Mertha Louise has made an exception to this rule. Officially, the King makes all political appointments, attends all ceremonies, and chairs (along with the Crown Prince) the formal weekly meetings of the State Council (government). Executive power is vested in the Prime Minister, who acts on behalf of the King. The Cabinet of Ministers consists of the Prime Minister and 16 ministers who head their respective departments. Since October 2005, the post of Prime Minister of Norway has been occupied by the leader of the Norwegian Workers' Party, Jens Stoltenberg. Legislative power belongs to the Storting (parliament), since 2005 it consists of 169 deputies (previously -165).

The government is collectively responsible for the policy, although each minister has the right to publicly express disagreement on a particular issue. Members of the cabinet of ministers are approved by the majority party or a coalition in parliament - the Storting. They may take part in parliamentary debates but do not have the right to vote. The posts of civil servants are granted after passing competitive examinations.

Legislative power is vested in the Storting, which has 165 members elected for a four-year term by party lists in each of the 19 counties (counties). A deputy is elected for each member of the Storting. Thus, there is always a replacement for those who are absent and for members of the Storting who have joined the government. Voting rights in Norway are vested in all citizens who have reached the age of 18 and have lived in the country for at least five years. In order to be nominated to the Storting, citizens must have lived in Norway for at least 10 years and, by the time of the election, have had a place of residence in this constituency. After the elections, the Storting is divided into two chambers - the Lagting (41 deputies) and the Odelsting (124 deputies). Formal bills (as opposed to resolutions) must be discussed and voted on by both houses separately, but in case of disagreement, a 2/3 majority in a joint meeting of the houses must be met to pass the bill. However, most cases are decided at meetings of commissions, the composition of which is appointed depending on the representation of the parties. The Lagting also meets with the Supreme Court to discuss impeachment proceedings against any government official on the Odelsting. Minor complaints against the government are considered by a special commissioner of the Storting - the ombudsman. Amendments to the constitution require approval by a 2/3 majority at two consecutive meetings of the Storting.

Judiciary.
The Supreme Court (Høyesterett) consists of five judges who hear civil and criminal appeals from the five regional courts of appeal (Lagmannsrett). The latter, consisting of three judges each, simultaneously serve as courts of first instance in more serious criminal cases. At a lower level, there is a city or county court headed by a professional judge, assisted by two lay assistants. Each city also has an arbitration board (forliksråd) consisting of three citizens elected by the local council to mediate local disputes.
Local government.
The territory of Norway is divided into 19 regions (fylke), the city of Oslo is equated to one of them. These areas are subdivided into urban and rural districts (communes). Each of them has a council whose members are elected for a term of four years. Above the county councils is the regional council, which is elected by direct vote. Local governments have large funds, having the right to self-taxation. These funds are directed to education, health and social welfare, as well as infrastructure development. However, the police are subordinate to the State Department of Justice, and some powers are concentrated at the regional level. In 1969, the Union of the Norwegian Sami was organized, and in 1989 the parliamentary assembly of this people (Sameting) was elected. The Svalbard archipelago is governed by a governor based there.

Political parties Norway has a multi-party system. In the elections held in September 2005, the center-left coalition, which included the Norwegian Workers' Party, the Socialist Left Party and the Center Party, won.

The Norwegian Workers' Party (NRP) is a social democratic, part of the Socialist International and proclaims the principles of democratic socialism. Founded in 1887, it claimed to be a radical alternative to the political establishment. In 1919 she joined the Communist International, but left it in 1923. In the elections of 1927 the ILP became the largest party and in 1928 for the first time formed a government that lasted only 2 weeks in power. In the beginning. 1930s, the party officially abandoned revolutionary rhetoric and proclaimed a reformist political course. In 1935 the CHP came back to power and retained it until 1965 (with the exception of the period of German occupation in 1940-1945 and one month in 1963). The cabinets were headed by ILP leaders J. Nygorsvoll (1935-1940), Einar Gerhardsen (1945-1951, 1955-1963 and 1963-1965) and Oskar Thorp (1951-1955). During this period, the party advocated the expansion of state regulation of the economy and the social sphere, ensuring full employment, reducing working hours, lowering taxes on people with low and middle incomes, and developing industrial democracy. Having ceded power to a coalition of bourgeois parties in 1965, the CHP was again the ruling party in 1971-1972, 1973-1981, 1986-1989, 1990-1997 and 2000-2001 -1981, Gro Harlem Brundtland in 1981, 1986-1989 and 1990-1997), Thorbjørn Jagland in 1997 and Jens Stoltenberg in 2000-2001). In the 1980s and 1990s, CHP governments pursued austerity policies, privatized parts of the public and service sectors, and reduced tax progressivity. This was the reason for the defeat of the party in the elections of 2001. In 2005, by proposing to conduct a more active social policy in favor of people with low and middle incomes, the CHP collected 32.7% of the vote and won 61 seats in the Storting. Party leader - Jens Stoltenberg (Prime Minister).
The "Socialist Left Party" (SLP) was formed in 1975 on the basis of the merger of the "Socialist People's Party" (created by opponents of NATO and supporters of the neutrality of Norway, who broke away from the CHP in 1961) and a number of other leftist parties that created the Socialist Electoral Union in 1973. The SLP advocated for a policy of peace and disarmament, for reducing economic inequality and reducing unemployment, limiting large private enterprise, developing and democratizing the public sector, active social policy and expanding the powers of local government. In recent decades, it has given priority to education, as well as environmental protection, and calls itself a "left-green" party. Opposes Norway's membership in the European Union (EU), condemned the dispatch of Western troops to Afghanistan in 2001 and the US-led military intervention in Iraq in 2003. In the 2005 elections, the SLP won 8.8% of the vote and won 15 seats in the Storting. Leader - Kristin Halvorsen.

The Center Party (PC) was founded in 1920 as the political wing of the farmers' movement. Until 1959 it was called the "Peasant Party". Currently seeks to rely on all segments of the population. The LC stands for the decentralization of political and economic power and capital, the expansion of local government and the protection of the environment. In the 1930s, the extreme right sentiment was strong in the party, but subsequently its policy was distinguished by pragmatism. Participated in the bourgeois coalition governments in 1963, 1965-1971 (this cabinet was headed by the leader of the PC Per Borten), 1972-1973, 1983-1986, 1989-1990 and 1997-2000. Strongly opposed to Norway joining the EU. In the 2005 elections, she acted in a bloc with leftist parties, collected 6.5% of the vote and has 11 seats in parliament. Leader - Oslaug Haga.

Opposition parties:

The Progress Party is a right-wing nationalist party founded in 1973 by politician Anders Lange, who put forward the slogan of radical tax cuts. The party calls for cuts in government spending, incl. for social needs, to limit government bureaucracy, privatization and to reduce immigration to Norway. Other right-wing and centre-right parties avoid a formal coalition with the Progress Party, but sometimes enjoy the support of its MPs in parliament. In the 2005 elections, it became the second most powerful political party in the country, receiving 22% of the vote and 38 seats in the Storting. Leader - Carl Ivar Hagen.

The Høire (Right) Party is Norway's traditional conservative party. It exists since the 1860s, officially took shape in 1884. The party advocates the development of private property and private enterprise (the so-called "democracy of owners"), tax cuts, social spending, state regulation of the economy and accession to the EU. In the field of rights and freedoms, he occupies rather liberal positions (supports granting homosexuals the right to adopt children). The party has repeatedly headed the country's governments (Jon Leung in 1963, Kore Willok in 1981-1986, Jan Per Suce in 1989-1990), and also participated in coalition cabinets in 1965-1971, 1972-1973 and 2001-2005. In the 2005 elections, she won 14.1% of the vote and won 23 seats in the Storting. Leader - Erna Solberg.

The "Christian People's Party" (HNP) was formed in 1933 by former members of the country's liberal party. It is based on the traditional values of the Lutheran Church, advocates for the protection of the family, against abortion and the expansion of gay rights, as well as against the development of biotechnology. In the socio-economic field, the HNP recognizes the need for state care for citizens, but calls for limiting the participation of the state in economic life. Its representatives led coalition governments in 1972-1973 (Lars Korvald), 1997-2000 and 2001-2005 (Kjell Magne Bondevik); The HNP also took part in the ruling coalitions in 1963, 1965-1971, 1983-1986 and 1989-1990. In the 2005 elections, the party won 6.5% of the vote and has 11 seats in the Storting. Leader - Dagfinn Heybroten.

Party "Venstre" ("Left") - traditional liberal party, took shape in 1884 and played a leading role in the struggle for Norway's independence from Sweden. The party advocates from the positions of social liberalism: it stands up for the development of private initiative, but recognizes the need for state regulation in the social sphere, in education, environmental protection, etc. In 1963, 1965-1971 and 1972-1973 the Liberals participated in coalition governments. However, an active campaign for Norway's accession to the European Economic Community in the beginning. The 1970s led to a sharp drop in the popularity of Venstre: its representation in parliament was reduced to 2 deputies in 1973, and in 1985 it did not achieve the election of any of its candidates at all. Returning to the Storting in 1993, the Liberals served in coalition governments in 1997-2000 and 2001-2005. In the 2005 elections, the party received 5.9% of the vote and has 10 seats in parliament. Leader - Lars Sponheim.

"Red Electoral Alliance" - formed in 1973 as an election front led by the Maoist "Workers' Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist)", in 1991 turned into a separate party advocating revolutionary Marxism. From the beginning In the 1990s, the alliance partly broke with Stalinism and Maoism. In 1993-1997 he was represented in the Storting. In the 2005 elections, he collected 1.2% of the vote; no deputies in parliament. Leader - Thorsten Dale.
"Coastal Party" - protects the interests of fishermen and whalers. In 1997, not yet a party, it acted as an electoral list and won 1st seat in parliament, in 1999 it took shape in a political party. In 2001, she also held 1 deputy in the Storting. In the 2005 elections, she collected only 0.8% of the vote and lost her parliamentary representation. Leader - Roy Waage.

The country also has an ecological party "The Greens", "Liberal People's Party", "Workers' Communist Party", "Norwegian Communist Party", "Democrats" Party, "Christian Unity Party", "Fatherland Party", "Sami People's Party", Trotskyist organizations (the Internationalist League, the International Socialists, the Internationale), the anarcho-syndicalist Norwegian Syndicalist Federation (founded in 1916), and others.

Armed forces.

The armed forces of Norway consist of the army (ground forces), the royal navy (including coast rangers and coast guards), the royal air force and the home guard. Under the long-established universal conscription law, all males between the ages of 19 and 45 are required to serve 6 to 12 months in the army or 15 months in the navy or air force. The army, which has five regional divisions, in peacetime has approx. 14 thousand military personnel and is located mainly in the north of the country. Local defense forces (83 thousand people) are trained to perform special tasks in certain areas. The navy has 4 patrol ships, 12 submarines and 28 small coastal patrol vessels. In 1997, the contingent of military sailors numbered 4.4 thousand. In the same year, the air force included 3.7 thousand personnel, 80 fighters, as well as transport aircraft, helicopters, communications equipment and training units. The Nika missile defense system has been set up in the Oslo area. The Norwegian Armed Forces take part in UN peacekeeping missions. The number of soldiers and reserve officers is 230 thousand. In 2003, military spending amounted to 1.9% of GDP ..

Foreign policy.

Norway is a small country that, due to its geographical location and dependence on world trade, actively participates in international life. Norway is a member of the UN and its specialized organizations (Norwegian Trygve Lie was in 1946-1953 the first Secretary General of the UN). Since 1949 the main political parties supported Norway's participation in NATO. Scandinavian cooperation was reinforced by participation in the Nordic Council (this organization stimulates the cultural community of the Scandinavian countries and ensures mutual respect for the rights of their citizens), as well as efforts to create the Scandinavian Customs Union. Norway assisted in the creation of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and has been a member since 1960, and is also a member of the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation. In 1962, the Norwegian government applied to join the European Common Market and in 1972 agreed to the conditions for admission to this organization. However, in a referendum held the same year, Norwegians voted against participation in the common market. In a referendum in 1994, the population did not agree with Norway's accession to the EU, while its neighbors and partners Finland and Sweden joined this union. In 2003, Norway sent troops to Iraq as part of the US-led coalition.

ECONOMY

In the 19th century most Norwegians were employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing. In the 20th century for changing agriculture new industries emerged, based on the use of cheap hydropower and raw materials from farms and forests, from the seas and from mines. The merchant fleet played a decisive role in the growth of the country's welfare. Since the 1970s, oil and gas production on the shelf of the North Sea has been rapidly developing, which has made Norway the largest supplier of these products to the Western European market and the second largest supplier of these products to the world market (after Saudi Arabia) in the world.

Gross domestic product.

In terms of per capita income, Norway is one of the richest countries in the world. In 2005, gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. the total value of market goods and services was estimated at $194.7 billion, or $42.4 thousand per capita. Real GDP growth - 3.8%. In 2005, agriculture and fisheries accounted for 2.2% of GDP, industry - 37.2%, services - 60.6%. Unemployment 4.2% (2005)
The share of extractive industry (due to oil production in the North Sea) and construction in 2003 was approx. 36.2% of GDP compared to 25% in Sweden. Approximately 25% of GDP was directed to government spending (26% in Sweden, 25% in Denmark). In Norway, an unusually high share of GDP (20.5%) was directed to capital investment (in Sweden 15%, in the USA 18%). As in other Scandinavian countries, a relatively small share of GDP (50%) goes to personal consumption (in Denmark - 54%, in the USA - 67%).

Economical geography.

There are five economic regions in Norway: East (the historical province of Estland), South (Sørland), Southwest (Vestland), Central (Trönnelag) and North (Nur-Norge).

The Eastern region (Estland) is characterized by long river valleys, falling to the south and converging to the Oslo Fjord, and inland areas occupied by forests and tundra. The latter occupies high plateaus between large valleys. About half of the country's forest resources are concentrated in this area. Almost half of the country's population lives in the valleys and on both banks of the Oslo Fjord. This is the most economically developed part of Norway. The city of Oslo has a wide range of industrial sectors, including metallurgy, engineering, flour milling, printing, and almost the entire textile industry. Oslo is the center of shipbuilding. The Oslo region accounts for approximately 1/5 of all those employed in the country's industry.

Southeast of Oslo, where the Glomma flows into the Skagerrak, lies the city of Sarpsborg, the second largest industrial center in the country. The Skagerrak is home to sawmilling and pulp and paper industries that use local raw materials. For this purpose, the forest resources of the Glomma river basin are used. On the western shore of the Oslo Fjord, southwest of Oslo, there are cities whose industries are related to the sea and seafood processing. This is the center of shipbuilding Tønsberg and the former base of the Norwegian whaling fleet Sandefjord. Noshk Hydru, the country's second largest industrial concern, produces nitrogen fertilizers and other chemical products at a huge plant in Herøya. Drammen, located on the banks of the western branch of the Oslofjord, is a processing center for wood coming from the forests of Hallingdal.

The southern region (Sørland), open to the Skagerrak, is the least developed economically. A third of the district is covered with forests and was once an important center for the timber trade. At the end of the 19th century there was a significant outflow of people from this area. Currently, the population is mostly concentrated in a chain of small coastal towns that are popular summer resorts. The main industrial enterprises are the metallurgical plants in Kristiansand, producing copper and nickel.

About a quarter of the country's population is concentrated in the Southwestern region (Westland). Between Stavanger and Kristiansund, 12 large fjords penetrate deep into the land and the heavily indented shores are framed by thousands of islands. The development of agriculture is limited due to the mountainous terrain of fjords and rocky islands fringed by steep high banks, where glaciers have torn away loose sediments in the past. Agriculture is confined to river valleys and terraced areas along the fjords. In these places, in a maritime climate, fat pastures are common, and in some coastal areas - orchards. In terms of the length of the growing season, Westland ranks first in the country. The ports of southwestern Norway, in particular Ålesund, serve as bases for the winter herring fishery. Throughout the region, often in secluded places on the banks of the fjords, metallurgical and chemical plants are dispersed, using rich hydropower resources and ports that do not freeze all year round. Bergen is the area's main manufacturing center. Machine-building, flour-grinding and textile enterprises are located in this city and neighboring villages. Since the 1970s, Stavanger, Sandnes and Sula have been the main hubs from which oil and gas production infrastructure is maintained offshore the North Sea and where oil refineries are located.

The fourth most important among the major economic regions of Norway is West-Central (Trönnelag), adjacent to the Tronnheims Fjord, with its center in Trondheim. The relatively flat surface and fertile soils on maritime clays favored the development of agriculture, which proved to be competitive with that of the Oslofjord area. A quarter of the territory is covered with forests. In the area under consideration, deposits of valuable minerals are being developed, especially copper ores and pyrites (Löcken - from 1665, Folldal, etc.).
The northern region (Nur-Norge) is located mostly to the north of the Arctic Circle. Although there are no large reserves of timber and hydropower, as in the north of Sweden and Finland, the shelf zone contains the richest fish resources in the Northern Hemisphere. Coastline is different great length. Fishing, the oldest occupation in the north, is still widespread, but the mining industry is becoming increasingly important. In terms of the development of this industry, Northern Norway occupies a leading position in the country. Iron ore deposits are being developed, in particular in Kirkenes near the border with Russia. There are significant deposits of iron ore in the Rana near the Arctic Circle. The extraction of these ores and work at the metallurgical plant in Mo i Rana attracted immigrants from other parts of the country to this area, but the population of the entire Northern region does not exceed the population of Oslo.

Agriculture.

As in other Scandinavian countries, in Norway the share of agriculture in the economy has declined due to the development of the manufacturing industry. In 1996, 5.2% of the working-age population of the country was employed in agriculture and forestry, and these industries provided only 2.2% of the total output. natural conditions Norway - high-latitude position and a short growing season, infertile soils, an abundance of precipitation and cool summers - greatly complicate the development of agriculture. As a result, mainly fodder crops are grown and dairy products are of great importance. In 1996, approx. 3% of the total area. 49% of agricultural land was used for hay and fodder crops, 38% for cereals or legumes and 11% for pastures. Barley, oats, potatoes and wheat are the main food crops. In addition, every fourth Norwegian family cultivates their personal plot.

Agriculture in Norway is an unprofitable branch of the economy, which is in an extremely difficult situation, despite subsidies provided to support peasant farms in remote areas and expand the country's food supply from domestic resources. The country has to import most of the food it consumes. Many farmers produce only enough agricultural products to meet family needs. Additional income comes from work in fisheries or forestry. Despite the objective difficulties in Norway, wheat production increased significantly, which in 1996 reached 645 thousand tons (in 1970 - only 12 thousand tons, and in 1987 - 249 thousand tons).

After 1950, many small farms were abandoned or taken over by large landowners. In the period 1949-1987, 56 thousand farms ceased to exist, and by 1995 another 15 thousand. However, despite the concentration and mechanization of agriculture, 82.6% of the peasant farms in Norway in 1995 had land plots of less than 20 hectares (the average plot was 10 .2 ha) and only 1.4% - over 50 ha.

The seasonal driving of livestock, in particular sheep, to mountain pastures ceased after the Second World War. Mountain pastures and temporary settlements (seters), which were used for only a few weeks in the summer, are no longer needed, as the collection of fodder crops in the fields around the permanent settlements has increased.

Fishing has long been a source of wealth for the country. In 1995, Norway ranked tenth in the world in fisheries development, while in 1975 it held fifth place. The total fish catch in 1995 was 2.81 million tons, or 15% of the total European catch. The export of fish for Norway is a source of foreign exchange earnings: in 1996, 2.5 million tons of fish, fishmeal and fish oil were exported to total amount$4.26 million

Coastal banks near Ålesund are the main herring fishing area. Due to overfishing, herring production decreased sharply from the late 1960s to 1979, but then began to grow again and in the late 1990s significantly exceeded the level of the 1960s. Herring is the main object of fishery. In 1996, 760.7 thousand tons of herring were harvested. In the 1970s, artificial breeding of salmon began, mainly off the southwestern coast of the country. In this new industry, Norway occupies a leading position in the world: in 1996, 330 thousand tons were mined - three times more than in the UK, which is Norway's competitor. Cod and shrimp are also valuable components of the catch.
Cod fishing areas are concentrated in the north, off the coast of Finnmark, as well as in the fjords of the Lofoten Islands. In February-March, cod come to spawn in these more sheltered waters. Most fishermen fish for cod using small family boats and farm the rest of the year on farms dotted along the coast of Norway. Fishing areas for cod in the Lofoten Islands are judged according to established tradition, depending on the size of the boats, the type of nets, the location and the duration of the fishery. Most of the fresh-frozen cod is sold to the Western European market. Dried and salted cod is sold mainly to the countries of West Africa, Latin America and the Mediterranean.

Norway was once the world's leading whaling power. In the 1930s, its whaling fleet in Antarctic waters supplied 2/3 of the world's production to the market. However, reckless capture soon led to a sharp decline in the number of large whales. In the 1960s whaling in Antarctica was discontinued. In the mid-1970s, there were no whaling ships left in the Norwegian fishing fleet. However, fishermen still kill small whales. The annual slaughter of some 250 whales caused serious international controversy in the late 1980s, but as a member of the International Whale Commission, Norway steadfastly rejected all attempts to ban whaling. She also ignored the 1992 International Convention on the Cessation of Whaling.

Mining industry.

The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains large reserves of oil and natural gas. According to 1997 estimates, in the area industrial reserves oil was estimated at 1.5 billion tons, and gas - at 765 billion cubic meters. m. 3/4 of the total reserves and oil fields in Western Europe are concentrated here. In terms of oil reserves, Norway is ranked 11th in the world. Half of all gas reserves in Western Europe are concentrated in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, and Norway holds the 10th place in the world in this respect. Prospective oil reserves reach 16.8 billion tons, and gas - 47.7 trillion. cube m. More than 17 thousand Norwegians are engaged in oil production. The presence of large oil reserves in the waters of Norway north of the Arctic Circle has been established. Oil production in 1996 exceeded 175 million tons, and natural gas production in 1995 - 28 billion cubic meters. m. The main fields under development are Ekofisk, Sleipner and Thor-Valhall southwest of Stavanger and Troll, Oseberg, Gullfax, Frigg, Statfjord and Murchison west of Bergen, as well as Dreugen and Haltenbakken further north. Oil production began at the Ekofisk field in 1971 and increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, the rich new deposits of Heidrun near the Arctic Circle and Baller were discovered. In 1997, oil production in the North Sea was three times higher than 10 years ago, and its further growth was only held back by reduced demand in the world market. 90% of the produced oil is exported. Norway started gas production in 1978 at the Frigg field, half of which is in British territorial waters. Pipelines have been laid from Norwegian deposits to Great Britain and Western European countries. The fields are being developed by the state company Statoil together with foreign and private Norwegian oil firms.

Explored oil reserves for 2002 - 9.9 billion barrels, gas - 1.7 trillion cubic meters. m. Oil production in 2005 amounted to 3.22 million barrels per day, gas in 2001 - 54.6 billion cubic meters. m.

With the exception of fuel resources, Norway has few mineral resources. The main metal resource is iron ore. In 1995, Norway produced 1.3 million tons of iron ore concentrate, mainly from the Sør-Varangergra mines in Kirkenes near the Russian border. Another large mine in the Rana region supplies the nearby large steel plant in the city of Mu.

Copper is mined mainly in the far north. In 1995, 7.4 thousand tons of copper were mined. In the north there are also deposits of pyrites used to extract sulfur compounds for the chemical industry. Several hundred thousand tons of pyrites were mined annually, until this production was curtailed in the early 1990s. Europe's largest ilmenite deposit is located at Tellnes in Southern Norway. Ilmenite is a source of titanium oxide used in the manufacture of dyes and plastics. In 1996, 758.7 thousand tons of ilmenite were mined in Norway. Norway produces a significant amount of titanium (708 thousand tons), a metal whose importance is growing, zinc (41.4 thousand tons) and lead (7.2 thousand tons), as well as a small amount of gold and silver.
The most important non-metallic minerals are raw cement and limestone. In Norway in 1996, 1.6 million tons of cement raw materials were produced. Mining is also underway building stone, including granite and marble.

Forestry.

A quarter of the territory of Norway - 8.3 million hectares - is covered with forests. The densest forests are in the east, where logging is predominantly carried out. More than 9 million cubic meters are being procured. m of timber per year. Spruce and pine are of the greatest commercial importance. The logging season usually falls between November and April. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a rapid increase in mechanization, and in 1970 less than 1% of all employed in the country received income from forestry. 2/3 of the forests are privately owned, but all forested areas are under strict state supervision. As a result of unsystematic logging, the area of overmature forests has increased. In 1960, an extensive reforestation program began to expand the area of productive forests in the sparsely populated regions of the north and west as far as the Westland fjords.

Energy.

Energy consumption in Norway in 1994 amounted to 23.1 million tons in terms of coal, or 4580 kg per capita. Hydropower accounted for 43% of all energy production, oil also 43%, natural gas 7%, coal and wood 3%. Norway's full-flowing rivers and lakes have more hydropower than any other European country. Electricity, generated almost entirely by hydroelectric power, is the cheapest in the world, and its per capita production and consumption is the highest. In 1994, 25,712 kWh of electricity was produced per person. In general, more than 100 billion kWh of electricity is generated annually.

Electricity production in 2003 - 105.6 billion kilowatt-hours.

Manufacturing industry Norway developed at a slow pace due to a shortage of coal, a narrow domestic market, and limited capital inflows. The share of manufacturing, construction and energy in 1996 accounted for 26% of gross output and 17% of all employed. In recent years, energy-intensive industries have developed. The main industries in Norway are electrometallurgical, electrochemical, pulp and paper, radio-electronic, shipbuilding. The Oslofjord region is characterized by the highest level of industrialization, where about half of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated.

The leading branch of industry is electrometallurgy, which relies on the widespread use of cheap hydropower. main product, aluminum, is made from imported aluminum oxide. In 1996, 863.3 thousand tons of aluminum were produced. Norway is the main supplier of this metal in Europe. Norway also produces zinc, nickel, copper and high-quality alloy steel. Zinc is produced at a plant in Eitrheim on the coast of the Hardangerfjord, nickel - in Kristiansand from ore brought from Canada. A large ferroalloy plant is located in Sandefjord, southwest of Oslo. Norway is Europe's largest supplier of ferroalloys. In 1996 metallurgical production was approx. 14% of the country's exports.

Nitrogen fertilizers are one of the main products of the electrochemical industry. The nitrogen necessary for this is extracted from the air using a large amount of electricity. A significant part of nitrogen fertilizers is exported.

The pulp and paper industry is an important industrial sector in Norway. In 1996, 4.4 million tons of paper and pulp were produced. Paper mills are located mainly in the vicinity of the vast forests of eastern Norway, for example, at the mouth of the Glomma River (the country's largest timber-floating artery) and in Drammen.

Approx. 25% of industrial workers in Norway. The most important areas of activity are shipbuilding and ship repair, production of equipment for the production and transmission of electricity.
The textile, clothing and food industries provide few products for export. They provide most of Norway's own needs for food and clothing. These industries employ approx. 20% of the country's industrial workers.

Transport and communication.

Despite the mountainous terrain, Norway has a well-developed internal communication. The state owns railways with a length of approx. 4 thousand km, of which more than half are electrified. However, most of the population prefers to travel by car. In 1995, the total length of highways exceeded 90.3 thousand km, but only 74% of them had a hard surface. In addition to railways and roads, there were ferries and coastal shipping. In 1946, Norway, Sweden and Denmark founded Scandinavian Airlines Systems (SAS). Norway has a developed local air service: in terms of domestic passenger traffic, it occupies one of the first places in the world. The length of railways in 2004 is 4077 km, of which 2518 km are electrified. The total length of motor roads is 91.85 thousand km, of which 71.19 km are paved (2002). The merchant fleet in 2005 consisted of 740 ships with a displacement of St. 1 thousand tons each. There are 101 airports in the country (including 67 airstrips sedimentary belts have a hard surface) - 2005.

The means of communication, including telephone and telegraph, remain in the hands of the state, but the question of creating mixed enterprises with the participation of private capital is being considered. In 1996, there were 56 telephones per 1,000 people in Norway. The network of modern electronic means of communication is rapidly expanding. There is a significant private sector in broadcasting and television. Norwegian Public Broadcasting (NRK) remains the dominant system despite the widespread use of satellite and cable television. In 2002 there were 3.3 million subscribers of telephone lines, in 2003 there were 4.16 million mobile phones.

In 2002, there were 2.3 million Internet users.

International trade.

In 1997, Norway's leading trading partners in both exports and imports were the FRG, Sweden and the United Kingdom, followed by Denmark, the Netherlands and the United States. The predominant export items by value are oil and gas (55%) and finished goods (36%). Products of the oil refining and petrochemical, timber, electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries, foodstuffs are exported. The main import items are finished products (81.6%), food products and agricultural raw materials (9.1%). The country imports certain types of mineral fuels, bauxite, iron, manganese and chromium ore, and cars. With the growth of oil production and exports in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Norway had a very favorable foreign trade balance. Then world oil prices fell sharply, its exports declined, and for several years the trade balance of Norway was reduced to a deficit. However, by the mid-1990s, the balance turned positive again. In 1996, the value of Norway's exports was $46 billion, while the value of imports was only $33 billion. The trade surplus is supplemented by large revenues from the Norwegian merchant fleet with a total displacement of 21 million gross register tons, which, according to the new International Register of Shipping, received substantial privileges allowing it to compete with other ships flying foreign flags.

In 2005, exports were estimated at $111.2 billion, imports at $58.12 billion. Leading export partners: UK (22%), Germany (13%), Netherlands (10%), France (10 %), USA (8%) and Sweden (7%), imports - Sweden (16%), Germany (14%), Denmark (7%), UK (7%), China (5%), USA ( 5%) and the Netherlands (4%).
Money circulation and state budget.
The unit of money circulation is the Norwegian krone. The exchange rate of the Norwegian krone in 2005 is 6.33 kroner per 1 US dollar.

In the budget, the main sources of income were social security contributions (19%), income and property taxes (33%), excise duties and value added tax (31%). The main expenditures were directed to social security and housing construction (39%), external debt service (12%), public education (13%) and health care (14%).

In 1997, government revenues amounted to 81.2 billion dollars, and expenditures - 71.8 billion dollars. In 2004, state budget revenues amounted to 134 billion dollars, expenditures - 117 billion.

The government set up a special oil fund in the 1990s using windfall profits from the sale of oil, intended as a reserve for when the oil fields were depleted. It is estimated that by the year 2000 it will reach $100 billion, most of it is located abroad.

In 1994, Norway's external debt was $39 billion. In 2003, the country had no external debt. The size of the total public debt - 33.1% of GDP.

SOCIETY

Structure.

The most common agricultural cell is a small family farm. With the exception of a few forest holdings, there are no large land holdings in Norway. Seasonal fishing is also often family-based and on a small scale. Motorized fishing boats are mostly small wooden boats. In 1996, about 5% of industrial firms employed more than 100 workers, and even such large enterprises sought to establish informal relations between workers and management. In the early 1970s, reforms were introduced that gave workers the right to exercise greater control over production. At some large enterprises, working groups themselves began to monitor the course of individual production processes.

Norwegians have a strong sense of equality. This egalitarian approach is the cause and effect of the use of the economic levers of state power to mitigate social conflicts. There is a scale of income taxes. In 1996, approximately 37% of budget expenditures were directed to direct financing of the social sphere.

Another mechanism for equalizing social differences is the strict state control over housing construction. Most of the loans are provided by the state housing bank, and the construction is carried out by companies with cooperative ownership. Due to the climate and topography, construction is expensive, however, the ratio between the number of residents and the number of rooms they occupy is considered to be quite high. In 1990, on average, there were 2.5 people per dwelling, consisting of four rooms with a total area of 103.5 square meters. m. Approximately 80.3% housing stock belong to individuals living there.

Social Security.

The National Insurance Scheme, a compulsory pension system covering all Norwegian citizens, was introduced in 1967. Health insurance and help for the unemployed were included in this system in 1971. All Norwegians, including housewives, receive a basic pension upon reaching the age of 65. Additional pension depends on income and length of service. The average pension roughly corresponds to 2/3 of earnings in the highest paid years. Pensions are paid from insurance funds (20%), employer contributions (60%) and the state budget (20%). Loss of income during illness is compensated by sickness benefits, and in case of prolonged illness - disability pensions. Medical care is paid, but all medical expenses exceeding $187 per year are paid from social insurance funds (doctors' services, stay and treatment in public hospitals, maternity hospitals and sanatoriums, purchase of medicines for certain chronic diseases, as well as full-time employment - a two-week annual allowance in case of temporary disability). Women receive free prenatal and postnatal care, and full-time working women are entitled to 42 weeks of paid maternity leave. The state guarantees all citizens, including housewives, the right to four weeks of paid leave. In addition, persons over 60 years of age have an additional week's leave. Families receive benefits of $1,620 per year for each child under age 17. Every 10 years, all workers are entitled to an annual leave with full pay for training to improve their skills.

Organizations.

Many Norwegians are involved in one or more voluntary organizations that cater to different interests and are most often associated with sports and culture. Of great importance is the Sports Association, which organizes and supervises hiking and skiing routes and supports other sports.

The economy is also dominated by associations. Chambers of Commerce control industry and business. The Central Organization of the Economy (Nøringslivets Hovedorganisasjon) represents 27 national trade associations. It was formed in 1989 by the merger of the Federation of Industry, the Federation of Artisans and the Association of Employers. The interests of shipping are expressed by the Association of Norwegian Shipowners and the Association of Scandinavian Shipowners, the latter is involved in the conclusion of collective agreements with seafarers' unions. Small business activities are controlled mainly by the Federation of Trade and Service Industries, which in 1990 had about 100 branches. Other organizations include the Norwegian Forest Society, which deals with forestry issues; the Federation of Agriculture, which represents the interests of livestock, poultry and agricultural cooperatives, and the Norwegian Trade Council, which promotes the development of foreign trade and foreign markets.

Trade unions in Norway are very influential, they unite about 40% (1.4 million) of all employees. The Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (COPN), founded in 1899, represents 28 unions with 818.2 thousand members (1997). Employers are organized in the Norwegian Confederation of Employers, founded in 1900. It represents their interests in the conclusion of collective agreements in enterprises. Labor disputes often go to arbitration. In Norway for the period 1988-1996 there were an average of 12.5 strikes per year. They are less frequent than in many other industrialized countries. Most big number trade union members are in management and manufacturing, although the highest enrollment rate is in the maritime sectors of the economy. Many local trade unions are affiliated with local branches of the Norwegian Workers' Party. The regional trade union associations and the OCPN allocate funds for the party press and for the election campaigns of the Norwegian Workers' Party.

Local color.

Although the integration of Norwegian society has increased with the improvement of means of communication, local customs are still alive in the country. In addition to spreading the New Norwegian language (nynoshk), each county cherishes its own dialects, as well as national costumes for ritual performances, supports the study of local history, and publishes local newspapers. Bergen and Trondheim former capitals have cultural traditions, which differ from those adopted in Oslo. Northern Norway is also developing a distinctive local culture, mainly as a result of the remoteness of its tiny settlements from the rest of the country.

A family.

A close-knit family has been a specific feature of Norwegian society since Viking times. Most Norwegian surnames are of local origin, they are often associated with some natural features or with the economic development of the land, which took place in the time of the Vikings or even earlier. Ownership of an ancestral farm is protected by inheritance law (odelsrett), which gives the family the right to buy the farm even if it has been recently sold. In rural areas, the family remains the most important unit of society. Family members travel from far and wide to attend weddings, christenings, confirmations, and funerals. This commonality often does not disappear even in the conditions of urban life. With the onset of summer, the favorite and most economical form of spending holidays and vacations with the whole family is living in a small country house (hytte) in the mountains or on the seashore.

Status of women in Norway is protected by the laws and customs of the country. In 1981, Prime Minister Bruntland brought an equal number of women and men into her cabinet, and all subsequent governments have been formed on the same principle. Women are well represented in the judiciary, education, health care and administration. In 1995, approximately 77% of women aged 15 to 64 worked outside the home. Thanks to the developed system of nurseries and kindergartens, mothers can work and run the household at the same time.

CULTURE

The roots of Norwegian culture go back to the traditions of the Vikings, the medieval "age of greatness" and the sagas. Although usually the Norwegian masters of culture were influenced by Western European art and assimilated many of its styles and subjects, nevertheless, the specifics of their native country were reflected in their work. Poverty, the struggle for independence, admiration for nature - all these motifs appear in Norwegian music, literature and painting (including decorative art). Nature still plays an important role in folk culture, as evidenced by the extraordinary fondness of Norwegians for sports and life in the bosom of nature. Means are of great educational value. mass media. For example, the periodical press devotes a lot of space to the events of cultural life. The abundance of bookstores, museums and theaters also serves as an indicator of the keen interest of the Norwegian people in their cultural traditions.

Education.

At all levels, education costs are covered by the state. The education reform launched in 1993 was supposed to improve the quality of education. Program compulsory education divided into three levels: from preschool to 4th grade, 5-7 grades and 8-10 grades. Adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19 can receive a complete secondary education, which is necessary for admission to a trade school, high school (college) or university. Approx. 80 higher folk schools where general subjects are taught. Most of these schools receive funds from religious communities, private individuals or local authorities.

Higher education institutions in Norway are represented by four universities (in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromsø), six specialized higher schools (colleges) and two state art schools, 26 state colleges in the county and additional education courses for adults. In the 1995/1996 academic year, 43.7 thousand students studied at the country's universities; in other higher educational institutions- 54.8 thousand more

Tuition at universities is paid. Usually, loans are provided to students for education. Universities train civil servants, clergy and university professors. In addition, universities almost completely provide a cadre of doctors, dentists, engineers and scientists. Universities are also engaged in fundamental scientific research. The Oslo University Library is the largest national library.
Norway has numerous research institutes, laboratories and development offices. Among them stand out the Academy of Sciences in Oslo, the Christian Michelsen Institute in Bergen and Scientific society in Trondheim. There are large folk museums on the island of Bygdøy near Oslo and in Maihäugen near Lillehammer, in which one can trace the development of building art and various aspects of rural culture since ancient times. In a special museum on the island of Bygdøy, three Viking ships are exhibited, clearly illustrating the life of Scandinavian society in the 9th century. AD, as well as two ships of modern pioneers - Fridtjof Nansen's ship "Fram" and Thor Heyerdahl's raft "Kon-Tiki". The active role of Norway in international relations is evidenced by the Nobel Institute, the Institute for Comparative Cultural Studies, the Institute for Peace Research and the International Law Society located in this country.

Literature and art.

The spread of Norwegian culture was hampered by the limited audience, which was especially true for writers who wrote in the little-known Norwegian language. Therefore, the government has long been allocating subsidies to support the arts. They are included in the state budget and are used to provide grants to artists, organize exhibitions and directly purchase works of art. In addition, revenue from state-run football competitions is provided to the General Research Council, which funds cultural projects.

Norway gave the world eminent figures in all areas of culture and art: playwright Henrik Ibsen, writers Bjornstern Bjornson (Nobel Prize 1903), Knut Hamsun (Nobel Prize 1920) and Sigrid Unset (Nobel Prize 1928), artist Edvard Munch and composer Edvard Grieg. The troubled novels of Sigurd Hul, the poetry and prose of Tarjei Vesos, and the pictures of rural life in the novels of Johan Falkberget also stand out as achievements of Norwegian literature of the 20th century. Possibly, in terms of poetic expressiveness, writers writing in the New Norwegian language stand out the most, among them the most famous is Tarja Vesos (1897-1970). Poetry is very popular in Norway. In relation to the population in Norway, several times more books are published than in the USA, and there are many women among the authors. The leading contemporary lyricist is Stein Meren. However, the poets of the previous generation are much more famous, especially Arnulf Everland (1889-1968), Nurdal Grieg (1902-1943) and Hermann Willenwey (1886-1959). In the 1990s, the Norwegian writer Justin Gorder acquired international recognition philosophical tale for children World of Sofia.

The Norwegian government supports three theaters in Oslo, five theaters in major provincial cities and one traveling national theater company.

The influence of folk traditions can also be traced in sculpture and painting. The leading Norwegian sculptor was Gustav Vigeland (1869-1943) and the most famous artist was Edvard Munch (1863-1944). The work of these masters reflects the influence of the abstract art of Germany and France. In Norwegian painting, a gravitation towards frescoes and other decorative forms appeared, especially under the influence of Rolf Nesch, who immigrated from Germany. At the head of representatives of abstract art is Jacob Weidemann. The most famous propagandist of conditional sculpture is Dure Vaux. The search for innovative traditions in sculpture manifested itself in the work of Per Falle Storm, Per Hurum, Yousef Grimeland, Arnold Haukeland and others. The expressive school of figurative art, which played an important role in the artistic life of Norway in the 1980s-1990s, is represented by such masters as Bjorn Carlsen (b. 1945), Kjell Erik Olsen (b. 1952), Per Inge Björlu (b. 1952) and Bente Stokke (b. 1952).

The revival of Norwegian music in the 20th century. noticeable in the works of several composers. Musical drama by Harald Severud based on the motives of Peer Gynt, atonal compositions by Farthein Valen, incendiary folk music by Klaus Egge and a melodic interpretation of the traditional folk music Sparre Olsen testify to the life-giving trends in modern Norwegian music. In the 1990s he won world recognition Norwegian pianist, classical music performer Lars Ove Annsnes.

Mass media.

With the exception of the popular illustrated weeklies, the rest of the media are serious. There are many newspapers, but their circulation is small. In 1996, 154 newspapers were published in the country, including 83 daily newspapers, the seven largest accounted for 58% of the total circulation. Radio broadcasting and television are state monopolies. Movie theaters are mostly owned by the communes, with occasional success from Norwegian-made films subsidized by the state. Usually American and other foreign films are shown.

In con. In the 1990s, more than 650 radio stations and 360 television stations operated in the country. The population had over 4 million radios and 2 million televisions. Among the largest newspapers are the daily Verdens Gang, Aftenposten, Dagbladet and others.

Sports, customs and holidays.

Outdoor recreation plays an important role in national culture. Football and the annual international ski jumping competition at Holmenkollen near Oslo are very popular. On the Olympic Games Norwegian athletes most often excel in skiing and skating competitions. Swimming, sailing, orienteering, hiking, camping, boating, fishing and hunting are popular.

All citizens in Norway are entitled to nearly five weeks of paid annual leave, including three weeks of summer vacation. Eight church holidays, these days people try to go out of town. The same applies to two national holidays- Labor Day (May 1) and Constitution Day (May 17).

STORIES

Ancient period.

There is evidence that primitive hunters lived in some areas on the northern and northwestern coast of Norway shortly after the retreat of the ice sheet edge. However, the naturalistic drawings on the walls of the caves along the west coast were created much later. Agriculture spread slowly in Norway after 3000 BC. During the Roman Empire, the inhabitants of Norway had contact with the Gauls, runic writing (used from the 3rd to 13th centuries AD by Germanic tribes, especially Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons for inscriptions on tombstones, as well as for magic spells), and the settlement process territory of Norway was carried out at a rapid pace. From 400 AD the population was replenished by migrants from the south, who paved the "way to the north" (Nordwegr, from where the name of the country came from - Norway). At that time, in order to organize local self-defense, the first tiny kingdoms were created. In particular, the Ynglings, a branch of the first Swedish royal family, founded one of the oldest feudal states west of the Oslo Fjord.

Viking Age and Middle Ages.

Around 900, Harald Fairhair (son of Halfdan the Black, a minor ruler of the Yngling family) managed to establish a larger kingdom, defeating other petty feudal lords at the Battle of Hafsfjord together with Jarl Hladir of Trønnelag. Having been defeated and having lost their independence, dissatisfied feudal lords took part in the campaigns of the Vikings. Due to population growth on the coast, some residents were forced into inland marginal areas, while others began to make pirate raids, trade, or settled in overseas countries. See also VIKINGS

The sparsely populated islands of Scotland were probably settled by people from Norway long before the first documented Viking campaign in England in 793 AD. Over the next two centuries, the Norwegian Vikings were actively engaged in plundering foreign lands. They conquered possessions in Ireland, Scotland, northeast England and northern France, and also colonized the Faroe Islands, Iceland and even Greenland. In addition to ships, the Vikings had iron tools and were skilled wood carvers. Once in overseas countries, the Vikings settled there and developed trade. In Norway itself, even before the creation of cities (they arose only in the 11th century), markets arose on the coasts of the fjords.

The state, left as a legacy by Harald the Fair-Haired, was the subject of fierce disputes between pretenders to the throne for 80 years. Kings and jarls, pagan and Christian Vikings, Norwegians and Danes staged a bloody showdown. Olaf (Olav) II (c. 1016-1028), a descendant of Harald, managed to unite Norway for a short time and introduce Christianity. He was killed at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030 by rebellious chieftains (hövdings) who made an alliance with Denmark. After his death, Olaf was almost immediately canonized and canonized in 1154. A cathedral was erected in his honor in Trondheim, and after a short period of Danish rule (1028-1035), the throne was returned to his family.
The first Christian missionaries in Norway were predominantly English; Abbots of English monasteries became owners of large estates. Only the carved decorations of the new wooden churches (dragons and other pagan symbols) were reminiscent of the Viking Age. Harald the Severe was the last Norwegian king to lay claim to power in England (where he died in 1066), and his grandson Magnus III Barefoot was last king who claimed power in Ireland. In 1170, by decree of the pope, an archbishopric was created in Trondheim with five vicar bishoprics in Norway and six on the western islands, in Iceland and Greenland. Norway became the spiritual center of a vast territory in the North Atlantic.

Although the Catholic Church wanted the throne to pass to the king's eldest legitimate son, this succession was often broken. The most famous impostor Sverre from the Faroe Islands, who seized the throne despite being excommunicated. During the long reign of Haakon IV (1217-1263) civil wars subsided, and Norway entered a short-lived "heyday". At this time, the creation of a centralized government of the country was completed: a royal council was established, the king appointed regional governors and judicial officials. Although the regional legislative assembly (ting) inherited from the past still remained, in 1274 a national code of laws was adopted. The power of the Norwegian king was first recognized by Iceland and Greenland, and it was more firmly established than before in the Faroe, Shetland and Orkney Islands. Other Norwegian possessions in Scotland were formally returned in 1266 to the Scottish king. At that time, overseas trade flourished, and Haakon IV, whose residence was in the center of trade - Bergen, concluded the very first of the known trade agreements with the king of England.

The 13th century was the last period of independence and greatness in the early history of Norway. During this century, Norwegian sagas were collected, telling about the past of the country. In Iceland, Snorri Sturluson wrote down Heimskringla and the Younger Edda, and Snorri's nephew, Sturla Thordsson, wrote down the Saga of the Icelanders, the Sturlinga Saga and the Saga of Haakon Haakonsson, which are considered the earliest works of Scandinavian literature.

Kalmar union.

The decline of the role of the Norwegian merchants was outlined approx. 1250, when the Hanseatic League (which united the trading centers northern Germany) established his office in Bergen. His agents imported grain from the Baltic countries in exchange for Norway's traditional export of dried cod. The aristocracy died out during the plague that struck the country in 1349 and carried almost half of the entire population to the grave. Huge damage was done to dairy farming, which formed the basis of agriculture in many estates. Against this background, Norway became the weakest of the Scandinavian monarchies by the time when, due to the extinction royal dynasties Denmark, Sweden and Norway were united in accordance with the Kalmar Union of 1397.

Sweden withdrew from the union in 1523, but Norway was increasingly seen as an appendage of the Danish crown, which ceded Orkney and Shetland to Scotland. Relations with Denmark escalated at the beginning of the Reformation, when the last Catholic archbishop of Trondheim unsuccessfully tried to oppose the introduction of a new religion in 1536. Lutheranism spread north to Bergen, the center of activity of German merchants, and then to the more northern regions of the country. Norway received the status of a Danish province, which was governed directly from Copenhagen and was forced to adopt the Lutheran Danish liturgy and the Bible.

Until the middle of the 17th century. was not in Norway prominent politicians and artists, and until 1643 few books were published. The Danish king Christian IV (1588-1648) took a keen interest in Norway. He encouraged the mining of silver, copper, and iron, and fortified the frontier in the far north. He also established a small Norwegian army and helped recruit conscripts in Norway and build ships for the Danish navy. Nevertheless, due to participation in the wars waged by Denmark, Norway was forced to permanently cede three border districts to Sweden. Around 1550, the first sawmills appeared in Norway, which contributed to the development of timber trade with Dutch and other foreign customers. Logs were floated along the rivers to the coast, where they were sawn and loaded onto ships. The revival of economic activity contributed to the growth of the population, which in 1660 amounted to approx. 450 thousand people against 400 thousand in 1350.

National rise in the 17-18 centuries.

After the establishment of absolutism in 1661, Denmark and Norway began to be considered "twin kingdoms"; thus, their equality was formally recognized. In the code of laws of Christian IV (1670-1699), which had a great influence on Danish law, the serf relations that existed in Denmark did not extend to Norway, where the number of free landowners was growing rapidly. The civil, ecclesiastical, and military officials who ruled Norway spoke Danish, were trained in Denmark, and carried out the politics of that country, but often belonged to families that had lived in Norway for several generations. The policy of mercantilism of that time led to the concentration of trade in cities. There, new opportunities opened up for immigrants from Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Denmark, and a class of merchant bourgeoisie developed, replacing the local nobility and Hanseatic associations (the last of these associations lost its privileges at the end of the 16th century).

In the 18th century timber was sold mainly to the UK and often transported on Norwegian ships. Fish was exported from Bergen and other ports. Norwegian trade especially prospered during wars between the great powers. In an environment of increasing prosperity in the cities, the prerequisites were created for the establishment of a national Norwegian bank and a university. Despite episodic protests against excessive taxes or illegal actions of government officials, in general, the peasantry passively took a loyal position in relation to the king, who lived in distant Copenhagen.

The ideas of the French Revolution had some influence on Norway, which, moreover, was greatly enriched by the expansion of trade during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1807, the British subjected Copenhagen to severe shelling and took the Danish-Norwegian fleet to England so that Napoleon would not get it. The blockade of Norway by British warships caused great damage, and Danish king was forced to establish a provisional administration - the Government Commission. After the defeat of Napoleon, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to the Swedish king (according to the Kiel Peace Treaty, 1814).

Refusing to submit, the Norwegians took advantage of the situation and convened a State (Constituent) Assembly of representatives, nominated mainly from the wealthy classes. It adopted a liberal constitution and elected the Danish heir to the throne, Viceroy of Norway, Christian Frederick, as king. However, it was not possible to defend independence because of the position of the great powers, which guaranteed Sweden the accession of Norway to it. The Swedes sent troops against Norway, and the Norwegians were forced to agree to a union with Sweden, while maintaining the constitution and independence in internal affairs. In November 1814, the first elected parliament - the Storting - recognized the power of the Swedish king.
Elite rule (1814-1884). It cost Norway dearly to lose the English timber market to Canada. The population of the country, which grew from 1 million to 1.5 million in the period 1824-1853, was forced to switch to supplying its own food mainly through subsistence agriculture and fishing. At the same time, the country needed to reform the central government. Politicians advocating the interests of the peasantry demanded tax cuts, but less than 1/10 of the citizens had the right to vote, and the population as a whole continued to rely on ruling class officials. The king (or his representative - the statholder) appointed the Norwegian government, some of whose members visited the monarch in Stockholm. The Storting met every three years to check the financial statements, respond to complaints, and ward off any attempts by the Swedes to revise the 1814 agreement. The king had the right to veto the decisions of the Storting, and about one in eight bills were rejected in this way.

In the middle of the 19th century the rise of the national economy. In 1849, Norway provided most of the UK's shipping. The free trade tendencies that prevailed in Great Britain, in turn, favored the expansion of Norwegian exports and opened the way for the import of British machinery, as well as the creation of textile and other small enterprises in Norway. The government promoted the development of transport by providing subsidies for the organization of regular postal steamboat trips along the coast of the country. Roads were laid to previously inaccessible areas, and in 1854 traffic was opened on the first railway. The revolutions of 1848 that swept through Europe evoked an immediate response in Norway, where a movement arose to defend the interests of industrial workers, small landowners and tenants. It was poorly prepared and quickly suppressed. Despite the intensified integration processes in the economy, living standards rose at a slow pace and, in general, life remained difficult. In the following decades, many Norwegians found a way out of this situation in exile. Between 1850 and 1920, 800,000 Norwegians emigrated, mainly to the USA.

In 1837 the Storting introduced a democratic system of local self-government, which gave new impetus to political activity in places. As education became more accessible, a readiness for long-term political activity reappeared among the peasantry. In the 1860s, fixed elementary schools were established to replace mobile schools when one rural teacher moved from one locality to another. At the same time, the organization of secondary public schools began.

The first political parties began to function in the Storting in the 1870s and 1880s. One group, conservative in character, supported the ruling bureaucratic government. The opposition was led by Johan Sverdrup, who rallied peasant representatives around a small group of urban radicals who wanted to make the government accountable to the Storting. The reformers sought to amend the constitution by requiring that the royal ministers participate in the meetings of the Storting without the right to vote. The government invoked the king's right to veto any constitutional bill. After fierce political discussions, the Supreme Court of Norway in 1884 issued a ruling depriving almost all cabinet members of their portfolios. Having considered possible consequences forceful decision, King Oscar II considered it good not to take risks and appointed Sverdrup head of the first government, responsible to parliament.
Transition to a constitutional-parliamentary monarchy (1884-1905). Sverdrup's liberal-democratic government extended suffrage and gave equal status to New Norwegian (Nynoshk) and Rixmol. However, on issues of religious tolerance, it split into radical liberals and puritans: the first of them had support in the capital, and the latter on the west coast since the time of Hauge (late 18th century). This split is described in the works of famous writers - Ibsen, Bjornson, Hjellan and Jonas Lee, who different parties criticized the traditional narrow-mindedness of Norwegian society. However, the conservative party (Høire) did not benefit from the situation, as it received its main support from the uneasy alliance of the disadvantaged bureaucracy and the slowly growing middle industrial class.

Cabinets of ministers quickly changed, each of them was unable to solve the main problem: how to reform the union with Sweden. In 1895 the idea arose to take over foreign policy, which was the prerogative of the king and his foreign minister (also a Swede). However, the Storting usually intervened in intra-Scandinavian affairs concerning the world and the economy, although such a system seemed unfair to many Norwegians. Their minimum demand was for the establishment of an independent consular office in Norway, which the King and his Swedish advisers were unwilling to establish, given the size and importance of the Norwegian merchant marine. After 1895, various compromise solutions to this issue were discussed. Since no solution could be reached, the Storting was forced to resort to the veiled threat of opening direct action against Sweden. At the same time, Sweden was spending money on strengthening Norway's defenses. After the introduction of universal conscription in 1897, it became difficult for conservatives to ignore calls for Norway's independence.

Finally, in 1905, the union with Sweden was broken under a coalition government headed by the leader of the liberal party (Venstre), shipowner Christian Mikkelsen. When King Oscar refused to approve the law on the Norwegian consular service and accept the resignation of the Norwegian cabinet, the Storting voted to dissolve the union. This revolutionary action could lead to war with Sweden, but this was prevented by the Great Powers and the Social Democratic Party of Sweden, which opposed the use of force. Two plebiscites showed that the Norwegian electorate was almost unanimous in favor of the secession of Norway and that 3/4 of the electorate voted in favor of retaining the monarchy. On this basis, the Storting offered the Danish prince Karl, son of Frederick VIII, to take the Norwegian throne, and on November 18, 1905 he was elected king under the name of Haakon VII. His wife Queen Maud was the daughter of the English king Edward VII, which strengthened Norway's ties with Great Britain. Their son, heir to the throne, later became King Olaf V of Norway.
Period of peaceful development (1905-1940). The achievement of full political independence coincided with the beginning of accelerated industrial development. At the beginning of the 20th century the Norwegian merchant fleet was replenished by steamships, and whaling ships began to hunt in the waters of the Antarctic. For a long period, the liberal party Venstre was in power, which carried out a number of social reforms, including the full enfranchisement of women in 1913 (Norway was a pioneer among European states in this regard) and the adoption of laws to limit foreign investment.

During the First World War, Norway remained neutral, although Norwegian sailors sailed on Allied ships that broke through the blockade organized by German submarines. In 1920, Norway was granted sovereignty over the Svalbard (Svalbard) archipelago as a token of gratitude for supporting the Entente country. Wartime anxiety helped bring about reconciliation with Sweden, and Norway subsequently played a more active role in international life through the League of Nations. The first and last presidents of this organization were Norwegians.

In domestic politics, the interwar period was marked by the growing influence of the Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP), which originated among the fishermen and tenants of the far north, and then received the support of industrial workers. Under the influence of the revolution in Russia, the revolutionary wing of this party gained the upper hand in 1918, and for some time the party was part of the Communist International. However, after the breakaway of the Social Democrats in 1921, the ILP broke off relations with the Comintern (1923). In the same year, the independent Communist Party of Norway (CPN) was formed, and in 1927 the Social Democrats again merged with the CHP. In 1935, a government of moderate representatives of the CHP was in power with the support of the Peasant Party, which gave its votes in exchange for subsidies to agriculture and fisheries. Despite the unsuccessful experiment with Prohibition (abolished in 1927) and the mass unemployment generated by the crisis, Norway has achieved success in health care, housing, social welfare and cultural development.

The Second World War.

April 9, 1940 Germany unexpectedly attacked Norway. The country was taken by surprise. Only in the Oslofjord area were the Norwegians able to put up stubborn resistance to the enemy thanks to reliable defensive fortifications. Within three weeks German troops dispersed throughout the interior of the country, not allowing separate formations of the Norwegian army to unite. The port city of Narvik in the far north was recaptured from the Germans a few days later, but Allied support proved insufficient, and when Germany launched offensive operations in Western Europe, Allied forces had to be evacuated. The king and government fled to Great Britain, where they continued to lead the merchant fleet, small infantry units, naval and air forces. The Storting gave the king and government the authority to lead the country from abroad. In addition to the ruling CHP, members of other parties were introduced into the government to strengthen it.

A puppet government headed by Vidkun Quisling was created in Norway. In addition to acts of sabotage and active underground propaganda, the leaders of the Resistance secretly organized military training and sent many young people to Sweden, where permission was obtained to train "police formations". The king and government returned to the country on June 7, 1945. Approx. 90 thousand cases on charges of high treason and other offences. Quisling, along with 24 traitors, was shot, 20 thousand people were sentenced to prison.

Norway after 1945.

In the 1945 elections, the CHP won the majority of votes for the first time and remained in power for 20 years. During this period, the electoral system was transformed by abolishing the article of the constitution on granting 2/3 of the seats in the Storting to deputies from rural areas of the country. The regulatory role of the state has been extended to national planning. State control over the prices of goods and services was introduced.

The financial and credit policy of the government helped to maintain a fairly high growth rate of economic indicators even during the global recession in the 1970s. The necessary funds for the expansion of production were obtained through large foreign loans against future income from oil and gas production on the shelf of the North Sea.

Norway has become an active member of the UN. The Norwegian Trygve Lie, a former leader of the CHP, served as general secretary of this international organization from 1946-1952. With the onset of the Cold War, Norway made its choice in favor of the Western Alliance. In 1949 the country joined NATO.
Until 1963, the Norwegian Workers' Party firmly held power in the country, although already in 1961 it lost its absolute majority in the Storting. The opposition, dissatisfied with the expansion of the public sector, was waiting for the right opportunity to remove the CHP government. Taking advantage of the scandal associated with the investigation of the disaster at the coal mine in Svalbard (21 people died), she managed to form the government of J. Lynge from representatives of the "non-socialist" parties, but it lasted only about a month. After returning to office, the Social Democratic Prime Minister Gerhardsen took a number of popular measures: the transition to equal pay for men and women, an increase in public spending on social security. Introduction of monthly paid leave. But this did not prevent the defeat of the CHP in the elections of 1965. The new government of representatives of the parties of the Center, Höyre, Venstre, and the Christian People's Party was headed by the leader of the centrists, the agronomist Per Borten. The Cabinet as a whole continued social reforms(introduced a unified social security system, including a universal old-age pension, child benefits, etc.), but at the same time carried out a new version of the tax reform in favor of entrepreneurs. At the same time, disagreements in the ruling coalition on the question of relations with the EEC escalated. Centrists and part of the liberals objected to plans to join the EEC, and their position was shared by many residents of the country, fearing that European competition and coordination would deal a blow to Norwegian fishing and shipbuilding. However, the minority Social Democratic government that came to power in 1971, headed by Trygve Bratteli, sought to join the European Community and held a referendum on this issue in 1972. After a majority of Norwegians voted no, Bratteli resigned and gave way to a minority government of three centrist parties (HNP, PC and Venstre) led by Lars Korvald. It has concluded a free trade agreement with the EEC.

Having won the 1973 elections, the CHP returned to power. Minority cabinets were formed by its leaders Bratteli (1973-1976). Odvar Nurdli (1976-1981) and Gro Harlem Bruntland (since 1981) - the first female prime minister in the history of the country.

The centre-right parties increased their influence in the elections in September 1981, and the leader of the Conservative Party (Høire) Kore Willok formed the first government since 1928 from members of this party. At this time, the Norwegian economy was on the rise due to the rapid growth of oil production and high prices in the world market.

In the 1980s, environmental issues took on an important role. In particular, the forests of Norway have been hit hard by acid rain caused by the release of pollutants into the atmosphere by UK industries. As a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986, significant damage was caused to the Norwegian reindeer herding.

After the 1985 elections, negotiations between the socialists and their opponents stalled. The fall in oil prices gave rise to inflation, there were problems with the financing of social security programs. Willock resigned and Bruntland returned to power. The results of the 1989 elections made it difficult to form a coalition government. The non-socialist minority conservative government led by Jan Suce resorted to unpopular measures that stimulated unemployment. A year later, it resigned due to disagreements over the creation of the European Economic Area. The Labor Party, led by Brutland, re-formed a minority government, which in 1992 resumed negotiations on Norway's accession to the EU.

In the 1993 elections, the Workers' Party remained in power, but did not win a majority of seats in parliament. Conservatives - from the very right (Party of Progress) to the very left (People's Socialist Party) - were increasingly losing their positions. The center party, opposed to joining the EU, won three times as many seats and moved into second place in terms of influence in parliament.

The new government has again raised the issue of Norway's accession to the EU. This proposal was strongly supported by voters from three parties - the Workers, the Conservative and the Progress Party, living in cities in the south of the country. The Center Party, representing the interests of the rural population and farmers, mostly opposed to the EU, led the opposition, gaining support from the extreme left and Christian Democrats. In a popular referendum in November 1994, Norwegian voters, despite the positive results of voting in Sweden and Finland a few weeks earlier, again rejected Norway's participation in the EU. A record number of voters participated in the voting (86.6%), of which 52.2% were against EU membership, and 47.8% were in favor of joining this organization.
In the 1990s, Norway came under increasing international criticism for its refusal to stop commercial whale slaughter. In 1996, the International Fisheries Commission confirmed the ban on the export of whaling products from Norway.

In May 1996, the largest labor conflict in recent times broke out in shipbuilding and metallurgy. After a strike that swept the entire industry, the unions succeeded in lowering the retirement age from 64 to 62 years.

In October 1996, Prime Minister Bruntland resigned in the hope of giving her party a better chance in the upcoming parliamentary elections. The new cabinet was headed by CHP chairman Thorbjørn Jagland. But this did not help the CHP win the election, despite the strengthening of the economy, the reduction of unemployment and the reduction of inflation. The prestige of the ruling party was undermined by internal scandals. Resigned were the planning secretary, accused of previous financial manipulation during her tenure as trade manager, the energy secretary (she sanctioned the practice of illegal surveillance while serving as justice minister), and the justice secretary, who was criticized for her stance on granting asylum for foreign citizens. Having suffered a defeat in the elections in September 1997, Jagland's cabinet resigned.

In the 1990s The Royal Family attracted media attention. In 1994, unmarried Princess Mertha Louise became involved in divorce proceedings in the UK. In 1998, the king and queen were criticized for overspending public funds on their apartments.

Norway is actively involved in international cooperation in particular in resolving the situation in the Middle East. In 1998, Bruntland was appointed Director General of the World Health Organization. Jens Stoltenberg served as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

Norway continues to be criticized by environmentalists for ignoring agreements to limit the fishing of marine mammals - whales and seals.
The parliamentary elections of 1997 did not reveal a clear winner. Prime Minister Jagland resigned as his CHP lost 2 seats in the Storting compared to 1993. The far-right Progress Party increased its representation in the legislature from 10 to 25 deputies: since the rest of the bourgeois parties did not want to enter into a coalition with it , this forced her to create a minority government. In October 1997, HNP leader Kjell Magne Bondevik formed a three-party cabinet with the participation of the Center Party and the Liberals. Government parties had only 42 mandates. The government managed to hold on to power until March 2000 and collapsed when Prime Minister Bondevik opposed a gas-fired power plant project that he believed could have an adverse environmental impact. The new minority government was formed by CHP leader Jens Stoltenberg. In 2000, the authorities continued privatization by selling a third of the shares in the state oil company.

The Stoltenberg government was also destined short life. In the new parliamentary elections held in September 2001, the Social Democrats suffered a heavy defeat: they lost 15% of the vote, showing the worst result since the Second World War.

After the 2001 elections, Bondevik returned to power, who formed a coalition government with the participation of conservatives and liberals. Government parties had only 62 seats out of 165 in parliament. Representatives of the "Party of Progress" were not included in the cabinet, but supported him in the Storting. However, this alliance was not sustainable. In November 2004, the Party of Progress withdrew support from the cabinet, accusing it of insufficient funding for hospitals and hospitals. The crisis was averted as a result of intensive negotiations. The Bondevik government has also been criticized for its handling of the devastating earthquake and tsunami in South-East Asia which claimed the lives of many Norwegian tourists. In 2005, the leftist opposition intensified its anti-government agitation by condemning the private school development project.

In the beginning. In the 2000s, Norway experienced an economic boom associated with the oil boom. During the entire period (except 2001) a steady economic growth was observed, at the expense of oil revenues, a reserve fund in the amount of 181.5 billion US dollars was accumulated, the funds of which were placed abroad. The opposition called for part of the funds to be used to increase spending on social needs, promised to reduce taxes on people with low and middle incomes, and so on.

The arguments of the left were supported by the Norwegians. The parliamentary elections in September 2005 were won by an opposition left-wing coalition consisting of the CHP, the Socialist Left Party and the Center Party. CHP leader Stoltenberg took over as prime minister in October 2005. Differences remain between the winning parties on EU accession (the CHP supports such a move, the SLP and the LC oppose), NATO membership, increased oil production and the construction of a gas power plant.

The geography of Norway is primarily characterized by a complex history of the formation of all natural components of this territory and a weak anthropogenic modification of natural landscapes. Located in the northwest of the Eurasian continent, Norway is completely located within the Scandinavian Peninsula. It occupies a small area - 386,700 sq. km. In the west it is washed by the waters of the Norwegian, in the south - by the North Seas of the Atlantic Ocean (Skagerrak Strait, and in the north - by the waters of the Barents Sea of the Arctic Ocean. Norway owns about 50,000 islands, the largest of which (including archipelagos): the Svalbard archipelago, the Lofoten Islands, the island Jan Mayen.

The northernmost point of the country, the North Cape, located at 71.2°N, is also the northernmost point of continental Europe.

Tectonics and Geology of Norway

The territory of Norway is located in two geostructurally heterogeneous areas. A significant part of it is a fragment of the Caledonian geosynclenal folded belt, fragmented at the end of the Mesozoic, located north of the conditional line passing from the mouth of the Hardanger Fjord through Lake Mjøsa and further to the border with Sweden. The rest of the territory south of this line (as well as the southern part of Finnmark lies within the outlet of the Baltic Precambrian crystalline shield. Separate from everything is the Oslo Fjord region, which stands out from the general two-regional tectonic zoning of the entire main part of Fennoscandia. This area is a graben (carrying in different sources have different names: the Oslo graben or the Oslo field), which is one of the few places in Scandinavia where the crystalline shield is covered by a significant layer of younger formations. Thus, in tectonic terms, Norway is divided into three unequal size areas:

Region of the Baltic Precambrian crystalline shield.
Region of the Caledonian folding.
Oslo graben zone.

Norway is located within a zone with weak seismicity. It, like the whole of Fennoscandia, currently belongs to relatively stable and calm areas. the earth's crust. The arched uplift of the earth's crust in the Quaternary is glacioisostatic (reverse bowing of the land, which got rid of the ice dome that had pushed through it), was and is accompanied by stresses of various sizes, but in general, the uplift occurs smoothly. In the XIX-XX centuries, not a single significant earthquake occurred on the territory of Southern Norway. Due to the history of the tectonic development of the Scandinavian Peninsula, there are a huge number of basement faults of various sizes on the territory of Norway. They not only determined the nature of the structural structure of this section of the earth's crust, but also strongly influenced the course of geomorphological processes. So, it is along the faults, on the eastern macroslope of the Scandinavian Mountains, river valleys are laid, and on the western - fjords. In addition to glacioisostatic uplift, the territory of the Scandinavian Peninsula also experiences modern tectonic movements due to endogenous processes. Their speed increases from the coast to the east, reaching 5 mm/g in the north of Ostland.

Relief

The modern relief of Norway fully reflects the history and nature of its tectonic development and geological structure. The history of the geomorphological formation of Norway can be roughly divided into four stages.

The first stage lasted from the emergence of the landmass of the Scandinavian Peninsula (Archaean) up to and including the Caledonian orogeny. A feature of this period is the destruction of the primary geosynclinal area and the formation of the Precambrian peneplain. At this time, the surface of the Baltic Precambrian shield was formed.

The second stage began with the Caledonian folding in the Lower and Middle Paleozoic, and its final marker should be considered the Cenozoic orogeny in the Paleogene, the time when Alpine folding began to develop in Europe, which also affected the development of this territory. During this stage, the folded region of the Caledonides was formed and the main lines of the relief of Norway were formed. After the Caledonian orogeny and up to the Cenozoic, the mountains of Norway underwent powerful denudation and were strongly lowered, forming leveling surfaces of considerable area. Now this is evidenced by the presence of the so-called. pre-Permian peneplain in Southern Norway (on the Telemark Plateau), which resulted in the formation of another landform specific to Norway - flat high-altitude plateaus of the fjelds.

The third stage was marked by the development of Alpine folding in Europe, which left its mark on Scandinavia. Prior to this, the mountains of Norway were heavily peneplanated and did not have an alpine character, so their altitude level was much lower than the modern one. Significant tectonic movements took place in the northern part of the Atlantic, which led, due to the sinking of Lavrussia, to the so-called. opening of the Atlantic Ocean. This caused an isostatic uplift of the modern territory of the Scandinavian Peninsula, reaching 1000 m in some areas, which captured not only the geosynclenal zone, but also platform structures. At this time, the central parts of Southern Norway (the plateaus of Jutunheim and Hardangervidda) and the mountains of Kjelen experienced the greatest elevation. In the same period, some areas experienced, on the contrary, subsidence. These areas include the Trondheim trough in the region of Trønnelag. During this stage, along with the general increase in the territory, the formation and expansion of faults occurs. The general uplift also led to a decrease in the erosion base.

The fourth stage of relief development covers the whole complex of glacial and interglacial epochs of the Quaternary, during which the conservation of the main forms of the macrorelief and the superposition of smaller forms caused by the activity of the glacier took place.

History of development in the Quaternary period

At the very end of the Neogene and at the beginning of the Quaternary period, all Scandinavia, including Southern Norway, were subject to powerful glaciation with several stages. This was the last major paleographic event that left its mark on the relief of both Norway and the whole of Northern Europe. The Norwegian mountainous regions are the territory where the core of the Quaternary glaciation was located. It was from here that the glacial massifs spread throughout Northern Europe. At the moment, there is no reliable data on when and where exactly the origin and growth of primary ice massifs began in the Quaternary period within this territory. However, it can be said with certainty that central part southern Norway has been glaciated more often than neighboring Denmark or Germany. This is evidenced by the stratigraphic analysis of Quaternary deposits in these areas. His results show a much more complete Quaternary sedimentation in the areas adjacent to southern Norway. For a long time, Norway lay in the zone of the most intense exaration and nivation, which caused a significant denudation of sediments from previous ice ages and periods of ice-open sedimentation.

It is believed that there were four ice ages in Scandinavia. In this sense, the Pleistocene is divided into the following periods: preglacial - Eopleistocene (2-0.6 million years ago), at the end of it was the first ice age - Gyunts, lower Pleistocene (600-400 thousand years ago), during which there was a second glaciation - Mindel, Middle Pleistocene (400-200 thousand years ago) with a third glaciation - Rissky; Upper Pleistocene (200-10 thousand years ago) with the last glaciation - Würm. Since Scandinavia was the center of origin of the ice sheet, all traces of the first two phases (Günz and Mindel) were erased by the third glaciation - Ris, because it was the most powerful and extensive. So in the case of Norway, we can specifically talk about only the last two glacial epochs: the Rissk and Wurm glaciations. In Riss, during its maximum distribution, the continental ice sheet merged in the east with the ice of the Novaya Zemlya glaciation center, and in the west with the ice sheet of the British Isles. This is evidenced by the fact that many of the shoals of the Norwegian and North Seas are composed of detrital glacial material, located up to the continental slope as a large ridge, which allows it to be considered a lateral and terminal moraine. During the Ris glaciation, due to powerful exaration, deepening of fjords, lake basins, the formation of trough valleys and the beginning of the formation of a coastal narrow plain (strahn flat) occur.

The Riss glaciation was followed by the Riss-Wurm interglacial with a fairly warm climate, glaciers melted, and a thick layer of hydroglacial deposits accumulated. The Wurm glaciation was smaller, and there was no longer any connection with other centers of glaciation. It began in the highlands of the Scandinavian Peninsula and from there it spread in all directions, especially to the west (apparently even then the western slopes of the Scandinavian mountains took on a significant amount of precipitation). At the same time, the thickness and area of the glacier in the west was less than in the east. This is explained by the fact that in the west, due to the direct exit of the glacier, which is not so significant compared to the Rissky period, to the sea along its entire length, it led to its rapid unloading due to abundant iceberg formation. At the same time, there was no particularly significant deep water area in the east, which could limit the movement of the glacial mass in this direction. Also, a decrease in the thickness of the ice layer occurred to the north and south of its center due to the increase in the continentality of the climate in these directions. This led to the fact that a feature of the Wurm glaciation was the mismatch of the axial zone of the continental glacier with the axial zone of the orographic one. Such a distribution of the ice cover thickness in the territory of Scandinavia led to the fact that significant high-altitude areas of Southern Norway were free from ice cover. These territories include the plateaus of Yutunheim, Dovre, Rondane. However, one should not assume that these areas were free of ice in principle - local mountain glaciers were developed here, and the glaciers descending along their valleys eventually poured into the general massif anyway. In Norway, ice flows descended along narrow pre-glacial valleys laid down along tectonic faults. Here there was an active exaration activity. Where the branched networks of pre-Quaternary valleys converged and the glaciers descending from them joined, the most powerful exaration took place, and already a single valley glacier plowed out huge troughs. This is how the famous Norwegian fjords were formed.

Minerals

Norway has significant reserves of oil, natural gas, iron ores, titanium, vanadium, and zinc. There are deposits of ores of lead, copper, non-metallic raw materials - apatite, graphite, syenite. Norway has significant reserves of hydrocarbons and, to a lesser extent, coal, but all these deposits are confined either to Paleogene and Jurassic deposits in the North Sea, or to the Carboniferous accumulations of island territories. Continental Norway itself has a poorer set of minerals, however, there are also quite large reserves of various mineral resources. Thus, the continental part of the south of the country has significant reserves of ores of iron, titanium, vanadium and zinc. There are deposits of ores of lead and copper. Non-metallic raw materials are also presented: apatites, graphite and nepheline syenite. As can be seen, the fundamental difference between the mineral resource base of continental Norway and its other parts is the absence of any significant reserves of fossils of sedimentary origin. This, of course, is due to the geological structure of the Scandinavian Peninsula, where there is practically no plume of sedimentary rocks. The largest deposit of ilmenite ores rich in titanium dioxide in Western Europe is located in the south of the country in the Egersund region. The main deposits of non-ferrous metals are confined to the zone of Caledonian folding, composed directly by the Caledonides, outside the zone of collapse into folds of Precambrian rocks. Thus, all the Scandinavian mountains in the area from Bodø to the Telemark plateau are ore-bearing. There are also several deposits in the capital area building materials, which are confined to the sedimentary outcrops of the Oslo graben.

Climate

Located almost entirely in the temperate zone, in comparison with other land areas located at the same latitudes, the south of Norway is much warmer and more humid due to the large influx of heat from the Norwegian current. The warm current, however, does not penetrate the Skagerrak Strait, which sharply affects the climate of southeastern Norway, at the same time, continental air masses from the Baltic easily penetrate here. Also, masses with more high latitudes where the Arctic High dominates in winter. Since the surface of Norway drops steeply to the sea, and the valleys are elongated meridionally, warm air masses cannot penetrate very deep into them, which creates a situation where in winter the temperature decrease gradient when moving deep into the fjord is greater than when moving north. The height of the Scandinavian mountains does not allow air masses to pass to the east of the country, and create a barrier effect, which, subject to significant moisture saturation, causes a huge amount of precipitation, both in summer and in winter. Influence warm current on the climate of the country is not associated with the direct heating of the oceanic air layer (after all, the territory of southern Norway is separated from this current by 300-400 km), but with the western transfer that brings these heated air masses.

Average January temperatures range from -17 °C in the north of Norway in the town of Karashuk to +1.5 °C on the southwestern coast of the country. Average temperatures in July are around +7°C in the north and around +17°C in the south in Oslo.

Vegetation

Tundra vegetation (subnival-nival belt). This type of vegetation has a significant distribution and is confined to the highest mountainous regions, to areas adjacent to glaciers and the northern part of the country. Growing conditions here are the most unfavorable within Norway: low temperatures, a small growing season, widespread snowfields and the proximity of glaciers, strong winds and thin soil cover. Therefore, the vegetation cover here is extremely fragmented and is mainly represented by various mosses and lichens.

Vegetation of the Alpine belt. This type occupies vast expanses of fjelds and the most elevated parts of the western coast above the line of possible tree growth, located at an average height of 800–1700 m, the values of which, as in the case of the vegetation of the subnival-nival belt, increase when moving from west to east. The climatic conditions in which these formations grow are also unfavorable. Trees in this belt are completely absent, shrubs and forbs are dominant communities, shrub vegetation appears only at the lowest hypsometric levels, the moss-lichen layer is poorly developed and appears only in areas covered with snow for a long time. The species composition includes amphiatlantic and circumpolar species. The dominant plant forms here are hemicryptophytes and chamephytes.

Mountain forests and woodlands. Occupy the most large areas in Norway, located in the lower tier of the Scandinavian mountains. They rise to 1000 m in the most continental areas, and in the coastal zone of the Atlantic they descend even into the lowlands under the influence of a general decrease in the belt boundaries here. This belt includes pure birch forests on the western macroslope, and pine-birch forests in more continental parts.

Taiga. The taiga zone also occupies significant areas on the territory of Southern Norway, occupying its most continental sections (Ostlan and East Serlan), as well as reaching the coast on the Trønnelag plain, where the warming influence of the ocean is still noticeable, but allows taiga vegetation to grow here. Formations of this belt are absent on the western macroslope of mountains and in the fjord area. It is represented by spruce and oak-spruce and pine forests in the south.

Atlantic moorlands. They occupy a narrow coastal outer strip along the entire western coast, never going deep into the fjords. Moorlands here are developed on well-drained, oligotrophic acidic substrates. Tree and shrub species are generally absent here, however, they can appear in some places well protected from the wind blowing from the sea. In terms of species, heathers predominate in combination with shrubs, herbs, grasses, mosses and lichens. The soil and vegetation cover here is often fragmented.

Mixed and deciduous forests. On the territory of Norway, they are represented by small areas occupying the southernmost part of the country. However, the inner parts of the largest fjords, where the warming effect of the ocean is strong, are also occupied by mixed broad-leaved forests, which take on an intrazonal character there. Represented by oak, beech and ash forests.

The vegetation of the floodplain. Floodplain vegetation is represented by one area of the floodplains of the Glomma and Logen rivers in the area of their confluence, which is significant in terms of scale. Hydrophilic vegetation is developed here due to periodic flooding. It is represented by forests of alder and spruce, which occupy floodplain and oxbow depressions.

Soils

The formation of the soil cover in Southern Norway has a fairly short history. Youth, thinness, and sometimes the complete absence of soils is a direct consequence of the dominance of the ice cover here in the Quaternary period, which mechanically destroyed the soil cover that had formed in previous eras. Therefore, the beginning of the formation of modern soils should be considered the time of the retreat of the glacier. At that time, fluvioglacial flows deposited material in the periglacial zone, which became the soil-forming rock for the soils of the flat areas, mainly in Ostlan, as in the most flat area. On the other hand, soils also began to form on exposed parent rocks of elevated areas, where the parent rocks in most cases are gneisses, granites, gabbro, limestone, shales, and sandstones. A distinctive feature for all soil-forming rocks in Norway (with the exception of limestones) is low carbonation, which only worsens their fertility in addition to underdevelopment.

It is worth noting separately that, formally, the two boundaries: between taiga and mixed forests, as well as between podzols and brown soils, as zonally corresponding to them, often do not coincide. This is due to the alternation of climatic conditions in Europe during the Holocene. Where the distribution area of brown soils goes north and is occupied by taiga vegetation, mixed forests used to grow in warmer periods and vice versa. Correspondence of soils to types of vegetation

Water resources

Since western transport prevails over the territory of Southern Norway, the amount of precipitation decreases here from west to east, along with this, the volume and runoff layer decrease in the same direction. It is in Southern Norway, in the excessively waterlogged region of the western macroslope of the Scandinavian Mountains, that the largest runoff in Europe is observed, exceeding 1500 mm/year. The volume of runoff is distributed here according to the values of precipitation, which means that it decreases from west to east, decreasing in Ostlan to 400 mm/year.

The south of Norway is characterized by the presence of a significant number of small and medium-sized lakes. Almost all of them arose due to the springing of watercourses by terminal moraine shafts and, therefore, are confined to river beds and have an elongated oblong shape. However, despite the similarity of the lakes throughout Southern Norway, in different areas they have some features. Thus, the lakes located in Vestlan and confined to the river valleys of the western macroslope of the Scandinavian mountains have smallest dimensions due to the narrowness and short length of the river valleys. Their formation is associated with glacial exaration during glaciation and subsequent accumulation of material during warming, which led to the formation of terminal moraines and damming of watercourses. The relationship of lakes and fjords here is due to the fact that the valleys of lakes and fjords, as well as the terminal moraine ridges, are composed of the same material. Moreover, the direction of the axial part of these lakes coincides with the direction of the fjords themselves. The lakes here are distinguished, just like the fjords, by their considerable depth and steepness of the slopes of the valleys. The largest body of water in this area is Lake. Suldalsvatn, connected by a short channel with the Buknfjord. The lakes of Sörlana already have large sizes due to the expansion of river valleys and the presence of larger rivers here (Sirdalsvatn, Lyurdavatn, etc.).

But the most large lakes formed in Ostlan, where the most major rivers and the flat relief prevails: here are the largest reservoirs of Southern Norway (Mjøsa, Femunn, Nursjon, Ransfjord, etc.). Glacial lakes practically did not participate in the formation of lakes in the flat areas adjacent to the Oslo Fjord, and their formation is associated only with stadial moraine accumulation. Southern Norway is not characterized by an abundance of swamps due to good drainage of most of its territory, swampy areas are scattered quite discretely. However, wetlands are found in almost all its parts and differ in their genesis. The most significant swamp areas are in Ostlan and Trønnegal. As a rule, low-lying swamps are developed.

Balance of the largest glaciers in Norway

The largest glaciers in Norway There are about 900 glaciers of various sizes on the territory of Norway (9 of them are the largest) with a total area of approximately 1600 sq. km. The south of Norway is the second largest area occupied by glaciers, after Svalbard, the region of Norway. Here is the largest glacier of the Scandinavian mountains - Josteddalsbre (in fact, it is a collection of closely related glacial complexes). It is rather difficult to speak exactly about the number of glaciation complexes and the values associated with them because of their dynamism, dispersed distribution over the territory and dependence on specific weather conditions in a particular year. The areas of the largest glacial complexes are concentrated almost entirely in Vestlana on the western macroslope of the Scandinavian Mountains. This is due to the fact that they receive a huge amount of solid precipitation during excessively wet and warm winters, and in cool summers, the ablation zone does not affect even half of the ice massif. The boundary of glacier feeding is here at an altitude of 1000 m, while in the eastern parts of the mountains, where the climate is continental and there is little precipitation in winter, it is 1500-1900 m. The difference between the glaciers of the two macroslopes is also manifested in their dynamics and balance indicators. The glaciers of the western macroslope have a positive balance and are characterized by an increase in area, while the glaciers of the eastern macroslope, on the contrary, are decreasing.

Source - http://ru.wikipedia.org/

Norway occupies the western, mountainous part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This is a large boulder, composed mainly of granites and gneisses and characterized by a rugged relief. The block is asymmetrically raised to the west; as a result, the eastern slopes are more gentle and long, while the western ones, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are very steep and short. In the south, within Norway, both slopes are present, and between them there is a vast upland.

In tectonic terms, almost the entire country is the Calydonian folded region, composed of volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the Cambrian and Silurian. Only southeastern part Norway is located on the ancient Baltic Shield, composed of Precambrian crystalline rocks.

The Scandinavian mountains stretch along the entire country from the northeast to the southwest. The Scandinavian mountains, formed in the Lower Paleozoic, were destroyed and leveled for a long time in subsequent periods. In the Neogene-Quaternary period, they again experienced uplifts and tectonic revival. These movements were accompanied by the appearance of deep faults, the directions of which were mutually perpendicular. They broke the skeleton of the Caledonian platform into separate blocks, which, rising at different speeds, formed a series of plateaus of different heights in the relief.

In the north, the Scandinavian mountains are much narrower and lower and are dissected into small massifs. Here their heights reach an average of 800 meters. The slopes of the highlands are asymmetrical: the western one is steep, while the eastern one is more gentle. The western steep slopes of the mountains break off either directly into the sea, or to a narrow coastal lowland - the country flat. This lowland emerged from under the sea level in the post-glacial era, when the continental platform, freed from the glacier, rose again. The width of the country flat is from 5 to 60 km. This is not an absolute plain, there are also hills, but they do not exceed 40 m above sea level. Most of the population of the coast lives on the country flat and many cities of the country are located. The steep western slopes of the Scandinavian Mountains abound in fjords - narrow bays jutting far into the land with steep, glacier-polished slopes; they formed along the lines of tectonic faults. Thus, the Scandinavian mountains, which occupy almost the entire territory of Norway, are highlands, divided into separate plateaus (fjelds), elongated ridges and depressions. The highest and most extensive plateaus are located in the southern part of the country.

The most powerful and highest fields are Yutuiheimen, Yustedalsbre, Telemark. Fjelds are covered with huge glacier caps. It is here, on the Yutuiheimen massif, that the highest peak of the Scandinavian Highlands is located - Galdhøpiggen, reaching 2469 m. and Mount Glittertinn (2452 m). Other elevated areas are only slightly inferior in height. These include Dovrefjell, Ronnane, Hardangervidda and Finnmarksvidda. Bare rocks are often exposed there, devoid of soil and vegetation cover. Outwardly, the surface of many highlands is more like gently undulating plateaus, and such areas are called "vidda".

During the great ice age, glaciation developed in the mountains of Norway, but modern glaciers are small. The largest of them is Jostedalsbre, whose area reaches 487 square meters. km, (the largest of the glaciers not only in Norway, but throughout Europe abroad) in the mountains of Jutunheimen, Svartisen in the northern part of central Norway and Folgefonni in the Hardangervidda region. The small Engabre glacier, located at 70° N, approaches the shore of the Kvenangenfjord, where small icebergs break away at the end of the glacier. However, usually the snow line in Norway is located at altitudes of 900-1500 m. Many features of the country's topography were formed during the Ice Age. Probably, there were several continental glaciations then, and each of them contributed to the development of glacial erosion, deepening and straightening of ancient river valleys and their transformation into picturesque U-shaped steep spurs, deeply cutting through the surface of the highlands.

The total number of all ice caps and firn fields in Norway is 2081. Their total area is 2770 sq. km. km, which is 1% of the entire territory of Norway. It is the largest glacial region in mainland Northern Europe.

Finnmark. The northernmost region of Norway is called Finnmark, the eastern part of which does not present any significant elevations and is filled only with rounded hills and highlands.

To the west of the North Cape, the mountains take on an almost completely flat appearance, and at an altitude of 200-400 m descend almost sheer to the sea.

From Cape North Cape, a number of islands begin, covering the coast of Norway from the sea and representing a feature characteristic of Norway in terms of orography. The closest are the larger islands (like Mageroy with the North Cape, etc.); further south are large and small islands interspersed, of which the smallest is called Skerries. The wide Altafjord lies nearby, and the Lingenfjord reaching almost 100 km in length, which is limited from the west by a mighty (alpine) snow and ice chain, reaching up to 1500-2000 m in height (Goatzapais, Yuhkiveyr, Neilever, etc.). This chain represents the orographic limit of the Finnmarken Highlands.

Nordland. The so-called "Northern Country" begins with the Lingen Alps. This rugged country extends over a space of several degrees of latitude to the south, retaining everywhere the same character. The mountains here are mostly 1000-1800 m high; their highest peak, Sulitielma (1880 m), is on the Swedish border, with a large glacier.

Closer to the coast lies the large Svartisen glacier (65 km long, with an area of more than 1000 sq. km, 1097 m in height). Only the western slope of the mountain belongs to Norway, the rest, on the other side of the highest mountain range, is Swedish. In front of the mainland are numerous and mostly large mountainous islands; lies to the north of the others large group the Vesterålen Islands, from which the Lofoten group of islands extends far into the sea.

Below Vefsenfjord, the strip of solid land becomes wider, the mountains lower and the wide valley of Namdal represents a transition to the plains; behind it they diverge into the wide, beautiful pool of Trondheimsfjord. Here lie fertile and well-cultivated areas, which, however, largely retain the character of the valleys. The terrain on the western side of this fjord, deeply and widely cut into the mainland, is unattractive. At about 63° the highlands are torn apart, with significant mountains going south between the two states (Norway and Sweden), this part of the mountains in the east is lower and less wild. But towards the west, the terrain becomes more wild, and the absolute marks increase and reach greatest height in the form of the summit of Snöhetta (2286 m.), which used to be for a long time was considered highest mountain in Norway. The northern spur of Dovrefjell is quite large and is crossed by two large valleys (Orkdal and Geuldal). To the west, the Driva River, running from Snöhetta, forms the Sunndal valley. The main mountain range here suddenly turns south at right angles and is further called Langfjella. From here, the western spur is dissected by a large spur, which protrudes 209 km into the mountain mass and forms one of the most magnificent and picturesque areas in Europe.

The complex fjord system of the Sunnmöre area, surrounded by mountains, the height of which reaches 1500-2300 m; its coasts and islands are wild. To the south lies the Nordfjord, separated by a long mountain range that ends at Cape Stat.

The Great Sognefjord, which got its name from the area adjacent to it, Sogn. Inside this area, in an area of about 15,000 sq. km, are the highest and wildest mountain ranges in Norway, which have been given the name Giant Land (Jotunheimen). Here, the average height of the highlands, on which sharp teeth of rocks rise, reaches almost 1300 m. Since the snow limit here passes at an altitude of 1400 m, the mountain peaks should have been covered with eternal snow, if this were not prevented by the smooth slopes of the mountains; but on the other hand, every crevice or crack, every inconspicuous slope, not quite a steep rise of the mountain is completely covered with a mass of snow, and in many places glaciers are seen through the cracks quite often and at a fairly large depth. All this space is a mountain desert, on which only occasionally a human foot steps. More than 60 peaks of the Giant Land (Jotunheimen) were measured and almost all showed heights above 2000 meters. The most significant are Galdhøpiggen (2469 m) and Glittertind (2452 m), both in the Lom pass in the Gudbrandsdal valley, the highest of any known point in northern Europe, surrounded by a whole mass of almost equally high rocky peaks.

Hurrungane. In the western part of the Giant Land (Jotunheimen) rises a harsh and wild group of Prodigal Children (Nor. Hurrungane), reaching 2000-2400 m in height. Several valleys crash into this realm of mountains, and above all Ordal (Erdal), an extremely wild, rocky valley, whose scattered inhabitants are constantly threatened by avalanches.

To the west lies a glacier 90 km long and 80 km wide. This occupies about 1600 sq. km, the snowy area is called Jostedalsbreen and reaches a height of 1600 m, while the lower edge of the glacier descending into the valleys in places rises only 130 m above the sea surface and lies only 3 km from it. These glaciers (including 24 can be attributed to the first category) fill the valleys of Sogn, Nordfjord and Sondfjord.

To the south of Jotunheimen (Jotunheimen) is an inner mountain plateau with numerous rising above it high peaks, called Fillefjell.

To the south of the Sogna valley lies a wide mountainous country, inner part which consists of the fertile terrain of Foss. Inside this area lies a large flat hill called Hardangervidda, bounded on the north by the Hardangerjökull glacier and the high wall-like rocks of Hallingskarven. It occupies a space of 12-15 thousand square meters. km.

In the western part of Hardangerfjord, on a flat top of a single peninsula, surrounded on three sides by the Hardangerfjord and its branches Serfjord and Aakrefjord, lies the Folgefon glacier, 60 km long and 12-46 km wide, covering a space of 150 square meters. km and presenting a majestic spectacle from the sea. Its highest points reach up to 1654 m, the lower limit of the eternal ice has a very diverse height, from 300 to 1000 m.

Telemark mountains. A series of flat, low elevations make up the Heier Plateau, none of which rises above 1,500 meters. Gradually, this series of hills passes into the torn mountains of Telemark (Telemark), forming, as it were, a tangled mountain knot, in which Mount Gausta rises as an isolated cone, reaching a height of 1890 meters. Between the mountains stretch in different directions large valleys filled with rivers, streams and lakes. Telemark is followed one after another by five large main valleys, with low and fertile areas. First, starting from the west, is Numedal; then Hallingdal (Hallingdal), also starting on this flat hill, and Valdres (Valdres); further on is Gudbrandsdalen and Österdalen, which forms the border with Sweden. All these valleys have many similarities with each other: from the watershed they stretch in the form of small furrows between the mountains compressing them on both sides, then gradually expand and, finally, as they approach the coast and the mountains disappear, they take on the character of a valley. These eastern valleys, whose nature is completely different from the western one, are collectively called "Eastern mountainous" Norway.

Minerals. Of the minerals in Norway, iron ores (magnetites and titanomagnetites), nickel, copper, molybdenum, cobalt and silver ores are known. Most large deposits magnetite ores are concentrated in the north of Norway. Uranium deposits have been discovered in the south of Norway. Copper pyrite deposits are located mainly in the central part of the country. Copper-nickel deposits of sulfate ores are located in the south. Ilmenite ores, rich in titanium dioxide, are found in large quantities in the north of Norway and in the extreme south-west, where the deposit itself is called Titania. It is the largest in foreign Europe, and thanks to this, Norway is considered one of the most important suppliers of ilmenite in the world. On the Lofoten Islands there are marine Jurassic and Cretaceous sandy-argillaceous deposits with layers of coal. Also in Norway there are very large reserves of building stone (granite, slate, marble).

In the 1970s, oil and gas fields were discovered on the continental shelf.

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